Memory and Cognition PSY 324 Topic 7: Everyday Memory & Memory Errors Dr. Ellen Campana Arizona State University.

Memory and Memory and CognitionCognition

PSY 324PSY 324

Topic 7: Everyday Memory & Memory Topic 7: Everyday Memory & Memory ErrorsErrors

Dr. Ellen CampanaDr. Ellen Campana

Arizona State UniversityArizona State University

Intro to Everyday Intro to Everyday MemoryMemory

So far we’ve talked about a lot of So far we’ve talked about a lot of different types of long-termmemory, different types of long-termmemory, but many of the studies have been but many of the studies have been about memory for lists of wordsabout memory for lists of words

In this chapter we’ll be talking more In this chapter we’ll be talking more about how long-term memory about how long-term memory functions in everyday lifefunctions in everyday life Autobiographical memoryAutobiographical memory Flashbulb memoryFlashbulb memory Memory as a constructive processMemory as a constructive process

Source memorySource memory

Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory


Autobiographical memoryAutobiographical memory = recollection = recollection of events that belong to a person’s pastof events that belong to a person’s past Mostly episodic memoryMostly episodic memory

Field perspectiveField perspective – as if – as if experiencingexperiencing the event the event Common for recent eventsCommon for recent events

Observer perspectiveObserver perspective – as if – as if seeingseeing the event (seeing the event (seeing self)self)

Common for more remote memoriesCommon for more remote memories

Also includes semantic memories related to the Also includes semantic memories related to the self self

Where you were born, what your first word was, etc.Where you were born, what your first word was, etc. Much more complex than memory of word Much more complex than memory of word

lists!lists!


Autobiographical memory is Autobiographical memory is multidimensionalmultidimensional Spatial, emotional, sensory, etc.Spatial, emotional, sensory, etc.

Visual information plays a large roleVisual information plays a large role Greenberg & Rubin (2003) – neurophysiological Greenberg & Rubin (2003) – neurophysiological

evidence (visual cortex damage)evidence (visual cortex damage) Can’t recognize objects => Autobiographical memory Can’t recognize objects => Autobiographical memory

impaired, even non-visual aspectsimpaired, even non-visual aspects

Autobiographical memory is much richer than Autobiographical memory is much richer than laboratory memorylaboratory memory Cabeza & Coworkers (2004) – brain imaging studyCabeza & Coworkers (2004) – brain imaging study

Richness of Richness of Autobiographical Mem.Autobiographical Mem.

Cabeza & Coworkers (2004)Cabeza & Coworkers (2004) Gave participants cameras to take pics Gave participants cameras to take pics

of 40 specific campus locationsof 40 specific campus locations A-photos:A-photos: photos individuals took photos individuals took

themselvesthemselves L-photos:L-photos: lab photos (taken by another lab photos (taken by another

student)student)


Cabeza & Coworkers (2004)Cabeza & Coworkers (2004) Gave participants cameras to take pics of Gave participants cameras to take pics of

40 specific campus locations40 specific campus locations A-photos:A-photos: photos individuals took themselves photos individuals took themselves L-photos:L-photos: lab photos (taken by another student) lab photos (taken by another student)

Phase 1: exposed to A-photos & L-photosPhase 1: exposed to A-photos & L-photos Not in the scannerNot in the scanner

Phase 2: shown A-photos & L-photos (some Phase 2: shown A-photos & L-photos (some new, some from before)… had to say which new, some from before)… had to say which was whichwas which

This part was in the scannerThis part was in the scanner


Cabeza & Coworkers (2004): FindingsCabeza & Coworkers (2004): Findings A-photos & L-photos activated many of A-photos & L-photos activated many of

the same structuresthe same structures Medial Temporal Lobe: episodic memoryMedial Temporal Lobe: episodic memory Parietal Cortex: scene processingParietal Cortex: scene processing

A-photos activated many additional areasA-photos activated many additional areas Regions that process memory for selfRegions that process memory for self Regions that process memory for visual spaceRegions that process memory for visual space Regions associated with experience of mental Regions associated with experience of mental

time traveltime travel HippocampusHippocampus


Why talk about that imaging study?Why talk about that imaging study? Demonstrates that autobiographical Demonstrates that autobiographical

memory is richer than lab memorymemory is richer than lab memory Even though participants were viewing the Even though participants were viewing the

same location for A-photos and L-photos, A-same location for A-photos and L-photos, A-photos activated more areas than L-photos.photos activated more areas than L-photos.

Activation thought to be related to memories Activation thought to be related to memories of the experience of taking the pictureof the experience of taking the picture

If even simple, relatively unimportant If even simple, relatively unimportant memories have rich representations, memories have rich representations, what makes some “stand out” in our what makes some “stand out” in our minds more than others?minds more than others?

Memory Over the Memory Over the LifespanLifespan

Memory over the Memory over the LifespanLifespan

What memories tend to “stand out”?What memories tend to “stand out”? Personal milestonesPersonal milestones Highly emotional eventsHighly emotional events Events that become big parts of a person’s Events that become big parts of a person’s

lifelife Major transition pointsMajor transition points

Juniors & seniors recalled more events from Juniors & seniors recalled more events from Sept of freshman year than any other monthSept of freshman year than any other month

Alumni recalled both September of freshman Alumni recalled both September of freshman year and end of senior year events more than year and end of senior year events more than other timesother times

Memory over the Memory over the LifespanLifespan

Memory is different for different Memory is different for different times in lifetimes in life Memory between ages 10 and 30 Memory between ages 10 and 30

“stands out”“stands out” This effect is called the This effect is called the reminiscence reminiscence

bumpbump See figure 8.3 to see what this looks See figure 8.3 to see what this looks

like on the graphlike on the graph

Memory over the Memory over the LifetimeLifetime

Why the Why the reminiscence bumpreminiscence bump?? Life-narrative hypothesisLife-narrative hypothesis

People tend to assume their life identities People tend to assume their life identities between 10-30between 10-30

Many important “firsts” between 10 and 30Many important “firsts” between 10 and 30 Cognitive hypothesisCognitive hypothesis

Encoding is better for periods of rapid Encoding is better for periods of rapid change, followed by stability (10-30=change, change, followed by stability (10-30=change, stability after that)stability after that)

Evidence: bump is shifted for late vs. early Evidence: bump is shifted for late vs. early immigrants immigrants

Memory over the Memory over the LifetimeLifetime

Why the Why the reminiscence bumpreminiscence bump?? Life-narrative hypothesisLife-narrative hypothesis

People tend to assume their life identities between 10-People tend to assume their life identities between 10-3030

Many important “firsts” between 10 and 30Many important “firsts” between 10 and 30 Cognitive hypothesisCognitive hypothesis

Encoding is better for periods of rapid change, Encoding is better for periods of rapid change, followed by stability (10-30=change, stability after followed by stability (10-30=change, stability after that)that)

Evidence: bump is shifted for late vs. early immigrants Evidence: bump is shifted for late vs. early immigrants Cultural script hypothesisCultural script hypothesis

Cultural expectations shape recall (typical events, Cultural expectations shape recall (typical events, times)times)

Memories Across the Memories Across the LifespanLifespan

All three hypotheses probably contribute All three hypotheses probably contribute to the occurrence of the reminisence to the occurrence of the reminisence bumpbump

These also interact with the other factors These also interact with the other factors that make certain memories “stand out”that make certain memories “stand out” Milestones, transitions, events that are part Milestones, transitions, events that are part

of our major “life story”of our major “life story” Highly emotional eventsHighly emotional events

Next: Next: flashbulb memoriesflashbulb memories (emotional (emotional events)events)

Flashbulb MemoryFlashbulb Memory Flashbulb memoriesFlashbulb memories are episodic are episodic

memories about the memories about the context in which context in which you found outyou found out about highly emotional about highly emotional eventsevents Often culturally-relevant events (JFK, Often culturally-relevant events (JFK,

challenger, 911)challenger, 911) Remembered for a long time, in vivid detailRemembered for a long time, in vivid detail

Why called “flashbulb”? Brown and Why called “flashbulb”? Brown and Kulik used this analogy in a paper about Kulik used this analogy in a paper about JFK’s assassinationJFK’s assassination Their paper looked at memory after many Their paper looked at memory after many

years…years… … … but were these memories accurate?but were these memories accurate?

Flashbulb MemoryFlashbulb Memory

To test accuracy of flashbulb memories, To test accuracy of flashbulb memories, researchers use a method called researchers use a method called repeated recallrepeated recall Right after an event, people write about it Right after an event, people write about it

((baselinebaseline)) Later they are asked to write about it againLater they are asked to write about it again Researchers compare writings for each Researchers compare writings for each

personperson Neisser & Harsch (1992) – repeated Neisser & Harsch (1992) – repeated

recall for the challenger explosionrecall for the challenger explosion

Neisser & Harsch (1992)Neisser & Harsch (1992)

Quote from day after event: Quote from day after event:

I was in my religion class and some people I was in my religion class and some people walked in and started talking about [it]. I walked in and started talking about [it]. I didn’t know any details except that it had didn’t know any details except that it had

exploded and the schoolteacher’s exploded and the schoolteacher’s students had all been watching, which I students had all been watching, which I thought was so sad. Then after class I thought was so sad. Then after class I went to my room and watched the TV went to my room and watched the TV program talking about it, and I got all program talking about it, and I got all

the details from that.the details from that.

Neisser & Harsch (1992)Neisser & Harsch (1992)

Same person, quote from 2 ½ years later:Same person, quote from 2 ½ years later:

When I first heard about the explosion I When I first heard about the explosion I was sitting in my freshman dorm room was sitting in my freshman dorm room with my roommate, and we were with my roommate, and we were watching TV. It came on a news flash, watching TV. It came on a news flash, and we were both totally shocked. I was and we were both totally shocked. I was really upset, and I went upstairs to talk really upset, and I went upstairs to talk to a friend of mine, and then I called my to a friend of mine, and then I called my parents.parents.

Schmolke and coworkers Schmolke and coworkers (2000)(2000)

O.J. Simpson trialO.J. Simpson trial Response at 3 days: I was in the commuter Response at 3 days: I was in the commuter

lounge at college and saw it on TV. As 10:00 lounge at college and saw it on TV. As 10:00 approached, more and more people came into approached, more and more people came into the room…the room…

Response at 32 months (same person): I first Response at 32 months (same person): I first heard it while I was watching TV at home in my heard it while I was watching TV at home in my living room. My sister and father were with me…living room. My sister and father were with me…

Conclusion: “it seems unlikely that so-called Conclusion: “it seems unlikely that so-called flashbulb memories differ from ordinary flashbulb memories differ from ordinary episodic memories in any fundamental episodic memories in any fundamental way.”way.”

Are Flashbulb Memories Are Flashbulb Memories Special?Special?

Talarico and Rubin (2003) – 911 eventTalarico and Rubin (2003) – 911 event Some evidence that they are Some evidence that they are not specialnot special

Accuracy and number of details decreased similarly Accuracy and number of details decreased similarly for flashbulb and everyday episodic memoriesfor flashbulb and everyday episodic memories

Some evidence that they are Some evidence that they are specialspecial Participants’ Participants’ beliefs that memories were accuratebeliefs that memories were accurate

stayed high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday stayed high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday episodic memoriesepisodic memories

Participants’ ratings of Participants’ ratings of vividnessvividness and and how well they how well they could “relive” eventscould “relive” events stayed high for flashbulb, but stayed high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday episodic memoriesdropped for everyday episodic memories


Davidson and Coworkers (2006) – Davidson and Coworkers (2006) – also 911also 911 Found flashbulb memories Found flashbulb memories more more

resistant to fadingresistant to fading congruence scores high for flashbulb, but congruence scores high for flashbulb, but

dropped for everyday eventsdropped for everyday events All participants remembered 911, but only All participants remembered 911, but only

65% were able to recall what the other 65% were able to recall what the other memory wasmemory was


Davidson and Coworkers (2006) – also 911Davidson and Coworkers (2006) – also 911 Found flashbulb memories Found flashbulb memories more resistant to more resistant to

fadingfading congruence scores high for flashbulb, but dropped congruence scores high for flashbulb, but dropped

for everyday eventsfor everyday events All participants remembered 911, but only 65% were All participants remembered 911, but only 65% were

able to recall what the other memory wasable to recall what the other memory was Why? Why?

Flashbulb memories about emotional events Flashbulb memories about emotional events (amygdala)(amygdala)

Added rehearsal: Added rehearsal: narrative rehearsal hypothesisnarrative rehearsal hypothesis


What’s the point? Are they or aren’t they?What’s the point? Are they or aren’t they? Two studies found conflicting resultsTwo studies found conflicting results

Differed with respect to cues Differed with respect to cues Talarico & Rubins – participants created their own… Talarico & Rubins – participants created their own…

therefore remembered everyday memories better therefore remembered everyday memories better (Mantyla from last time)(Mantyla from last time)

Robinson and Coworkers – participants used given cuesRobinson and Coworkers – participants used given cues

Still an open debateStill an open debate About memory in general, this tells us…About memory in general, this tells us…

Emotional context of event can influence Emotional context of event can influence memorymemory

Knowledge (even if it comes later) can affect Knowledge (even if it comes later) can affect the original memorythe original memory

The Constructive The Constructive Nature of Nature of MemoryMemory

The Constructive Nature of The Constructive Nature of MemoryMemory

People reporting memories unknowinglyPeople reporting memories unknowingly Omit detailsOmit details Distort or change things that actually Distort or change things that actually

happenedhappened Report things that never actually happenedReport things that never actually happened

Constructive approach to memory Constructive approach to memory What people report as memories are What people report as memories are

constructed by the person based on what constructed by the person based on what happened plus additional factors happened plus additional factors ((knowledge, experience, expectationsknowledge, experience, expectations))

““War of the Ghosts”War of the Ghosts”Bartlett (1932)Bartlett (1932)

Description of myth from an unfamiliar Description of myth from an unfamiliar cultureculture

Repeated productionRepeated production – participants came – participants came back a number of times to tell the same storyback a number of times to tell the same story Similar to Similar to repeated recallrepeated recall for flashbulb for flashbulb

memoriesmemories Participants made more errors over timeParticipants made more errors over time

Errors reflected something about the processErrors reflected something about the process Story changed to be consistent with participants’ Story changed to be consistent with participants’

cultureculture Confusing details left outConfusing details left out Details changed (canoe -> boat)Details changed (canoe -> boat)

Educated GuessesEducated Guesses

Bahrick and Coworkers (1996)Bahrick and Coworkers (1996) Recall your own high school gradesRecall your own high school grades

A recall = 89%A recall = 89% D recall = 29%D recall = 29%

Why these types of errors?Why these types of errors? People tend to remember positive events morePeople tend to remember positive events more Memory is constructiveMemory is constructive

If they were A/B students, they make a prediction If they were A/B students, they make a prediction that a specific grade was that a specific grade was most likelymost likely an A, and an A, and remember it that wayremember it that way

How does constructive memory work?How does constructive memory work?

Source MonitoringSource Monitoring

Source monitoringSource monitoring (and errors) is part of (and errors) is part of the explanation for how constructive the explanation for how constructive memory worksmemory works Source memorySource memory is the memory for is the memory for how you how you

acquiredacquired a certain memory a certain memory Did I hear that on the news or did someone tell me?Did I hear that on the news or did someone tell me?

Source monitoring errorsSource monitoring errors / / source source misattributionsmisattributions are when you remember the are when you remember the fact, but think it came from the wrong sourcefact, but think it came from the wrong source

Memories disconnected from source over Memories disconnected from source over timetime

Source Monitoring Source Monitoring ErrorsErrors

Jacoby and Coworkers (1989) – becoming Jacoby and Coworkers (1989) – becoming famous overnightfamous overnight Acquistion: read a list of names (all made up, Acquistion: read a list of names (all made up,

and people were told this just after reading)and people were told this just after reading) Immediate test: identify famous names from Immediate test: identify famous names from

list list Non-famous, new namesNon-famous, new names Names from prior listNames from prior list Famous namesFamous names

Delayed test: same as immediate, 1 day laterDelayed test: same as immediate, 1 day later


Jacoby and Coworkers (1989) – Jacoby and Coworkers (1989) – becoming famous overnightbecoming famous overnight Results: made-up names from the list that Results: made-up names from the list that

people saw in the acquisition stage were people saw in the acquisition stage were more likely to be rated as famous (in more likely to be rated as famous (in participants’ memory these fictitious people participants’ memory these fictitious people “became famous overnight”)“became famous overnight”)

Explanation: Made-up names more familiar Explanation: Made-up names more familiar than new names during delayed test, but than new names during delayed test, but participants didn’t remember participants didn’t remember whywhy they they seemed so familiar (seemed so familiar (sourcesource), so they ), so they attributed familiarity to famousnessattributed familiarity to famousness

Constructive MemoryConstructive Memory

Source misattributionSource misattribution involves involves participants making participants making inferencesinferences about the source, and using those to about the source, and using those to construct / reconstruct memoryconstruct / reconstruct memory Flashbulb memory studiesFlashbulb memory studies Bartlett’s war of the ghosts experimentBartlett’s war of the ghosts experiment Bahrick & coworkers’ high school Bahrick & coworkers’ high school

grades experimentgrades experiment Jacoby & coworkers’ becoming famous Jacoby & coworkers’ becoming famous

overnight overnight

Memory and InferenceMemory and Inference

So memory as a So memory as a constructive constructive processprocess What we remember is constructed based What we remember is constructed based

on events, percepts, experience and on events, percepts, experience and knowledgeknowledge

The process of memory construction The process of memory construction involves involves making inferencesmaking inferences

This is a normal consequence of a largely This is a normal consequence of a largely adaptive memory– in other words “it’s a adaptive memory– in other words “it’s a good thing.”good thing.”

Brewer (1977) / Brewer (1977) / McDermott & Chan (2006)McDermott & Chan (2006)

The children’s snowman vanished when The children’s snowman vanished when the temperature reached 80.the temperature reached 80.

The flimsy shelf weakened under the The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books.weight of the books.

The absent-minded professor didn’t The absent-minded professor didn’t have his car keys.have his car keys.

The karate champion hit the cinder The karate champion hit the cinder block. block.

The new baby stayed awake all night.The new baby stayed awake all night.

…… …… people who read these sentence people who read these sentence often inaccurate remembered the often inaccurate remembered the sentences as… sentences as…

Brewer (1977) / Brewer (1977) / McDermott & Chan (2006)McDermott & Chan (2006)

The children’s snowman vanished when The children’s snowman vanished when the temperature reached 80.the temperature reached 80.

The flimsy shelf weakened under the The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books.weight of the books.

The absent-minded professor didn’t The absent-minded professor didn’t have his car keys.have his car keys.

The karate champion hit the cinder The karate champion hit the cinder block. block.

The new baby stayed awake all night.The new baby stayed awake all night.

melted

lost

collapsed

broke

cried

Pragmatic InferencePragmatic Inference

Changes in wording we just saw are Changes in wording we just saw are examples of examples of pragmatic inferencepragmatic inference We use our experience to fill in the details We use our experience to fill in the details

without even realizing we are doing itwithout even realizing we are doing it Two more in the book you should know aboutTwo more in the book you should know about

Bransford & Johnson (1973) – hammer exampleBransford & Johnson (1973) – hammer example Arkes & Freedman (1984) – baseball exampleArkes & Freedman (1984) – baseball example

Inference uses knowledge and Inference uses knowledge and experience, which are represented by experience, which are represented by schemasschemas and and scriptsscripts

SchemasSchemas SchemasSchemas are representations of what is are representations of what is

usually or prototypically involved in an usually or prototypically involved in an experienceexperience A kids’ birthday party, a movie, oktoberfest, A kids’ birthday party, a movie, oktoberfest,

holidaysholidays Even if a movie theater is out of popcorn when Even if a movie theater is out of popcorn when

you go, you may later infer there was popcorn you go, you may later infer there was popcorn therethere

Brewer & Treyens (1981) - office studyBrewer & Treyens (1981) - office study This type of representation is what causes This type of representation is what causes

us to substitute “cried” for “stayed up all us to substitute “cried” for “stayed up all night” in the sentences we heard earliernight” in the sentences we heard earlier

ScriptsScripts are representations of the are representations of the sequence of actions that usually occur sequence of actions that usually occur during an experienceduring an experience Restaurant, class, sports, evening out, Restaurant, class, sports, evening out,

holidaysholidays Even if you may not have gone trick-or-Even if you may not have gone trick-or-

treating one Halloween, you may treating one Halloween, you may remember doing so laterremember doing so later

Bower and Coworkers (1979) – dentist Bower and Coworkers (1979) – dentist office studyoffice study

ScriptsScripts

Bower and Coworkers Bower and Coworkers (1979)(1979)

The DentistThe DentistBill had a bad toothache. It seemed like Bill had a bad toothache. It seemed like

forever before he finally arrived at the forever before he finally arrived at the dentist office. Bill looked around at the dentist office. Bill looked around at the

various dental posters on the wall. various dental posters on the wall. Finally the dental hygienist checked and Finally the dental hygienist checked and x-rayed his teeth. He wondered what the x-rayed his teeth. He wondered what the dentist was doing. The dentist said that dentist was doing. The dentist said that Bill had a lot of cavities. As soon as he’d Bill had a lot of cavities. As soon as he’d made another appointment, he left the made another appointment, he left the

dentist’s office.dentist’s office.

Bower and Coworkers Bower and Coworkers (1979)(1979)

Study included many stories like “the Study included many stories like “the dentist”dentist”

After a delay, participants were given After a delay, participants were given titles and asked to write what they titles and asked to write what they remembered about the storiesremembered about the stories ““Bill checked in with the dentist’s Bill checked in with the dentist’s

receptionist” ….receptionist” …. …….Common even though it wasn’t really there.Common even though it wasn’t really there

People filled in details based on their own People filled in details based on their own script for going to the dentistscript for going to the dentist

Construction: Plusses & Construction: Plusses & MinusesMinuses

Inferences in memory are much like gestalt Inferences in memory are much like gestalt laws in perception – they are also laws in perception – they are also heuristicsheuristics HeuristicsHeuristics – provide a “best guess” which is fast, – provide a “best guess” which is fast,

efficient and easy to store, but sometimes efficient and easy to store, but sometimes inaccurateinaccurate Hammer example – how inefficient it would be to have Hammer example – how inefficient it would be to have

to make all these details clear every time!to make all these details clear every time! AlgorithmsAlgorithms – opposite of heuristics, provide an – opposite of heuristics, provide an

accurate answer but take time, capacity, etc.accurate answer but take time, capacity, etc. In the case of memory, require infinite storageIn the case of memory, require infinite storage S in the book was said to have this (it wasn’t all good!)S in the book was said to have this (it wasn’t all good!)

Like gestalt laws, in practical terms Like gestalt laws, in practical terms our inferences are very often right our inferences are very often right

Sometimes our memories can be Sometimes our memories can be manipulated by suggestions by othersmanipulated by suggestions by others Memories createdMemories created Memories changedMemories changed

Ramifications for law and the court Ramifications for law and the court systemsystem

Construction: Plusses & Construction: Plusses & MinusesMinuses

Memory and Memory and SuggestionSuggestion

The Power of SuggestionThe Power of Suggestion

People are suggestiblePeople are suggestible Advertisements, political arguments Advertisements, political arguments

affect our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviorsaffect our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors Information presented by others can also Information presented by others can also

influence our memory for past eventsinfluence our memory for past events Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect – misleading – misleading

information presented after a person information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how witnesses an event can change how the person describes the event laterthe person describes the event later Misleading information in this situation is Misleading information in this situation is

called called misleading postevent misleading postevent information (MPI)information (MPI)

Method: Presenting MPIMethod: Presenting MPI Step 1: Information to be remembered is Step 1: Information to be remembered is

presented presented Could be a list of words, film, slideshow, etc.Could be a list of words, film, slideshow, etc.

Step 2: MPI is presented to some Step 2: MPI is presented to some participants and not othersparticipants and not others MPI is presented in a natural way so MPI is presented in a natural way so

participants do not know they are being misledparticipants do not know they are being misled Step 3: All participants report on their Step 3: All participants report on their

memory of the information presented in memory of the information presented in step 1step 1 Reports compared for the two groups of Reports compared for the two groups of

participantsparticipants

Loftus & Coworkers Loftus & Coworkers (1978)(1978)

Step 1: slide show of accidentStep 1: slide show of accident Car stops at a stop sign, then turns corner and hits Car stops at a stop sign, then turns corner and hits

pedestrianpedestrian Step 2: participants answer questions Step 2: participants answer questions

MPI group: “did another car pass the red Datsun MPI group: “did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the while it was stopped at the yield signyield sign?”?”

Control:“did another car pass the red Datsun while it Control:“did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the was stopped at the stop signstop sign?”?”

Step 3: participants see pictures, say which are Step 3: participants see pictures, say which are oldold Critical picture: car parked at a yield sign (new Critical picture: car parked at a yield sign (new

picture)picture) MPI group more likely to say yes (which was an error)MPI group more likely to say yes (which was an error)

Loftus & Coworkers Loftus & Coworkers (1978)(1978)

Study demonstrates that Study demonstrates that misleading misleading postevent information (MPI)postevent information (MPI) can can affect details of what people affect details of what people remember seeingremember seeing

Another similar study looks at how Another similar study looks at how MPI can affect the conclusions people MPI can affect the conclusions people draw about other aspects of the draw about other aspects of the situationsituation Also replicates the finding from Loftus & Also replicates the finding from Loftus &

Coworkers (1978)Coworkers (1978)

Loftus and Palmer Loftus and Palmer (1974)(1974)

Participants watched a video of a car crashParticipants watched a video of a car crash Participants answered questions about the Participants answered questions about the

filmfilm MPI group: How fast were the cars going when MPI group: How fast were the cars going when

they they smashedsmashed into each other? into each other? Control: How fast were the cars going when Control: How fast were the cars going when

they they hithit each other? each other? Answers comparedAnswers compared

MPI group (smashed) answered 41 mph, on MPI group (smashed) answered 41 mph, on avg.avg.

Control group (hit) answered 34 mph, on avg.Control group (hit) answered 34 mph, on avg.

Loftus (1993, 1998)Loftus (1993, 1998)

Participants from Loftus & Palmer Participants from Loftus & Palmer invited back one year laterinvited back one year later Question: Did you see any broken glass? (no Question: Did you see any broken glass? (no

= right)= right) ResultsResults

MPI group (smashed) answered yes 32%MPI group (smashed) answered yes 32% Control group (hit) answered yes 14%Control group (hit) answered yes 14%

More evidence that MPI affects memory More evidence that MPI affects memory for details (even details that are for details (even details that are inferred)inferred) How does this happen???How does this happen???

What Causes the What Causes the Misinformation Effect?Misinformation Effect?

Memory-trace replacement hypothesisMemory-trace replacement hypothesis (Loftus)(Loftus) MPI replaces memories for the original eventMPI replaces memories for the original event Process of Process of consolidationconsolidation is a possible is a possible

mechanismmechanism Retroactive interference hypothesisRetroactive interference hypothesis

Recent information interferes with (but Recent information interferes with (but doesn’t replace) previously learned doesn’t replace) previously learned informationinformation

Source monitoring error hypothsisSource monitoring error hypothsis Both memories are stored, but during recall Both memories are stored, but during recall

we forget which came from which sourcewe forget which came from which source

Evidence: Source Evidence: Source Monitoring Error Monitoring Error

Lindsay (1990)Lindsay (1990) Day 1: People saw slides, narrated by female Day 1: People saw slides, narrated by female

voicevoice Day 2: People heard story (no slides) with a few Day 2: People heard story (no slides) with a few

details changed (brand names, etc.) details changed (brand names, etc.) All MPI, no control groupAll MPI, no control group Some participants heard a male voice tell the story, Some participants heard a male voice tell the story,

while others heard a female voice tell the storywhile others heard a female voice tell the story Data: answers to questions about details that Data: answers to questions about details that

were changed for the story and details that were were changed for the story and details that were notnot

Why are voices important? Voice can be a Why are voices important? Voice can be a cue to source, which may make it easier to cue to source, which may make it easier to rememberremember

Lindsay (1990)Lindsay (1990)

% “suggested” responses(wrong)

Female

Voice

Male Voice

Misled detailsControl details


False memories for early events also False memories for early events also related to source monitoringrelated to source monitoring

Hyman, Jr. and Coworkers (1995)Hyman, Jr. and Coworkers (1995) Got stories from parents of college studentsGot stories from parents of college students Asked students about these events (and fake Asked students about these events (and fake

ones)ones) With repeated recall, false memories were With repeated recall, false memories were

inducedinduced How is this a source monitoring error?How is this a source monitoring error?

Familiarity caused people to believe it Familiarity caused people to believe it happened, and then they happily filled in details happened, and then they happily filled in details via inferencevia inference

More on False Memories for More on False Memories for Early EventsEarly Events

Lindsay and Coworkers (2004) – Slime Lindsay and Coworkers (2004) – Slime studystudy False memory effect stronger with a False memory effect stronger with a

picture picture DuBreuil and Coworkers (1998) – DuBreuil and Coworkers (1998) –

MobilesMobiles False memories can come out during False memories can come out during

hypnosishypnosis People are very confident that these are People are very confident that these are

realreal

Eyewitness Eyewitness TestimonyTestimony

Memory and LawMemory and Law

Eyewitness testimonyEyewitness testimony – when someone – when someone who was present at a crime reports who was present at a crime reports about what he or she sawabout what he or she saw Most convincing types of evidence for a juryMost convincing types of evidence for a jury Witness confident-> evidence even more Witness confident-> evidence even more

convincingconvincing Accuracy & Confidence correlation is 0.29Accuracy & Confidence correlation is 0.29

Errors have of eyewitness testimony Errors have of eyewitness testimony have resulted in the conviction of have resulted in the conviction of innocent peopleinnocent people

Memory and LawMemory and Law

David Webb, Charles Clark, Lenell David Webb, Charles Clark, Lenell Gertner all went to jail (later released Gertner all went to jail (later released when testimony was discovered to be when testimony was discovered to be inaccurate)inaccurate)

40 cases of exoneration based on DNA 40 cases of exoneration based on DNA evidence that became available after evidence that became available after convictionconviction 36 involved erroneous eyewitness testimony36 involved erroneous eyewitness testimony

8.5 average years in prison8.5 average years in prison 5 death sentences5 death sentences

Perceptual ErrorsPerceptual Errors Eyewitness testimony can be affected by Eyewitness testimony can be affected by

both perception and memory – we’ll start both perception and memory – we’ll start with perceptionwith perception

Two studies presented videos of crimes Two studies presented videos of crimes to participants and then gave them to participants and then gave them photos, asked them to identify the photos, asked them to identify the perpetratorperpetrator 100% / 61% picked someone from the 100% / 61% picked someone from the

photos, even though the correct person photos, even though the correct person wasn’t in the photoswasn’t in the photos

In actual crime scenes, many causes… In actual crime scenes, many causes…

Crime ScenesCrime Scenes

Errors associated with AttentionErrors associated with Attention Easterbrook (1959) – as arousal Easterbrook (1959) – as arousal

increases, attention narrowsincreases, attention narrows crime scenes arousal is high, relevant details crime scenes arousal is high, relevant details

can be missedcan be missed Weapons focusWeapons focus – presence of a weapon – presence of a weapon

narrows attention narrows attention Worse if weapon is fired (Stanny and Worse if weapon is fired (Stanny and

Johnson, 2000)Johnson, 2000) Decreases memory for victim, perpetrator AND Decreases memory for victim, perpetrator AND

weaponweapon


Errors due to familiarityErrors due to familiarity Crime scenes involve perpetrator, Crime scenes involve perpetrator,

victim, and innocent bystandersvictim, and innocent bystanders Bystanders can be incorrectly identified Bystanders can be incorrectly identified

as perpetrators based on familiarityas perpetrators based on familiarity Memory researcher Donald ThompsonMemory researcher Donald Thompson Sailor example Sailor example

Confirmed in lab studies Confirmed in lab studies


Errors due to suggestionErrors due to suggestion ““did you see the white car?” – later may did you see the white car?” – later may

have a false memory of a white carhave a false memory of a white car ““which one of these men did it?” – implies which one of these men did it?” – implies

that the person is in the lineupthat the person is in the lineup Witness selects one, then becomes confident Witness selects one, then becomes confident

over timeover time ““that one???” “OK” – confirmation of the that one???” “OK” – confirmation of the

witness’s choice (which will inflate witness’s choice (which will inflate confidence in the choice)confidence in the choice)

Wells and Bradfield (1998) confirmed in the labWells and Bradfield (1998) confirmed in the lab


Increasing confidence due to Increasing confidence due to postevent questioningpostevent questioning Shaw (1996) – participants were more Shaw (1996) – participants were more

confident in false memories of items confident in false memories of items from an apartment if they had been from an apartment if they had been asked questions about themasked questions about them Answering questions about an object makes Answering questions about an object makes

it easier to retrieve memories about it laterit easier to retrieve memories about it later People mistake People mistake ease of retrievalease of retrieval for for

accuracyaccuracy

What can be done?What can be done? First, recognize the problem and First, recognize the problem and

communicate it to jurors communicate it to jurors Make some procedural changesMake some procedural changes

Inform witnesses that perp may not be in the Inform witnesses that perp may not be in the lineuplineup

In lineups, use “fillers” that are similar to the In lineups, use “fillers” that are similar to the suspectsuspect

When presenting a lineup use sequential When presenting a lineup use sequential rather than simultaneous presentationrather than simultaneous presentation

Improve interviewing techniquesImprove interviewing techniques Cognitive interviewCognitive interview (25-60% more information (25-60% more information

than police interview)than police interview)

Memory and Cognition PSY 324 Topic 7: Everyday Memory & Memory Errors Dr. Ellen Campana Arizona State University.

Documents

lab photos

photos individuals

process memory

scene processingaphotos

memory of word lists

longterm memory functions

visual spaceregions

visual information