Memory
Memory
Memorythe process by which we encode, store, and
retrieve information
3 Basic Processes:EncodingStorageRetrieval
Three-System Memory Theory
Sensory memorythe initial, momentary storage of information,
lasting only an instanttypes are dependent on the source of
sensory information (iconic memory, echoic memory)
can store information for only a very short time, but its precision is high
can be destroyed or replaced with a new one
Short - term memorymemory that holds information for 15 to 25
seconds
Long - term memorymemory that stores information on a relatively
permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve
Improving Memory
Chunka meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be
stored as a unit in short-term memorycan be individual letters or numbers, or may
consist of larger categories such as words or meaningful units
P B S F O X C N N A B C C B S M T V N B C
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Rehearsalthe repetition of information that has entered short-
term memoryinformation is maintained in the short-term memory or
may transfer into long-term memory
Elaborative rehearsaloccurs when information is considered and organized
in some fashionexpanding, linking to another memory, turning to
image, transforming to some other way
Mnemonicsformal techniques for organizing information in a way
that makes it more likely to be remembered
Semantic Networksmental representations of clusters of
interconnected information
Spreading activationactivating one memory triggers the
activation of related memories
Serial position effectthe ability to recall information in a list depends
on where in the list an item appears
primacy effectitems presented early in the list are remembered
better
recency effectitems presented late in a list are remembered
best
Improving Memory
keywordencoding specificityorganization cueseffective note takingpractice and rehearsedon’t believe claims about drugs that
improve memory
Memory Modules
Declarative memorymemory for factual information
Semantic memoryfor general knowledge and facts about the world
as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used infer other facts
Episodic memorymemory for events that occur in a particular time,
place, or context
Procedural memorymemory for skills and habits
Forms of Memory
Explicit memoryintentional or conscious recollection of
information
Implicit memorymemories of which people are not
consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behaviorunclear dislike for an acquaintanceprejudice and discrimination
Neuroscience of memory
Hippocampusaids in the initial encoding of information
Cerebral Cortexwhere information is stored
Amygdalainvolved with memories involving emotion
Recalling Long-Term MemoryTip-of-the-tongue phenomenonthe inability to recall information that one
realizes one knows - a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory
Retrieval Cueis a stimulus that allows us to recall more
easily information that is in long-term memory
Recall memory task in which specific information
must be retrieved
Recognitionmemory task in which individuals are
presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives
What are the names of the seven dwarves in the Disney Movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs?
Which of the following are the names of the seven dwarves in the Disney Movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs?
Goofy BashfulSleepy SneezySmarty HappyScaredy DocDopey CrazyWheezy Donald
Priminga phenomenon in which exposure to a word
or concept (prime) later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the word or concept
Name the moon of Mars.
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Flashbulb Memoriesmemories centered on a specific,
important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event
memories that are exceptional are more easily retrieved (although not necessarily accurate) than are those relating to events that are commonplace
romantic experience, witnessing car accident, first airplane flight
Source amnesiawhen an individual has a memory for some
material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it before
Schemas
organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
are based not only on the specific material to which people are exposed, but also on their understanding of the situation, their expectations, and awareness of motivations of others
Why We ForgetFailure of encodingDecay - loss of information in memory
because of nonuseInterference - the phenomenon by which
information in memory disrupts the recall of other information
Cue-dependent forgetting - forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to revive information that is in memory
The Before and After of ForgettingProactive interference
interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material
Retroactive interferenceinterference in which there is difficulty in the
recall of information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material
Memory DysfunctionsAlzheimer’s diseasean illness characterized in part by severe
memory problemsAmnesiamemory loss that occurs without other mental
difficultiesretrograde amnesiain which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a
certain eventanterograde amnesiain which memory is lost for events that follow an
injury