Professor of Neurology – K.M.School of PGMR Head, Department of Neurology – VSGH, AHD Director of Neurosciences – Sterling Hospital Consultant Neurologist - Ahmedabad, INDIA THE ART & SCIENCE OF MEDITATION Dr Sudhir Shah Dr Sudhir Shah MD DM Neurology MD DM Neurology India India 3 3 rd rd Jan Jan 2010 2010
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Professor of Neurology – K.M.School of PGMR Head, Department of Neurology – VSGH, AHDDirector of Neurosciences – Sterling Hospital Consultant Neurologist - Ahmedabad, INDIA
THE ART & SCIENCE
OF MEDITATION
Dr Sudhir ShahDr Sudhir ShahMD DM NeurologyMD DM Neurology
IndiaIndia 33rdrd Jan 2010 Jan 2010
Why MeditationWhy Meditation ? ?
• We exist in two forms : body and mind. We exist in two forms : body and mind. : exercise.. (essay): exercise.. (essay)
• At some stage you realize that peace and At some stage you realize that peace and happiness are not outside. happiness are not outside.
• The cause of miseries : thoughts, aspirations, The cause of miseries : thoughts, aspirations, past & past & present and attitude present and attitude
• The quest for the god. The quest for the god.
• All great people have done meditation. All great people have done meditation.
What is meditation• Exercise of mind to keep it
healthy and clean, as we do for body.
• A state of altered consciousness.
• Fourth stage of consciousness.
• Spiritual ecstasy with neurological manifestation.
Truth, Non-violence, non-stealing, celibacy and non-collectiveness
Meditation-Techniques
• Vipashyana : To see –To observe ( Buddha) Goenkaji through mahasi
sayado
Breathing : control of emotions & perversions
Thoughts : detachment from thoughts
Body and perception of sensations :control of Raga and Dwesha
Vipashyana
• Calm and quiet mind
• Awake and attentive mind
• Equanimous mind
Operation of the mind, by the mind
The Sound of Om in a Drop of Oil CHANTING MEDITATION
"Since all things are made by the power of sound, of vibration, so can we create this world by the same power. The knowledge of sound is supreme, for it is beyond all form. By the knowledge of sound we obtain the knowledge of creation, And the mastery of that knowledge helps us to rise to the formless. This knowledge acts as our wings, helping us to rise from the earth to heaven and penetrate through life seen and unseen."
-- Pir Hazrat Inayat Khan To do chanting on mantra, its meaning and vibration
Mr. Emoto decided to see how thoughts and words affected the formation of untreated, distilled water crystals by typing words onto paper and then taping them on glass bottles overnight.
These are effects of the words “Love and Appreciation”
These are the effects of “You make me sick. I will kill you!”
Effect of sound chanting
A Yantra is a graphic representation of the sound of Mantra
Mr. Emoto decided to see what effects music had upon Mr. Emoto decided to see what effects music had upon the structure of water. He placed distilled water the structure of water. He placed distilled water between two speakers for several hours while playing between two speakers for several hours while playing music and then photographed the crystals that formed music and then photographed the crystals that formed after the water was frozen. The results of the effects of after the water was frozen. The results of the effects of these two very different types of music speak for these two very different types of music speak for themselves. themselves.
This is the effect of This is the effect of Bach’s “Air for the G Bach’s “Air for the G String”String”
This is the effects of This is the effects of Heavy Metal MusicHeavy Metal Music
Mindfulness Practice
• Observing the body and mind intentionallyLetting experiences unfold from moment to moment and accepting them as they are.
• Observing thoughts without getting caught up in them.
No effort to control anything except the focus and direction of
the attention. Not a passive process, yet does not involve
trying to get anywhere.
• Eating meditation, sitting meditation, working meditation and
meditation during each act is the goal of mindfulness practice.
Rule No. 1Rule No. 1
• Wherever there is body, mind should also be there without any exception
Rule No. 2Rule No. 2
• Develop wakeful plain observorship (Sakshibhav or Drushtabhav)
Meditation) Sahaj Dhyana Your own systemAll methods are great
SwapnadhyanaSwapnadhyana
NidradhyanaNidradhyana
YognidraYognidra
NyasaNyasa
First Practice Silence of body, speech and learn to get isolatedThen, chanting, seeing an idol, inner flame, breathing etc.
Benefits of meditationBenefits of meditation
– Oxygen consumption is reduced by 16%, even greater than the reduction of 12% in sleep
– Neural structures that are intimately related to the control of the autonomic nervous system are activated
– Diurnal, cyclic secretion of stress hormones (adrenocorticotrophic hormone, cortisol and beta-endorphin) is absent
STATISTICSSTATISTICS
• Physicians, Psychotherapists, and other Physicians, Psychotherapists, and other Professionals are increasingly adding Professionals are increasingly adding Meditative Techniques to their practice.Meditative Techniques to their practice.
• Over six thousand Physicians have begun Over six thousand Physicians have begun the practice of Transcendental Meditation the practice of Transcendental Meditation and regularly recommend the TM and regularly recommend the TM technique to their patients. technique to their patients.
• Many Physicians consider Meditation a key Many Physicians consider Meditation a key element of an Integrated Health Program.element of an Integrated Health Program.
Health Conditions in which Health Conditions in which Yoga may help heal or treatYoga may help heal or treat
Researching the Benefits of on Meditation :Researching the Benefits of on Meditation :
• With 7 weeks of meditation, cancer patients decreased their degree of depression, anxiety, anger, confusion, and chest and stomach symptoms by 50% - and felt more vigor.
• With 10 weeks of meditation, 2/3’s of chronic pain patients had a 30% reduction in pain, and half had more than a 50% reduction.
• With 10 weeks of meditation, chronic pain patients had less pain, less mood disturbances, used less pain medication, and could be more active. The benefits were still present one year later.
• Three years after an 8-week meditation instruction, patients with anxiety and panic disorders still showed a benefit.
• All patients with fibromyalgia who meditated for 10 weeks improved, and over half showed moderate to marked improvement in pain, fatigue and quality of sleep.
Medical benefits of meditation
• Meditation has been found to be quite useful in most of the psychosomatic disorders including asthma, rheumatism, gut problems, blood pressure, diabetes etc.
• With 6 weeks of meditation irritable bowel syndrome patients had less flatulance, belching, bloating and diarrhea.
• Even though daily fluctuations in cortisol are unchanged, people who meditate don’t have the daily fluctuations in the cortisol-stimulating hormone (ACTH), or beta-endorphins, suggesting a change in feedback sensitivity.
• People trained in and performing an imagery-based relaxation prior to injection, had less inflammatory reaction to chili pepper “extract” (capsaicin) injected under the skin.
• With 6 months of meditation, athletes had less increase in the CD8+ suppressor T cell response to strenuous physical stress, improving the immune system’s helper to suppressor cell ratio. It also reduces post-traumatic stress.
Medical benefits of meditation
• Patients who meditated during ultraviolet light treatment Patients who meditated during ultraviolet light treatment for for psoriasispsoriasis had quicker clearing of their skin disease. had quicker clearing of their skin disease.
• With 6 months of meditating for 20 minutes twice a day, With 6 months of meditating for 20 minutes twice a day, hypertensive African Americans had a decrease in the hypertensive African Americans had a decrease in the carotid artery wall thickness.carotid artery wall thickness.
• With 4 years of daily meditation, With 4 years of daily meditation, coronary artery coronary artery narrowingnarrowing showed showed regressionregression rather than progression. rather than progression.
• Over a 5 year period, people who meditated had over Over a 5 year period, people who meditated had over 50% less doctor’s office visits, and an average of 50% less doctor’s office visits, and an average of 50% 50% less hospital admissionsless hospital admissions (including a reduction all 17 (including a reduction all 17 major treatment categories such as benign and major treatment categories such as benign and malignant malignant tumors, heart disease, infectious disease, and tumors, heart disease, infectious disease, and nervous system disordersnervous system disorders). Only childbirth rates were ). Only childbirth rates were the unchangedthe unchanged. .
Medical benefits of meditation
Relative contraindications of meditationRelative contraindications of meditation
• Meditation produces a specific physiological response pattern that involves various biological systems.
• Mechanisms producing meditative effects include metabolic, autonomic, endocrine, neurological, and psychological manifestation.
• Physiological response to meditation occurs on a multidimensional, interactive basis.
Neuro Electrical Changes During Meditation
BETA: Alert/Working14-20 waves per second
ALPHA: Relaxed/Reflecting 8-13 waves per second
THETA: Drowsy/Meditating 4-7 waves per second
DELTA: Sleep/Dreaming3-4 waves per second
DELTA: Deep & Dreamless Sleep .5-2 waves per sec
Neuroelectrical Effects
Mediation (the Fourth State) was shown to - increase Alpha (8-13 Hz or cycles per second)
production - increase Theta (4-7 Hz) production - increase high Beta (20 - 40 Hz) activity ( with experienced
meditators).
Alpha patterns are associated with calm and focused attention.
Theta patterns are associated with reverie, imagery, and creativity.
High Beta activity is associated with highly focused concentration
Important features of EEG Important features of EEG changes changes
related to meditation are : related to meditation are : Establishing alpha activity in spite of open eyes Establishing alpha activity in spite of open eyes
• Increased amplitude of alpha activity Increased amplitude of alpha activity
• Slower frequency of alpha rhythmSlower frequency of alpha rhythm
and light reverie. Ranging between about 8 cycles per
second and 13 cycles per second, alpha is the gateway
to meditation and provides a bridge between the
conscious and the subconscious mind.
BETA brainwaves are the fastest frequencies ranging
from 14 cycles per second up to 38 cycles per second.
Beta is your normal thinking state, your active external
awareness and thought process. Without beta you would
not be able to function in the outside world.
THETA brainwaves are the subconscious mind. Ranging
from about 4 cycles per second up to 8 cycles per
second, theta is present in dreaming sleep and
provides the experience of deep meditation when you
meditate. Theta also contains the storehouse of
creative inspiration and is where you often have your
spiritual connection. Theta provides the peak in the
peak experience
The MEDITATION brainwave pattern is a
combination of alpha and theta where theta
provides the depth and profundity of the
meditation experience – the subconscious inner
space from which creativity, insight, and healing
spring – and alpha provides the bridge, or the link,
to the conscious thinking mind so that you can
actually remember the contents of your
meditation.
DELTA brainwaves are your unconscious mind, the
sleep state, ranging from about 4 cycles per second
down to 0.5 cycles per second. But when present in
combination with other waves in a waking state, Delta
acts as a form of radar – seeking out information –
reaching out to understand on the deepest
unconscious level things that we can't understand
through thought process. Delta provides intuition,
empathetic attunement, and instinctual insight.
AWAKENED MIND brainwave pattern
It is a brainwave pattern shared by people in higher
states of consciousness regardless of their
philosophy, theology or meditation technique. This
brainwave pattern can be found during “peak
experience” and in all forms of creativity and high
performance
Permanent EEG changesPermanent EEG changes
Davidson’s research is consistent with his Davidson’s research is consistent with his earlier work that pinpointed the left earlier work that pinpointed the left prefrontal cortex as a brain region prefrontal cortex as a brain region associated with happiness and positive associated with happiness and positive thoughts and emotions. Using functional thoughts and emotions. Using functional magnetic resonance imagining (fMRI) on magnetic resonance imagining (fMRI) on the meditating monks, Davidson found that the meditating monks, Davidson found that their brain activity – as measured by the their brain activity – as measured by the EEG – was especially high in this areaEEG – was especially high in this area
With chronic meditation, gamma wave With chronic meditation, gamma wave activity(high level information processing) activity(high level information processing) is found in many meditators is found in many meditators
Meditation sometimes produces Meditation sometimes produces altered amplitudes, with practitioners altered amplitudes, with practitioners seeming to demonstrate decreased seeming to demonstrate decreased amplitude & latency for sensory EPs & amplitude & latency for sensory EPs & with mindfulness inducing a decrease with mindfulness inducing a decrease in habituationin habituation
• In meditation the usual frameworks of time, space and other aspects of conscious content are absent, although the mind is not asleep
• Compared to quiet or slow-wave sleep, in which brain blood flow is reduced, meditation shows no reduction in total brain blood circulation or perfusion
• Regional maps of brain blood flow/perfusion differ among meditation, slow-wave sleep and wakefulness
Neurobiology of Meditation
Imaging, such as rCBF (regional Cerebral Blood Flow), real time MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), MEG (magnetoencephalography), and improved EEG (electoencephalography) allow detailed studies in understanding the effects of meditation on neural behavior.
SPECT study shows- Parietal area of the brain is responsible for giving us a sense of our orientation in space and time. By blocking all sensory and cognitive input into this area, meditation results in the sense of no space and no time.
temporal resolution
sp
ati
al re
solu
tion
neurons
cms
ms minutes
meg -eeg
seeg
petfmri
DYNAMIC BRAIN MAPPING
ANDREW NEWBERG
SPECT Images at Baseline and During Meditation
Baseline Meditation
Prefrontal Cortex Prefrontal Cortex
SuperiorParietal Lobe
SuperiorParietal Lobe
Baseline Meditation
SPECT Images at Baseline and During Meditation
Baseline Scan
LIMBIC
Comparison of Baseline to Prayer : Limbic
inhibition
LIMBIC
Prayer Scan
Part of the Brain P-value
Baseline Mean
Meditation
Mean
PercentChange
SD
Anterior Cingulate
0.0074 1.25 1.34 7.2 0.08
Cingulate Body 0.0001 0.91 1.14 25.3 0.13
DLPFC 0.0001 1.31 1.45 10.7 0.08
Inferior Frontal 0.0025 1.25 1.36 8.8 0.09
Midbrain 0.0166 1.16 1.29 11.2 0.14
Orbital Frontal Cortex
0.0075 0.97 1.22 25.8 0.24
Posterior Cingulate
0.0114 1.19 1.29 8.4 0.09
Sensorimotor 0.0017 1.19 1.26 5.9 0.06
Thalamus 0.0114 1.40 1.60 14.3 0.21
Results from Meditation SPECT Study
Increase rCBF in frontal lobe and shut down of rCBF in OAA in parietal lobe is the key finding.
This is not hallucination.
All Meditators have same findings.
Summary of SPECT findings
fMRI changes during Meditation
ResultsResults• Significant signal increases were observed in the Significant signal increases were observed in the
dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortices, dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortices, thalamus, hippocampus/parahippocampus, thalamus, hippocampus/parahippocampus, temporal lobe, pregenual anterior cingulate temporal lobe, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, striatum, and pre- and post-central gyri cortex, striatum, and pre- and post-central gyri during meditation. during meditation.
• This indicates that the practice of meditation This indicates that the practice of meditation activates neural structures involved in attention activates neural structures involved in attention and control of the autonomic nervous system.and control of the autonomic nervous system.
– Neuroreport. 2000 May 15;11(7):1581-5. Functional Neuroreport. 2000 May 15;11(7):1581-5. Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation. Lazar SW,…, Benson H. meditation. Lazar SW,…, Benson H.
• PET, SPECT & fMRI allow examination of changes in regional blood flow, metabolism or receptor (sites of neurochemical and drug actions) activation in the brain in response to various tasks
• Most types of meditation, which involve an initial focusing of attention, are associated with increased regional blood flow or glucose metabolism in the prefrontal and cingulate cortex, areas that are important in selection of a mental task
fMRI changes during Meditation
• The frontal lobes, especially the prefrontal regions help to organize, prioritize, plan and focus attention
• During visualization regional blood flow increases in the “visual cortex” and visual association areas in the occipital lobes
• In contemplation of “self” the parietal lobes on both sides are activated
visual imagery
meditation on weight of body
parts
abstract perception of joy
symbolic representation of the self
Thalamus & Hippocampus in meditationThalamus & Hippocampus in meditation
• ThalamusThalamus is a relay station is a relay station and filtering station for sensory information. Excitation of RN through PFC, decreases activation of PSPL & thereby decreases body awareness & also decreases input to visual centre (GABA)
• The studies point to prefrontal activation The studies point to prefrontal activation (predominantly right), transient (predominantly right), transient hypofrontality, increased frontal lobe & hypofrontality, increased frontal lobe & decreased parietal lobe activity & also to a decreased parietal lobe activity & also to a Deafferentation of the PSPLDeafferentation of the PSPL
• Functional Deafferentation means a decrease Functional Deafferentation means a decrease in distracting stimuli to visual cortex & PSPL, in distracting stimuli to visual cortex & PSPL, hence, increase focushence, increase focus
• This results in altered perception of self-This results in altered perception of self-experienceexperience
• Activity in Activity in HippocampusHippocampus is increased in is increased in connections with connections with hypothalamushypothalamus & & autonomic nervous systemautonomic nervous system
• Stimulation of Stimulation of Right amygdalaRight amygdala causes causes stimulation of ventromedial stimulation of ventromedial hypothalamus & peripheral hypothalamus & peripheral parasympathetic system, thereby parasympathetic system, thereby causing subjective sensation of causing subjective sensation of relaxation & more profound sense of relaxation & more profound sense of quiescencequiescence
• Herzog, et al., 1990 – PET, Yoga meditationHerzog, et al., 1990 – PET, Yoga meditation• Jevning, et al., 1996 – Rheoencephalography, TM Jevning, et al., 1996 – Rheoencephalography, TM
meditationmeditation• Lou, et al., 1999 – PET, Yoga NidraLou, et al., 1999 – PET, Yoga Nidra• Lazar, et al., 2000 – fMRI, Kundalini YogaLazar, et al., 2000 – fMRI, Kundalini Yoga• Khushu, et al., 2000 – fMRI, Raja YogaKhushu, et al., 2000 – fMRI, Raja Yoga• Baerensten, et al., 2001 – fMRI Onset of meditationBaerensten, et al., 2001 – fMRI Onset of meditation• Newberg, et al., 2001 – SPECT, Tibetan meditationNewberg, et al., 2001 – SPECT, Tibetan meditation• Azari, et al., 2001 – PET, Psalm 23 recitationAzari, et al., 2001 – PET, Psalm 23 recitation• Kjaer, et al., 2002 – PET 11C-raclopride binding, Yoga Kjaer, et al., 2002 – PET 11C-raclopride binding, Yoga
Nidra Nidra • Newberg, et al., 2003 – SPECT, Franciscan PrayerNewberg, et al., 2003 – SPECT, Franciscan Prayer• Lazar, et al., 2003 – fMRI, Mindfulness vs. KundaliniLazar, et al., 2003 – fMRI, Mindfulness vs. Kundalini• Ritskes, et al., 2003 – fMRI, ZenRitskes, et al., 2003 – fMRI, Zen• Lazar, et al., 2005 – MRI, Buddhist Insight MeditationLazar, et al., 2005 – MRI, Buddhist Insight Meditation• Kakigi, et al., 2005 – fMRI, Noxious LASER stimulation Kakigi, et al., 2005 – fMRI, Noxious LASER stimulation
of a Yoga master who claims to feel no pain during of a Yoga master who claims to feel no pain during meditationmeditation
• Orme-Johnson, et al., 2006 – fMRI, TM effects on brain Orme-Johnson, et al., 2006 – fMRI, TM effects on brain reactivity to painreactivity to pain
Neurochemical Changes During Meditation
Meditation increases Serotonin production,
an important neurotransmitter and
neuropeptide that influences mood and
behavior in many ways. It can stimulate
increased production of Acetylcholine,
involved in memory mechanisms & attention
Meditation has also been associated with
increased melatonin availability
Neurochemical changes during meditation
• During meditation, locus ceruleus activity decreases, thereby decreasing norepinephrine production
• Relatively greater activity of parasympathetic system causes decreased production of catecholamines, epinephrine & norepinephrine by adrenal medulla
Neurochemical Changes During Meditation
Neurochemical Observed Change
CNS Structure
Arginine Vasopressin IncreasedSupraoptic
Nucleus
GABA Increased Thalamus, other inhibitory structures
Melatonin Increased Pineal Gland
Serotonin Increased Dorsal Raphe
Dopamine Increased Basal Gangia
Cortisol Decreased Paraventricular Nucleus
Norepinephrine Decreased Locus Ceruleus
β-Endorphin Rhythm changed; levels unaltered
Arcuate Nucleus
Meditation and the Autonomic Nervous System
• An increase in the skin resistance.
• Galvanic skin responses, showed that meditators recovered from stress more quickly than non-meditators.
• Decreased limbic arousal in the brain-reduces stress and increases autonomic stability to stress.
• Reduction in limbic arousal may explain how meditation strengthens and enhances the ability to cope with stress.
Meditation and the Central Nervous System
The practice of meditation decreases muscle reflex time.
Accelerates neural conduction or augments the release of neurotransmitters, thereby decreasing synaptic time, resulting in a change in muscle firing threshold and pattern.
By inhibiting the left cortical hemisphere, the sense of time and logic no longer dominate consciousness during meditation.Suppression of Ego faculty and later on Mind.
The Plausible Hypothesis
• When meditation acts as a constant repetitive stimulus, certain permanent qualitative and quantitative changes develop in nervous system.
• Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators may stimulate growth of dormant neurons to develop a centre higher than neocortex- God module.
• This higher centre will exert inhibitory control over present neocortex and thereby over mind as a whole- thereby suppressing consciousness and all mental activities.
• Spiritual ascent is from the least evolved state of consciousness to near perfect state with which the mind itself will cease to be and there will remain only non-dual experience.
Meditation and the Endocrine System
• Reduced blood levels of lactate, cortisol, and epinephrine.
• A recent MRI study showed that, “brain A recent MRI study showed that, “brain regions associated with attention, regions associated with attention, interoception & sensory processing like interoception & sensory processing like the the PFC & right anterior insulaPFC & right anterior insula were were thicker in meditation practitioners”thicker in meditation practitioners”
– Decreased LC firing with decreased Decreased LC firing with decreased noradrenaline & decreased levels of stress noradrenaline & decreased levels of stress hormone cortisolhormone cortisol
DepressionDepression
• Factors contributing antidepressant effect :Factors contributing antidepressant effect :– Increase in serotonin, dopamine, melatonin, Increase in serotonin, dopamine, melatonin,
endorphin & AVPendorphin & AVP– Decrease in CRH & cortisolDecrease in CRH & cortisol
Psychosis Psychosis
• A variety of schizophrenic effects can be seenA variety of schizophrenic effects can be seen
• Meditation can induce psychotic states via Meditation can induce psychotic states via mechanisms such as :mechanisms such as :– Increased 5HT 2 receptor activation, Increased 5HT 2 receptor activation,
leading to inhibition of LGBleading to inhibition of LGB– Increased DMT, causing hallucinogenic Increased DMT, causing hallucinogenic
effectseffects– Increase in NAAG, having dissociative Increase in NAAG, having dissociative
hallucinogenic effectshallucinogenic effects– Increase in dopamine affecting temporal Increase in dopamine affecting temporal
lobelobe
Implications for PsychiatryImplications for Psychiatry
• Complementary & alternative medicineComplementary & alternative medicine• ? Alternative to Hypnosis? Alternative to Hypnosis• Low cost, with continuation for lifeLow cost, with continuation for life• Group dynamics & group practiceGroup dynamics & group practice• Combination e.g. Mindfulness-Based Combination e.g. Mindfulness-Based
Cognitive Behavior Therapy or Spiritually Cognitive Behavior Therapy or Spiritually Augmented CBTAugmented CBT
• Meditative state changes may develop into Meditative state changes may develop into traitstraits
• Preventive Psychiatry Preventive Psychiatry
Unresolved issues – New Frontiers
• Although we can understand how the various lobes and neurotransmitters function during meditation, how are these actions directed and by whom?
• What accounts for the actual awareness of the experience and of self and where are they perceived?
• How do we actually know that something is true and meaningful? What accounts for this conviction?
• The link with the Master Within and with Cosmic Consciousness has not been explained and cannot be approached from a neuroscience perspective
Four way Truth
• That there is a problem
• That there is a cause
• That there is a way
• If you follow the path, you will get the
solution
““Now Monks, I have nothing more toNow Monks, I have nothing more to
tell you but all that is composed tell you but all that is composed
will decay. Strive after your own will decay. Strive after your own
Salvation.”Salvation.”
-Lord Buddha-Lord Buddha
WAIT AND MEDITATE,
TILL I CALL YOU BACK
- Swami Vivekananda
REFERENCES
• Jain Agam
• Dhyana Dipika, Dhyana Shatak
• Patanjal Yoga Sutra
• Holy Vedas, Puranas and Upanishadas
• Tripitak
• Dhyana Yoga - Swami Vivekananda
• Meditation - Osho
• Dhyana Kumbh - Suresh Vakil
• Meditations - J.Krishnamurti
• ‘Why God will not go away’ – Andrew Newberg
• Medical References from several journals
REFERENCES
• Aries et al;2006, Systematic review of efficacy of meditation Aries et al;2006, Systematic review of efficacy of meditation techniques, Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicinetechniques, Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine
• Cahn B.R., Polich J.,(2006), Meditation states and traits:EEG,ERP Cahn B.R., Polich J.,(2006), Meditation states and traits:EEG,ERP and neuroimaging studies, Psychol Bull,(2005),Meditation and neuroimaging studies, Psychol Bull,(2005),Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical experience is associated with increased cortical thickness,Neuroreportthickness,Neuroreport
• Mohandas E.,(2008) Neurobiology of spirituality, Mens Sena Mohandas E.,(2008) Neurobiology of spirituality, Mens Sena Monograph.Monograph.
• Newberg A.B.(2003),The neural basis of the complex mental Newberg A.B.(2003),The neural basis of the complex mental task of meditation:neurotransmitter and neurochemical task of meditation:neurotransmitter and neurochemical consideration,Med Hypotheses.consideration,Med Hypotheses.
• U.S.Department of Health(2007) Meditation Practices for U.S.Department of Health(2007) Meditation Practices for Health:state of the ReasearchHealth:state of the Reasearch