Medicinal plant use in the Bredasdorp/Elim region of the Southern … · 2018. 11. 13. · Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275 Medicinal plant use in the Bredasdorp/Elim

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275

Medicinal plant use in the Bredasdorp/Elim region of the SouthernOverberg in the Western Cape Province of South Africa

T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz∗Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville 7535, South Africa

Received 25 April 2005; received in revised form 5 August 2005; accepted 9 August 2005Available online 19 September 2005

Abstract

There are many individuals in the Bredasdorp/Elim area who still use plants as medicines to treat many conditions. This study aimed to documentsome of this knowledge and present an inventory of all the plants in use in the area. Over 40 individuals were interviewed from old age homes,community centres for the elderly as well as people who were known for their knowledge in this matter. The information was gathered by meansof questionnaires. In total, 36 plant species from 19 families were found to be in general use in the area. Only 58% of these plants are indigenousto South Africa, 33% are introduced species and 9% are naturalized species. The dominant families were Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Alliaceae andt uses. Someu to determinew©

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he Solanaceae. Many of the plants in use are commonly used in traditional medicine around South Africa and share many of the sameses, which have not been seen in the consulted literature, have also been documented. A more structured questionnaire was usedhich plants were most popular for particular ailments. It was found thatArtemisia afra andRuta graveolens were the most popular.2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

eywords: South Africa; Southern Overberg; Ethnobotanical survey; Medicinal plants; Questionnaires

. Introduction

In South Africa, many people still use plants as mediciness an alternative or supplement to visiting a western health careractitioner (Van Wyk et al., 1997). This is not surprising due toouth Africa’s cultural diversity as well as its large floral biodi-ersity. South Africa is home to over 30,000 species of higherlants and 3000 of these species have been found to be used in

raditional medicine across the country (Van Wyk et al., 1997).here are over 27 million users of indigenous medicine (Mander,998) and an estimated 200,000 indigenous traditional healers,hich up to 60% of the population consult with (Van Wyk etl., 1997). Knowledge of these plants is very important becauseot only is there the potential to discover new alternatives for

he treatments of illnesses, but also from a conservation point ofiew. If certain plant species are found to be under threat due tohigh demand for plant medicines then measures can be imple-ented to try and ensure sustainability of the plant species. It

s also important from a cultural point of view because much

of the knowledge is being lost due to not being passed onone generation to the next. So, it is important to documenknowledge for future generations who may one day neeinformation.

Many important sources of information in the literatureavailable from previous surveys performed in South AfrHutchings et al. (1996)performed a survey looking at 10plant species (nearly 25% of the flora of KwaZulu-Natal) uin Zulu traditional medicine. This survey was compiled frexisting literature as well as from interviews with traditiohealers, hospital patients and people who use plants themsThis shows that performing surveys on indigenous plant uslooking at plants used either by healers or in self-medicacan provide information, which may help in the conservaof certain plant species as well as contribute to the SAfrican Pharmacopoeia. Important literature sources detamedicinal plant use in South Africa includeWatt and BreyerBrandwijk (1962), Watt (1967), Cunningham (1988), Hutchings(1989), Hutchings et al. (1996), Mander (1998), Van Wyk et al.(1997) and Van Wyk and Gericke (2000). This study, in theBredasdorp/Elim region, aims to capture knowledge from

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +27 21 959 2284.E-mail address: [email protected] (F.M. Weitz).

viduals of the “Coloured” population group who use plants inself-care in the hope that it may add to our current knowledge and

378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.08.013

262 T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275

Fig. 1. Southern Overberg region (afterMustart et al., 1997).

may help to substantiate certain plant uses for the illnesses theyare reported to treat. Studies similar to this have been performedwith success in other parts of the world.

In a study performed byGedif and Hahn (2003)in rural cen-tral Ethiopia, plants are still widely used in traditional medicine,but much of this knowledge has not been recorded. In thisinstance mothers were interviewed due to them being the heal-ers of the family as is common in many developing countries(Gedif and Hahn, 2003). The interviews aimed at document-ing how plants are used and what conditions they are used totreat. Twenty-five species out of 21 plant families were foundto be used in self-care in the Butajira community and a third ofthese species are available in Ethiopian markets and already haverecorded uses in cooking (Gedif and Hahn, 2003). In one sur-vey performed in Mexico, 119 people were interviewed to findout about plants specifically used in the treatment of gastroin-testinal infections. Out of the 119 interviewed, 88 people statedthat they relied on plant-based medicines to treat these stom-ach conditions. This information was gathered using informalinterviews and then semi-structured interviews. A wide rangeof people were interviewed, such as housewives, farmers andhealers (Hernandez et al., 2003).

1.1. Intellectual property rights

henu es-t ocalp rager tionaR s kef aw andi calD ledg( a-

tion gathered would be compiled into a cost-beneficial booklet,which will benefit the local community.

1.2. The study area

The Bredasdorp/Elim region is situated in the Southern Over-berg in the Western Cape Province of South Africa (Fig. 1).The Overberg region has been inhabited by humans for at leasthalf a million years and these early hunter-gatherer inhabitantswould have been reliant on the indigenous flora and fauna ofthe region (Mustart et al., 1997). The Southern Overberg hasa rich flora of about 2500 species out of which approximately300 are endemic (restricted to the area) and 32 are Red DataBook species (Mustart et al., 1997). Since the 1940s a shift hasoccurred from predominately veld based grazing, i.e. grazingof cattle and sheep in natural vegetation, to cereal crops andintroduced pastures. This, along with increasing alien invasivespecies, has led to the demise of much of the natural renosterveldand poses a threat to existing endemic flora (Mustart et al., 1997).Renosterveld is a vegetation type rich in plant species includinga large variety of geophytes and many endemics, which occur nowhere else in the world. The Bredasdorp Formation limestonesare associated with an endemic rich vegetation (Mustart et al.,1997; Cowling and Richardson, 1995). The soils are alkalineand organic rich. The plants growing on this terrain are knownas limestone proteoid fynbos. Bredasdorp and surrounding areasa fyn-be thepTM sd l sandpf ikeL

There is a political and very important consideration wtilizing indigenous knowledge for drug discovery; the qu

ion of intellectual property rights and remuneration to the leople. In South Africa, much is being done to encouesearchers to protect indigenous property rights. The Naesearch Foundation (NRF) has made this topic one of it

ocus areas (NRF, 2003). South Africa is also said to haveell-established intellectual property framework in place

s bound under Article 8(j) of the Convention on Biologiiversity to protect, respect and preserve indigenous know

Wolson, 2001). In this study it was decided that the inform

ly

e

re made up of three vegetation types: limestone proteiodos, restioid fynbos and neutral sand proteoid fynbos (Mustartt al., 1997). Limestone proteiod fynbos is characterized byresence ofProtea obtusifolia andLeucadendron meridianum.he ericoid component includesDiosma guthriei, Erica mariae,etalasia calcicola andEuryops linifolius. Restioid fynbos iominated by members of the Restionaceae while neutraroteoid fynbos includeProtea susannae, Leucadendron con-

erum, Leucadendron fulgens, Erica species and geophytes lachenalia andBobartia (Mustart et al., 1997).

T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275 263

2. Methodology

2.1. Interviews and data analysis

Interviews were conducted in places where elderly peoplegenerally meet, places such as old age homes and communitycentres for the elderly. In some cases, individuals were recom-mended by other members in the community for their knowledgeand so these people were interviewed as well. Preliminary inter-views took place by appointment and a basic questionnaire wasfollowed where possible to see which plants are in use and howand what they are used for. In follow-up interviews, more spe-cific questionnaires were designed using the information alreadygathered. These were aimed at finding out more about what hadalready been mentioned and finding out the preparations anddosages of the various medicines and if there were any alternatespecies if speciesx was not available. An example of the ques-tionnaires can be seen inAppendix A. In all interviews eithera tape recorder was used or notes were written. A new, morespecific questionnaire was designed (Appendix B) which listedall the plants mentioned thus far in the study and asked infor-mants to rank the plants that they used in the order of personalimportance. This questionnaire also listed the most commonailments mentioned in the study and asked each individual tospecify which plant(s) they thought was most useful to treatthat ailment. In the case where there is more than one plants er oi rmint eferee edr medt aseo e of1 fore ordeo achp ed-i ulateu y(

inge

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w ro manI ciesS

witha witha rtici-p e dai erem

2.2. Plant identification

Due to some plants having the same or more than one com-mon name there was an initial problem involving the identifi-cation of several plants. This problem was overcome by takingillustrated books to the interviews so that the interviewees couldpage through the books and look at the photographs and rec-ognize certain plants. This helped tremendously in coming toan agreement for each plant in use and also helped in trigger-ing memories of plants that were still used and that were usedin the past. Many of the informants also helped in the identifi-cation of plants by bringing along samples of plant material tothe meetings. This also promoted much discussion and debateamongst the people interviewed. Where possible, the sampleswere kept and taken to other meetings to use in discussions withdifferent informants, which also helped to verify the names ofthe plants. The plant specimens were also verified by taxonomistFrans Weitz of the Herbarium in the Department of Biodiver-sity and Conservation Biology at the University of the WesternCape. Herbarium specimens of the lesser known species weredeposited in this herbarium.

3. Results and discussion

Thirty-six species belonging to 19 families were found to bein use in the study area (Table 1). The families with the largestn iaceae( peciese ies, 3s SouthA con-d re ofe asdi ordero irew wereb es, ap ondi-t d foreT culara (ail-ms

3

sedi outhA m-pT exam-p inalt etaf evers,

uggested, the person was asked to list the plants in ordmportance. From these data, a list could be made to detehe most popular plants in use in the area, termed “prnce ranking” (Cotton, 1996; Phillips and Gentry, 1993a,b). Forxample, if a person used five plants, he or she was askank them in the order of importance. Then the plant terhe most important would be given a ranking of 5 (in the cf five plants) and the fifth most important assigned a valu. These values from each informant’s list were summedach plant to generate a list of the plants in decreasingf popularity. Also, this data permitted the calculation of elant’s “use-value”, i.e. the total number of different ethnom

cal uses reported for each plant. These values were calcsing a method byCotton (1996), and Phillips and Gentr1993a,b).

The use-values were calculated using the followquation:

VS =∑ UVIS

IS

here UVSis the overall use of species S, UVIS the mean numbef all uses of a given plant species (S) as determined by inforandIS is the total number of informants interviewed for spe.Of the 44 participants interviewed, 29 were females

ges ranging from 50 to 75 years and 15 were malesges ranging from 45 to 65 years. Out of these, 15 paants agreed to complete questionnaires to generate th

n Figs. 2–5. Of the 15 individuals, 10 were females and 5 wales.

fe-

to

r

d

t

ta

umber of species are the Asteraceae (six species), Lamsix species), and the Alliaceae and Solanaceae (three sach). Twelve out of the 36 species are introduced specpecies are naturalized and 21 species are indigenous tofrica. Table 1shows the botanical name, common name,ition treated, preparation and uses recorded in the literatuach plant.Fig. 2shows a list of the most widely used plantsetermined by the questionnaire inAppendix Bwhere 15 willing

nformants were asked to rank the plants that they use inf importance.Fig. 3 shows the results from the questionnahere the 15 participants were asked to list which plantsest to treat specific conditions. To determine these figurlant was assigned a value of one if it was used to treat a c

ion and a zero if it was not used. The “ones” were summeach plant and for each condition to give the results inFig. 3.his graph shows which plants are preferred to treat partiilments.Fig. 4shows the number of ethnomedicinal usesents) and the total responses per plant species whileFig. 5

hows the calculated use-values.

.1. Outcomes from the interviews

FromTable 1it can be seen that the majority of the plants un this survey are plants that are commonly used around Sfrica in Zulu, Xhosa and Sotho traditional medicine, for exale, Artemisia afra, Mentha longifolia andLeonotis leonurus.hese popular plants share many of the same uses, forle,Artemisia afra was found to be used to treat gastrointest

rouble and as a general tonic (Hutchings, 1989; Hutchingsl., 1996). In the same survey (Hutchings, 1989), Mentha longi-

olia is used to treat respiratory ailments, headaches and f

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Table 1Current uses and preparations of medicinal plants used in the Bredasdorp/Elim region and previously recorded uses in literature

Family plant species (Common name) Use/condition treated Method of preparation and use Uses in the literature Other information

AlliaceaeAllium cepa L. (Ui, Onion)(I)

Liver problems Administered in cooking or eaten raw Internally for bronchial and gastricinfections and externally for acne andboilsa

Allium sativum L. (knoffel, garlic) (I) Arthritis, backache, fever,rheumatism and worms

Cloves are eaten raw. Taken on adaily basis for arthritis and pains

Febrifuge, tuberculosis (TB),stimulant, carminative, antiseptic,anthelmintic, diaphoretic,expectorant, diuretic, hypotensive,whooping coughb

It has been suggested that on the firstday take one clove and on the secondtwo and on the third three, then twothen one on the following days andrepeat for arthritis

Tulbaghia violacea Harv. (wildeknoffel, wild garlic) (Ind.)

Earache, fever and high bloodpressure

Clove pieces are placed in castor oilto make eardrops. For fever and highblood pressure a tea is made frombulbs and a small cup taken threetimes daily

Fever, colds, asthma, Stomachcomplaintsc,d, TB andanthelminticb,d

AmaryllidaceaeGethyllis spp.(koekmakranka) (Ind. Possiblyendemic)

Convulsions, heart and stomachproblems, sleeplessness

Seed pods are soaked in brandy and asmall amount (±25 ml) taken at nightfor sleeplessness and heart conditionor symptomatically to relievestomach pain or treat convulsions

Colic, indigestionb,e,d, flatulence,teething trouble, boils, bruises andinsect bitesb

ApiaceaeFoeniculum vulgare Mill.(vinkel, fennel) (I)

Arthritis, fever, milk stimulant inpregnant women, diuretic for weightloss

An infusion made from the leaves isdrunk, to treat arthritis and fever andto stimulate milk production, greenfruit is chewed to reduce fat

Flatulence, cough, diuretic, digestiveproblemsd, diarrhea, stomachacheand crampsb

The infusion can also be used as awash in which arthritic joints can besoaked in

Petroselenium crispum (Mill.) A.W.Hill (pietersielie, parsley) (I)

Arthritis, bladder and kidneys, liverproblems, cough, diabetes,rheumatism

Taken as a tea made from a handfulof leaves taken when needed

Diuretic and emmenagogueb Also used in cooking to help with thelisted ailments

AsphodelaceaeAloe ferox Mill.(alwyn, aloe) (I)

Skin problems Leaf juice is applied to affected area Laxativeb,d,f , arthritis, eczema,conjunctivitis, hypertension andstress, other species leaf sap used totreat irritations, burns, bruisesd,opthalmia, purgative, syphilis andvenereal soresb,c

Bulbine lagopus (Thunb.) N.E.Br.(geel katstert) Herbarium specimenno. (TSAT 011) (E)

Wounds, sores, skin conditions leaf is broken and exudate applied toaffected area

Leaf sap ofBulbine species used totreat burns, wounds, skinconditionsb,d (such as acne, eczemaand rashesc), cracked lips, herpes,d

and stomach upsetsc

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AsteraceaeArtemisia afra Jacq. ExWilld. (Wilde als, wormwood) (I)

Bladder and kidney disorders,coughs, colds, influenza, convulsions,diabetes, fever, headache, heart,inflammation, rheumatism, stomachdisorders and worms

A tea made from a handful of theleaves can be taken daily to treatbladder and kidney trouble, coughs,colds, influenza, heart, headache. Asyrup can also be made by boilingthe leaves with sugar for coughs. Forinflammation and fever leaves aremade into a poultice with brandy orvinegar and wrapped around affectedarea (inflammation) or around thestomach (fever). For diabetes a smallamount of the tea is taken twice dailycontinuously.

This popular plant has many uses inthe literature including uses as atonic, anthelmintice,c, eyewashe,coughs, colds and influenza, fever,loss of appetite, colic, headache,earache, malaria, wormsb,c,d,constipation, diabetes and as bloodpurifiers for acne and boilsc

Elytropappus rhinocerotis (L.f.)Less. (renosterbos) (Ind.)

Bladder and kidney disorders,convulsions, diabetes, fever,headache, stomach disorders, wormsand wounds/ sores (tea has also beenmentioned to be good for heart andcancer)

Place leaves in brandy or vinegar forstomach ailments and take smallamount; tea made from leaves drunkfor bladder and kidneys, convulsions,diabetes, fever, headache, and worms;tea used to wash wounds and sores3

Stomach problems, dyspepsia,indigestion, ulcers, cancer, stomachicand appetite stimulantb,e,d,f

Was used as a remedy during aninfluenza epidemic in 1918e

Conyza scabrida DC. (paddabossie)Previously namedC. ivaefolia Lessalso known as “bakbos” or“oondbos” because plant was used asa brush to sweep out ovensb,a

Herbarium specimen no. (TSAT 013)(N)

Chest, heart, fever, diabetes,rheumatism, colds and flu,inflammation

Leaf infusions drunk as a tea, take25 ml morning and evening for fever,rheumatism, heart, stomach ailmentscoughs, colds and flu, leaves (fresh ordried) are placed on a cloth withvinegar/brandy and wrapped aroundsore area (headaches, stomach ache)as a poultice to relieve pain. Can alsobe used as an eyewash

Influenza, chest, stomach, heartafflictionse, convulsions in childrenb,g, fever, to hasten the birth of theplacenta and pleuritic pain inchildrenb, sprains and fracturesa,c

Showed evidence as a remedy forinfluenza during the 1918 influenzaepidemic. Dried leaves keep a longtime and no reported differencebetween the dried and fresh herb hasbeen mentioned. “groenamara” hasbeen said to be an alternative ifConyza not available

Helichrysum crispum (L.) D. Don(kooigoed) (Ind.)

Arthritis, bladder and kidneys, coldsand flu, cough, fever, headache,heart, sleeplessness and rheumatism

Dried leaf infusions drunk as tea,approx 25 ml taken 2–3 times per dayuntil symptoms disappear. Forsleeplessness place small amount ofleaves under pillow at bedtime

Colds, headachee,c,d, Coughs, fever,infections, menstrual paine,d, heart,backache, kidneysb, stomachacheand used as a circumcision wounddressing, and as a blood purifier forboilsc

Eriocephalus paniculatus (Cass.)(wilde roosmaryn, wild rosemary)(Ind.)

Heart A leaf infusion is made and drunk asa tea

Diaphoretic, diureticb,d E.umbellatus was used by early Capesettlers and the Khoi to treat dropsy,stomachache and heart troubleb

Has been claimed to be able to treatheart disease and heart failured Alsoused in cooking

Vernonia spp. (groenamara) (Ind)) Stomach ailments, diabetes, andworms

A tea is made using a small handfulof leaves infused in boiling water forthese complaints

V. oligocephala used to treat stomachdisordersb,a,c,d, rheumatism,dysentery, diabetesb,d and ulcerativecolitisd OtherVernonia species usedto treat fevers, urinary tract diseases,backbone pain and chronic coughsand to get rid of head licec

Can act as a substitute forA. afra incases where it is used to treat thesame ailment

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Table 1 (Continued)

Family plant species (Common name) Use/condition treated Method of preparation and use Uses in the literature Other information

CrassulaceaeCotyledon orbiculataL. (kouterie, plakkie) (Ind)

Corns and sores The leaf sap is smeared on corns orthe fleshy inside of the leaf bound tothe corn to soften it so it can beremoved. Sap is applied to sores

Corns, wartse, earacheb,e,d,toothache, vermifugee,d, boils andepilepsyb,g venereal diseaseb,a,c,sprains and fracturesa

EuphorbiaceaeRicinus communis L.(olieblare, kastorolie boom) (I)

Inflammation and rheumatism Leaves are bound to affected area Stomach ache, wounds, sores,boilsb,a,c,d; epilepsyg, headacheb

Leaves not taken internally

FabaceaeSutherlandia frutescens(L.) R. Br. (keurtjies, kankerbossie)(Ind.)

Back pain, bladder and kidneys,cancer, colds, influenza, liver,diabetes, fever and stomachcomplaints

A tea from 3 teaspoons/small handfulof fresh or dried leaves and stemsinfused in 1 L boiling water is madeand±25 ml taken morning andevening for all listed complaints

Coughb,washing wounds, feverse,f ,chicken pox, cancer, eye troublee,Old Cape remedy for stomachtrouble and internal cancersb,d, poorappetite, indigestion, peptic ulcer,colds, urinary tract infections areamong the many uses for this widelyused plante,d,f

Not recommended for pregnantwomen, need to wait overnight atleast for the tea to take effect. Toostrong an infusion will causevomiting

GentianaceaeChironia baccifera L.(aambeibossie) Herbarium specimenno. (TSAT 012) (Ind.)

Stiff muscles An infusion of the leaves and stemsis made and applied to the affectedarea symptomatically

Boils, hemorrhoidsb,e,d, bloodpurifier, acne, sores, diarrheab,d andleprosyd

GeraniaceaePelargonium species(malva) (I)

Earache, toothache and pain Leaves are scrunched up and placedin ear to treat earache or rubbedagainst sore tooth. Leaves placed onsore area on skin and held in place toalleviate pain

Diarrhea, dysenteryb,e,d,bronchitisa,d, feversa coughsd, P.betulinum used to heal wounds andtreat stomachache

HyacinthaceaeDrimia species(gifbol) (Ind.)

Wounds and sores Peel off the bulb scales and place onsores to draw out infection

Drimia species used to treat stabbingchest pains, stomach ailments, highblood pressure (D. elata)c andfeverish colds (D. robusta)c

Good for slow healing sores

LamiaceaeMentha longifolia L.(kruisement) (N)

Arthritis, backache, bladder andkidneys, liver, colds, influenza,coughs, fever, headache and stomachtrouble

A handful of fresh leaves made into atea and drunk as needed for adjacentcomplaints

Diaphoretic, antispasmodicb,e,d,flatulent colic, hysteriae,d, coughs,colds, respiratory problemsb,a,d andwoundsd

Boiling the leaves with sugar inwater makes an excellent syrup forwhooping cough

Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br.(klipdagga, wilde dagga) (Ind.)

Arthritis, backache, bladder andkidney disorders, cancer, colds,influenza, diabetes, headache, heart,rheumatism, high blood pressure andstomach

A tea is made from a handful or astems worth of leaves and flowerssteeped in boiling water and left todraw in a glass bottle.±25 ml isdrunk morning and night for theadjacent complaints

Coughs, colds, chest problems, piles,boilse,d, high blood pressured,headachea,c,d, asthma snakebiteb,a,d,epilepsy, emmenagogue, purgative,TB and insect bitesb include some ofthe many uses of this plant

Not recommended for pregnantwomen. Tea should made daily andnot be kept. Can use the leaves freshor dried

Ballota africana (L.) Benth.(kattekruid) (Ind.)

Stomach trouble, colds and livercomplaints

A tea is made using 1 teaspoon ofherbs in a cup of water for stomachtrouble and for the liver. A syrup canbe made with boiling water and sugarfor colds

Measlesd, colds, influenza, asthma,bronchitis, heart, hysteria, fever,insomnia, typhoid feverb,d,headaches, liver problems andarthritisf and snakebiteb

Salvia africana-lutea (L.) (wildesalie) (Ind.)

Cough, sinuses and chest complaints A tea is made from a small handfulof leaves to relieve complaints

Coughs, colds, diaphoretic andfemale ailmentsb

Often substituted with householdsage

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MelianthaceaeMelianthus comosusVahl. (kruidjie roer my nie) (Ind.)

Wounds and sores A large handful or bunch of the plantleaves is placed in a bucket of boilingwater to draw. This is then used towash wounds and sores

2 speciesM. comosus andM. majorused to treat wounds, soresb,e,a,c,d,bruises, backache andrheumatismb,e,d snakebiteb,a,c,d,sprains and fracturesa. Other usesinclude root infusions for cancer andleaf decoctions for ringwormd

Useful for sores on livestock as wellas people. Plant is toxic and shouldnot be taken internally

MesembryanthemaceaeCarpobrotusspp. (suurvy, vygies) 3 species foundin the area:C. edulis (L.) L. Bolus C.acinaciformis (L.) L. Bol. C. murii(L. Bol.) L. Bol. (endemic) (Ind.)

Stomach trouble, sunburn, mouthulcers, sore throat, tuberculosis andthrush

Juice squeezed from leaves can betaken either alone or with milk toease stomach trouble. Sap applieddirectly to sunburn thrush and mouthulcers. Used to treat sore throats andTB by chewing the leaves andswallowing the juice but spitting outthe skin and residual tissue

Mouth and throat infections usingjuice as a gargleb,e,d, Juiceswallowed to treat dysenteryb,e,d;digestive troubleb,a,d; TB and as adiureticb,d. Used externally for skincomplaints and burns andwoundsb,e,f . C. edulis has also beensaid to be effective in treatingtoothache, earache, oral and vaginalthrushd

MyrtaceaeEucalyptus spp. (outydsebloukombossie) (I)

Chest complaints and cough Leaves are scrunched up into a bowland covered in boiling water and thefumes inhaled

Leaves and oil used as decongestantsin cases of chest colds andinfluenzab,f . Also used to treatfeversa, dysentery and as a wash forpimples or acnee

Insect repellentb

RutaceaeAgathosma betulina (Berg.)Pillans (buchu) (Ind.)

Sprains, pain, arthritis, bladder andkidney ailments, backpain, stomachpain, fever and prevention of cancer

For sprains and pains (includingarthritic pain) place dried leaves on acloth and sprinkle with brandy orvinegar and wrap cloth aroundaffected area to relieve the pain. Atea made from 1 handful of freshleaves (from veld if possible) inboiling water (±1 L) and left to standis used to treat bladder and kidneytrouble,and stomach pain. A smallcup should be drunk 3 times daily.

A very popular plant used since 17thand 18th centuries in the Cape totreat numerous complaints such asstomach, kidney and bladderailments, urinary tract infections,diuretic, rheumatism, wounds,bruisesb,e,d,f

Ruta graveolens L. (wynruit, rue) (I) Bladder and kidneys, convulsions,diabetes, fever, headache, stomachcomplaints, worms and sinus

A tea is made from the leaves (1teaspoon in a cup of boiling water) totreat adjacent complaints

Used to treat fever, convulsionsb,g,d,fits (epilepsy and hysteriag),respiratory and heart problemsb,d,toothache, earache and to easechildbirthb,g,d

SapindaceaeDodonaea angustifoliaL.f. (ysterhouttoppe) Herbariumspecimen no. (TSAT 014) (Ind.)

Arthritis, bladder and kidneyailments, colds, influenza,convulsions, fever, inflammation,rheumatism, stomach complaints

The leaf tops (±3 teaspoons in 1Lboiling water) are made into a tea andsmall amount taken 3 times daily totreat listed problems

Fever, colds, influenza, stomachailments, sore throatb,d, pneumonia,arthritis, measles, TB and skinrashesd

Leaves can be used dried or fresh butif the dried leaves are a grey colourthen should not be used. Fresh leavesare preferable

268 T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275

Tabl

e1

(Con

tinu

ed)

Fam

ilypl

ants

peci

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and this is in agreement with the uses for this popular plant inthe Bredasdorp/Elim area where these uses are also recorded forthis plant.Leonotis leonurus is a plant that features frequently inthe literature and many uses have been recorded. In Zulu, Xhosaand Sotho medicine it was found to be used to treat gastrointesti-nal and respiratory disorders, headaches, fevers and snakebite(Hutchings, 1989). Common uses for this plant in this study areheadaches, respiratory problems and stomach ailments. So, thereare common threads between this survey and those results in theliterature, which suggests that studies like this are importantwhen it comes to choosing a plant species to test in a particularbioassay. If a plant has been reported in many surveys around thecountry and even in other countries to be used for the treatmentof a common ailment then this plant may be a new source ofmedication for this ailment in the future. Some uses have beenrecorded in this study that have not been found in the literaturereviewed such as forConyza scabrida. Although not indigenousto South Africa, it is an African plant, which has become natural-ized in South Africa. It has a wide distribution and it is surprisingthat Conyza scabrida is not more widely used. In this survey,uses, such as for fever, diabetes, rheumatism and inflammation,have been recorded as well as those mentioned in the literature:influenza, heart afflictions (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)and respiratory or chest problems (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,1962; Smith, 1966; Hutchings, 1989; Hutchings et al., 1996).Perhaps this plant is one that should be investigated further.H atingd ecteda k( ct oni t duet edt has-t ,1o nfor-m

3

s tp ues-t ionedb iningp theo ci-p le thatw theirp rces.A ep-t ostp

ata om-m atedc etes,

owever, many bitter tasting herbs appear to be good for treiabetes. Placing leaves and alcohol in a poultice on the affrea often cures inflammation andWatt and Breyer-Brandwij1962)suggests that any plant might have the same effenflammation so the relief may not be due to the plant but juso the poultice process.Conyza scabrida has also been reporto be good for convulsions, stomach and pleuritic pains, toen the placenta during childbirth (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk962) and for sprains and fractures (Hutchings, 1989) but nonef these uses were mentioned in the study by any of the iants.

.2. Outcomes from the semi-structured questionnaires

The 16 most popular plants can be seen inFig. 2. This graphhows thatArtemisia afra andRuta graveolens are the two mosopular plants used by the people who participated in this q

ionnaire. However, these are the two plants that were menty every person interviewed in the study, and the remalants (Fig. 2) also had a higher mention of use than any ofther plants inTable 1. Here, 15 individuals agreed to partiate by completing the questionnaire but these were peopere deemed the most knowledgeable on this matter byeers and so the information acquired is from reliable soull the plants in this graph are widely available with the exc

ion of Gethyllis, which perhaps explains why these are the mopular, and most often used plants.

In Fig. 3, Artemisia afra andRuta graveolens are seen to trewide variety of conditions. It shows which plants are recended to treat the specific conditions. The most widely tre

onditions are arthritis, bladder and kidney trouble, diab

T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275 269

Fig. 2. Total ranking value for each plant as ranked by order of importance by each informant.

fever, and stomach trouble. These conditions would thereforehave a wide variety of plants to treat them with. The relationshipbetween the total number of conditions/uses (arthritis, backpain,bladder and kidneys, etc.) and total number of responses varyin the 16 most widely used species (Fig. 4). Fig. 5 shows thecalculated use-values generated from the data inFigs. 3 and 4,and shows which plants have the widest range of uses in thestudy. The two plants with the highest use-values areArtemisiaafra andRuta graveolens, corresponding to the two most popu-lar plants inFigs. 3 and 4. However, the ranking values and theuse-values often do not correlate with each other such as in thecase ofMelianthus comosus (ranking value of 7th place,Fig. 2,

and use-value 0.6,Fig. 5), andLeonotis leonurus (ranked 9th,Fig. 2 with use-value 1.5,Fig. 5). This is becauseMelianthuscomosus is only used externally, and therefore only in the treat-ment of wounds and sores, whereasLeonotis leonurus is usedfor many ailments and so will have a higher use-value becauseit can be taken internally. A plant, such asMelianthus como-sus was recommended by most people interviewed to treatwounds and sores, whereas not everyone necessarily recom-mended plants, such asElytropappus rhinocerotis, Petrosele-nium crispum andFoeniculum vulgare to treat the same things,and therefore this will affect the use-value. The use-value istherefore dependent not only on how many uses a particular

bes

270 T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275

Fig. 4. Number of ethnomedicinal uses and responses per plant.

plant has, but also on how many people use it for that particularcomplaint.

Many of the same genera around the world are also usedin traditional medicine:Artemisia absinthium is widely usedin Europe as an appetite stimulant and to treat dyspepsia andgastritis (Van Wyk and Wink, 2004). Artemisia annua is used inChinese medicine for a wide variety of ailments, such as an anti-malarial, a tonic, febrifuge and antibiotic (Van Wyk and Wink,2004). Conyza sumatrensis is used in Uganda to treat boils,amoebiosis, fungal infections and insanity (Tabuti et al., 2003).A differentConyza species (Conyza floribunda) in Ecuador hasbeen found to have significant anti-inflammatory activity, whichjustified its use in traditional medicine (de las Heras et al.,1998). Perhaps this means thatConyza scabrida used in theBredasdorp/Elim area also contains the same anti-inflammatorycompounds, which would justify the relevant uses of this plantby the people. Common household plants like potato garlic,

thyme and onions are widely used due to the accessibility ofthe plants. These are also popular plants used in medicines inplaces such as England (Brown, 2002). Onions are also usedin Uganda, but to treat diphtheria and snakebite (Tabuti et al.,2003). Onions have antibiotic and cholesterol lowering activityand are used to treat a wide range of ailments, such as preven-tion of arteriosclerosis, coughs, colds and dysentery (Van Wykand Wink, 2004), and therefore can present a cheaper alternativeto a visit to a doctor. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) has antibiotic,expectorant and spasmolytic properties (Brown, 2002; Van Wykand Wink, 2004), which justify its use in treating colds andcoughs.

3.3. Other outcomes of the survey

Eighty percent (35 participants) feel that knowledge has beenlost because they remember their grandparents and parents using

alues

T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275 271

certain plants but cannot remember either the plant name or itsuse and now wish it had been recorded. This is one of the rea-sons these individuals wanted to help this study; they felt thattheir knowledge is important and should be remembered. Sev-enty percent (31 participants) get their plant material from plantsin their own gardens or along the verges of the main roads. Someplants are difficult to obtain, such asAgathosma betulina, whichdoes not grow in the area. This plant is bought in the supermarket(if available) when it is needed or obtained from acquaintancesliving in areas where the plant grows naturally.Gethyllis spp.are very difficult to find and are very rare. Many of the peo-ple interviewed know a farmer who grows these plants on hisfarm and obtain his permission to collect the material when theyneed it. The seed pods are usually placed in brandy and canbe kept for a long time. The informants generally dry the plantmaterial and store it in brown paper bags or in glass bottles, orplace the material in alcohol. Plants should be collected aroundAugust and September after the rains and before flowering; thisis when they are said to be at their best. All the people inter-viewed learned their knowledge of self-care using plants fromtheir parents and/or grandparents and say they would not use theplants if they did not feel relief for the symptoms treated. Most ofthe information gathered was from women as has been found insimilar studies looking at self-care using plant medicines (Gedifand Hahn, 2003; Hernandez et al., 2003) and all the informantswere elderly people as was also found byMalamas and Marselos(

form ctiva ne ot rioui ch it n hat s), bc d soa ndef mfulb s cam ethoo of at holed ed inb

ciesu auso uldp f thie ollec

tion pressure since they may be substituted with other speciesof their respective genera. The species ofGethyllis andDrimiaused may also be endemic to the area; however, as mentioned,they are hard to find and the former can be kept for a long timein brandy. The latter is not the only plant that can be used forsores and boils and so these plants are not under any collec-tion pressure from the people interviewed. Twelve out of the36 species in use (33%) are species that have been introducedinto South Africa. This perhaps has its advantages from a con-servation point of view because although the indigenous florais under threat from increasing agriculture and habitat destruc-tion, it is at least not under threat from being over-collectedas well. It is a concern that past knowledge of local plantspecies has been forgotten in favour of the uses of the introducedplants.

These results show that many plants are still in use by mainlyelderly women for medicinal purposes, although much of thisknowledge has already been lost. Only 58% of the plants in useare indigenous to South Africa, 8.3% are naturalized Africanspecies and 33% are introduced species. It is surprising that nomore of the indigenous flora is used for medicinal purposes con-sidering the large floral diversity in the area. It is possible thatmore indigenous species were used earlier, but through selec-tion, fewer species including introduced species have come intouse due to their efficacy and easy accessibility. The main fami-lies represented were the Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Alliaceae andS ae andS num-b utieo era-t ncerb tw t anda andat stedb . Thiss rce ofd ell asn tion.E typeo

A

reaf blei

1992).Many of the people interviewed do visit the local clinic

edication as sometimes they feel the medicine is more effend that it works faster than some of the plant medicines. No

hese people know of any nasty side effects by using the vanfusions and treatments except that sometimes if too muaken then the stomach may be affected. Children are givehe adult dosage (all dosages in the table are adult dosagehildren generally do not like the bitter tasting plants anre taken to the doctor. The plants are not really recomme

or pregnant women, not only because they may prove harut also mostly because the bitter tastes of the medicineake the woman feel nauseous. The most widely used mf administration of these plant medicines is in the form

ea. The tea is generally made with a handful of fresh or wried material or 1–2 teaspoons of powdered material infusoiling water (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000).

It was interesting that only 21 out of the 36 plant spesed are indigenous to South Africa. This is surprising becf the large floral diversity in the study area and one woerhaps expect more fynbos species to be in use. Out o

ndigenous plants,Bulbine lagopus andCarpobrotus murii arendemic to the area, but do not appear to be under any c

efsslfut

d,nd

e

e

-

olanaceae. Families such as the Asteraceae, Lamiaceolanaceae are often well represented in terms of speciesers in other surveys (Leporatti and Ivancheva, 2003; Tabt al., 2003). The popular South African medicinal plantAgath-sma betulina was found to share uses reported in the liture, but was also said to be good for the prevention of cay several people in the study area.Artemisia afra, the mosidely used plant, has been found to contain decongestanntibacterial volatile oils as well as possessing analgesicntihistamine properties (Van Wyk et al., 1997). This justifies

he use of the plant for treating many of the conditions liy the informants, such as colds, influenza and headacheuggests that ethnobotanical surveys can be a reliable souiscovering (and perhaps even re-discovering) plants, as wew uses of these plants, which deserve further investigathnobotanical studies can also be useful in preserving thisf knowledge for future generations.

cknowledgements

We would like to thank the kind people of the study aor all of their time, kindness and for imparting their valuanformation, which of course, made this study possible.

272 T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275

Appendix A

A.1. Preliminary questionnaire

T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275 273

Appendix B

B.1. Semi-structured questionnaire

274 T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275

T.S.A. Thring, F.M. Weitz / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 (2006) 261–275 275

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