Technical Series Paper #71-01 Measuring intelligence and Achievement Motivation in Surveys Joseph Veroff, Lou McClelland, and Kent Marquis Survey Research Center- Institute for Social Research University of Michigan October, 1971 The analysis in this manuscript helped inform the choice of measures of intelligence and achievement motivation used in the PSID. A full list of the measures of psychological state collected in the PSID is available here This project was supported by funding from the National Science Foundation (SES 8521507).
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Technical Series Paper #71-01
Measuring intelligence and Achievement
Motivation in Surveys
Joseph Veroff, Lou McClelland, and Kent Marquis Survey Research Center- Institute for Social Research
University of Michigan
October, 1971
The analysis in this manuscript helped inform the choice of measures of intelligence and achievement motivation used in the PSID. A full list of the measures of
psychological state collected in the PSID is available here
This project was supported by funding from the National Science Foundation (SES 8521507).
U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h , E d u c a t i o n and W e l f a r e
O f f i c e o f E c o n o m i c O p p o r t u n i t y
C o n t r a c t No. OEO-4180
MEASURING INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION IN SURVEYS
J o s e p h V e r p f f , Lou M c C l e l l a n d ,
and K e n t M a r q u i s
S u r v e y R e s e a r c h C e n t e r
I n s t i t u t e f o r S o c i a l R e s e a r c h
U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n
Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n
O c t o b e r 1971
The r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d h e r e i n was p e r f o r m e d p u r s u a n t t o a c o n t r a c t w i t h
t h e O f f i c e o f Economic O p p o r t u n i t y , E x e c u t i v e O f f i c e o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ,
W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. 20506. The o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d h e r e i n a r e t h o s e o f t h e
a u t h o r s and s h o u l d n o t be c o n s t r u e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e o p i n i o n s o r
p o l i c y o f any agency o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Government.
J&JL BP
. A C
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Otrp a—
SECTION I
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF TABLES
L I S T OF FIGURES
I . INTRODUCTION I
The P r o b l e m 1
P l a n o f t h i s Monograph 4
I I . BACKGROUND TO THE DETROIT STUDY 6
The J a c k s o n I S t u d y 6'
The J a c k s o n I I S t u d y 8
M e a s u r i n g M o t i v a t i o n 8
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Q u e s t i o n n a i r e M e a s u r e s o f M o t i v a t i o n t o B e h a v i o r a l M e a s u r e s . 13
M e a s u r i n g I n t e l l i g e n c e 14
Where We S t o o d P r i o r t o the D e t r o i t S u r v e y 22
The D e t r o i t S u r v e y : O v e r a l l P r o c e d u r e 23
The Sample 24
M e a s u r e s 24
I I I . VALIDATING MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE 26
M e a s u r e s 26
A n a l y s i s 28
t I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f M e a s u r e s o f I n t e l l i g e n c e 29
C o r r e l a t i o n s o f I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s w i t h E d u c a t i o n . . 38
C o r r e l a t i n g t h e S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t w i t h o t h e r
T e s t s , P a r t i a l i n g Out D e m o g r a p h i c C o r r e l a t e s 40
A M e a s u r e o f I n t e l l i g e n c e t o be Used i n S u r v e y s :
t h e S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t 41
Use o f t h e T e s t 45
IV. METHODS OF ASSESSING ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION IN A
SURVEY: THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS AND DESIGN OF STUDY . . 48
P l a n o f t h e I n t e r v i e w .- 53
P r a c t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s 56
P l a n o f A n a l y s i s 58
V. METHODS OF ASSESSING ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION IN A
SURVEY: ANALYSIS OF DATA 59
C r i t e r i a D e v e l o p m e n t 59
P r o j e c t i v e C r i t e r i o n 59
R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i o n 63
Component D e v e l o p m e n t 7t
A P r i o r i Component M e a s u r e s 71
E m p i r i c a l l y - D e r i v e d Component M e a s u r e s 71
T e s t i n g the S c a l e s 83
A P r i o r i S c a l e s S\
E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s H'i
W h i t e m a l e s 89
B l a c k m a l e s 89
W h i t e f e m a l e s 92
B l a c k f e m a l e s ' 94
E m p i r i c a l and A P r i o r i S c a l e s Compared: A Summary 94
I n c r e a s i n g t h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e A P r i o r i
S c a l e s 96
A new t e s t a n x i e t y s c a l e 96
New s c a l e f o r a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n . . . 98
A R e s u l t a n t A c h i e v e m e n t O r i e n t a t i o n S c a l e 98
Summary 104
BIBLIOGRAPHY - • • 108
SECTION I I
APPENDIX 1:
APPENDIX 2:
SECTION I I I
APPENDIX 3:
APPENDIX A:
APPENDIX 5:
APPENDIX 6:
THE INTERVIEW
MEASURES
FACTOR ANALYSIS OF MEASURES OF ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION
RESULTS OF THE INTERVIEWER-RESPONDENT RACE
EXPERIMENT
TWO METHODOLOGICAL STUDIES
SOME PROVOCATIVE RESULTS WITH THE PICTURE ORDER
INCIDENTAL TEST
ABSTRACT
T h i s r e p o r t s u m m a r i z e s a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s and a n a l y s e s c a r r i e d
o u t t o d e v e l o p b r i e f measures o f a s s e s s i n g i n t e 1 1 i g e n c e and ach i e v e m e n t
m o t i v a t i o n t h a t w o u l d be f e a s i b l e i n a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l sample and
r e l i a b l y r e f l e c t what has been s t a n d a r d l y a s s e s s e d i n t h e s e domains by
p a s t r e s e a r c h e r s . One measure o f i n t e l l i g e n c e s t o o d o u t above o t h e r s i n
m e e t i n g o u r c r i t e r i a . I t i s a 1 3 - i t e m t e s t o f s e n t e n c e c o m p l e t i o n s k i l l .
I t c o r r e l a t e s e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h o t h e r measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and w i t h
s t a t u s and a c h i e v e m e n t v a r i a b l e s i n a m e a n i n g f u l way. A q u e s t i o n n a i r e
measure o f ach i e v e m e n t mot i v a t i o n emerges as a p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l measure
i n most g r o u p s e x c e p t b l a c k f e m a l e s , one t h a t c o r r e l a t e s mode r a t e l y wel1
w i t h b o t h a p r o j e c t i v e measure o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n and a b e h a v i o r a l
a s s e s s m e n t o f moderate r i s k - t a k i n g i n most g r o u p s , e x c e p t the b l a c k
f e m a l e g r o u p . B o t h the i n t e l l i g e n c e and the m o t i v a t i o n measures s u g g e s t e d
a r e i n d e p e n d e n t l y e f f e c t i v e i n p r e d i c t i n g the e d u c a t i o n a t t a i n e d by b l a c k
m a l e s and w h i t e f e m a l e s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r s t a t u s b a c k g r o u n d s . O n l y
the i n t e l l i g e n c e measure i s an i n d e p e n d e n t p r e d i c t o r o f e d u c a t i o n .
a t t a i n m e n t i n w h i t e m a l e s and b l a c k f e m a l e s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r s t n t u s
b a c k g r o u n d s .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The impe t u s f o r L he rc s e a r c h r e p o r t e d i n t h i s monograph came
f r o m James Morgan, James S m i t h , and the l a t e J o h n L a n s i n g , who were
i n t e r e s t e d i n the r e s u l t s o f o u r work f o r t h e i r l a r g e r p r o j e c t aimed
a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d y n a m i c s o f c h a n g e s i n p o v e r t y s t a t u s . They
h e l p e d t o s t r u c t u r e the p r o b l e m c l e a r l y and y e t g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t e d
o u r d e s i r e s t o e x t e n d the r e s e a r c h beyond t h e i r pragmat i c g o a l s .
A number o f p e o p l e s e r v e d as a c t i v e r e s e a r c h e r s a t d i f f e r e n t
s t a g e s o f o u r work. J o h n A t k i n s o n , C h a r l e s C a n n e l l , G r a c e Mack, and
D a v i d R u h l a n d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n o u r i n i t i a l s t u d i e s , what m i g h t be
v i e w e d as p r e t e s t s t o the m a j o r s t u d y d e s c r i b e d i n our monograph.
Andrew B u s t i n , A t e l e b a C r e s p i , and M i c h a e l S t i n s o n s e r v e d as r e s e a r c h
a s s i s t a n t s d u r i n g v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f t h e m a j o r s t u d y . Most i m p o r t a n t ,
however, was the a s s i s t a n c e o f R o b e r t Hubbard a t a l l s t a g e s o f t h i s
work. H i s l a b o r s and w i s e c o u n s e l a r e d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
J o h n Hagen and G e r a l d G u r i n o f f e r e d v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t i o n s a t
one t ime o r a n o t h e r . A number o f p e o p l e h e l p e d i n d a t a a n a l y s i s :
M a r g i e K i n g , S h e r r y L u c a s , D i a n e S c h o e f f , and L i n d a W i n t e r . We w o u l d
a l s o 1 i k e t o a c k n o w l e d g e the p l e a s u r e o f t h e i r company. Our t y p i s t s ,
R o b e r t a P e t e r s e n and M a r i o n W i r i c k a r e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y competent a t
r e a d i n g h i e r o g l y p h i c s .
L I S T OF TABLES
Number T i t l e Page
2.1 D i f f e r e n t Types o f Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Items f o r M e a s u r i n g
Components o f A c h i e v e m e n t M o t i v a t i o n , w i t h E x a m p l e s . . . 9-10
2.2 B e h a v i o r a l M e a s u r e s o f M o t i v a t i o n u s e d i n t h e J a c k s o n I I
S t u d y • 12
2.3 C o r r e l a t i o n s (Tau B e t a ) o f D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n T e s t
w i t h C l o z e and Maze T e s t s by R e s p o n d e n t D e m o g r a p h i c G r o u p 17
2.4 C o r r e l a t i o n s (Tau B e t a ) o f S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t
( L o r g e T h o r n d i k e ) w i t h C l o z e and Maze T e s t s by R e s p o n d e n t
Demograph i c Group 18
2.5 C o r r e l a t i o n (Tau B e t a ) Between D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n
T e s t and A l l O t h e r T e s t s 20
2.6 C o r r e l a t i o n (Tau B e t a ) Between S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t
and A l l O t h e r T e s t s 21
3.1 I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s Used i n t h e D e t r o i t S u r v e y 28
3.2 Mean S c o r e s on I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s , f o r E i g h t P o p u l a t i o n
G r o u p s 31
3.3 F. R a t i o s f r o m t h e A n a l y s e s o f V a r i a n c e on E i g h t
I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s : Race o f I n t e r v i e w e r x Race x Sex
o f R e s p o n d e n t 32
3.4 Mean E d u c a t i o n A t t a i n e d , by I n t e r v i e w e r and R e s p o n d e n t
Race 33
3.5 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f I n t e 1 1 i g e n c e M e a s u r e s , by R e s p o n d e n t
Race 35
3.6 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s , by S o c i o -
E c o n o m i c B a c k g r o u n d Groups 37
3.7 C o r r e l a t i o n s o f E d u c a t i o n w i t h I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s . . . 38
3.8 C o r r e l a t i o n s o f E d u c a t i o n w i t h I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s , by
Race and S o c i o - E c o n o m i c B a c k g r o u n d G r o u p s 39
3.9 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s , w i t h
E d u c a t i o n , Age, R a c e , Sex, I n t e r v i e w e r Race, and R e g i o n
P a r t i a l e d Out 41
Number T I L I c
3.10 S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t 42-44
5.1 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f P r o j e c t i v e A s s e s s m e n t s o f Ach ievemen t
M o t i v a t i o n , by Sex 60
5.2 A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e o f A c h i e v e m e n t Imagery on P I , P2,
and P4, w i t h L e n g t h o f Response as C o v a r i a t e ; Race o f
R e s p o n d e n t x Race o f I n t e r v i e w e r x Sex 61
5.3 R e g r e s s i o n on A c h i e v e m e n t Imagery on P1+P2+P4, Race o f
I n t e r v i e w e r and L e n g t h o f Response as P r e d i c t o r s 62
5.4 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f B e h a v i o r a l R i s k - T a k i n g M e a s u r e s , by
Sex 6^
5.5 P e r c e n t o f R e s p o n d e n t s C h o o s i n g A l l " V e r y D i f f i c u l , t , l )
C h o i c e s , by Sex and I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s 66
5.6 C o r r e l a t i o n between I.Q. ( S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t ) and
Mean D i f f i c u l t y o f C h o i c e , by Sex and Race Groups , . . . 67
5.7 A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e o f Mean D i f f i c u l t y i n R i s k
P r e f e r e n c e , w i t h I.Q. as C o v a r i a t e Race o f R e s p o n d e n t x
Race o f I n t e r v i e w e r x Sex 68
5.8 R e g r e s s i o n on Mean D i f f i c u l t y o f C h o i c e , I n t e r v i e w e r Race
and I.Q. as P r e d i c t o r s 69
5.9 R e l a t i o n o f R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i o n , C o r r e c t e d R i s k D i f f i c u l t y , and U n c o r r e c t e d R i s k C h o i c e S c a l e s 70
5.10 A P r i o r i A c h i e v e m e n t M o t i v a t i o n S c a l e s 72
5.11 P a s t T e s t A n x i e t y S c a l e 74
5.12 P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y S c a l e 75
5.13 C o e f f i c i e n t s o f I n t e r n a l C o n s i s t e n c y ) f o r t h e
A P r i o r i S c a l e s 76
5.14 Items Used i n F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , w i t h A b b r e v i a t i o n s . . . . 77
5.15 E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s R e s u l t i n g f r o m F a c t o r A n a l y s e s , W h i t e
M a l e s 84
Number T i t 1v
5.16 E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s R e s u l t i n g from F a c t o r A n a l y s e s , B l a c k
M a l e s 85
5.17 E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s R e s u l t i n g f r o m F a c t o r A n a l y s e s , W h i t e
F e m a l e s S6
5.18 E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s R e s u l t i n g f r o m F a c t o r A n a l y s e s , B l a c k
F e m a l e s 87
5.19 C o r r e l a t i o n s o f E m p i r i c a l and A P r i o r i S c a l e s w i t h R i s k -
T a k i n g and P r o j e c t i v e C r i t e r i a , by R a c e - S e x G r o u p s . . . . 88
5.20 Items w i t h L o a d i n g s o f .40 o r O v e r on E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s
E f f e c t i v e f o r W h i t e M a l e s 90
5.21 Items w i t h L o a d i n g s o f .40 o r Over on E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s
E f f e c t i v e f o r B l a c k M a l e s 91
5.22 Items w i t h L o a d i n g s o f .40 o r O v e r on E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s
E f f e c t i v e f o r W h i t e F e m a l e s 93
5.23 Items w i t h L o a d i n g s o f .40 o r Over on E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s
E f f e c t i v e f o r B l a c k F e m a l e s 95
5.24 R e v i s e d A n x i e t y S c a l e w i t h A l p h a C o e f f i c i e n t s and
C o r r e l a t i o n s t o C r i t e r i a i n F o u r Race-Sex Groups 97
5.25 C o r r e l a t i o n s o f I t e m - t o - C r i t e r i a f o r Items i n T h r e e
A P r i o r i S c a l e s , by Race-Sex Group 99
5.26 A c h i e v e m e n t O r i e n t a t i o n S c a l e 1OO
5.27 A c h i e v e m e n t O r i e n t a t i o n S c a l e : Means, S i g m a s , A l p h a s and
C o r r e l a t i o n s t o C r i t e r i a i n F o u r Race-Sex G r o u p s 100
5.28 R e s u l t a n t A c h i e v e m e n t O r i e n t a t i o n S c a l e : A l p h a C o e f f i c i e n t s
and C o r r e l a t i o n s t o C r i t e r i a i n F o u r Race-Sex Groups . . . 101
5.29 C o r r e l a t i o n s o f R e s u l t a n t A c h i e v e m e n t O r i e n t a t i o n t o
S e l e c t e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R e s p o n d e n t s (by Sex-Race
G r o u p ) 101
5.30 C o r r e l a t i o n o f E d u c a t i o n t o P r o j e c t i v e and R i s k - T a k i n g
C r i t e r i a (by Sex-Race G r o u p s ) 103
Number T i L 1 o
5.31 C o r r e l a t i o n s o f R e s u l t a n t A c h i e v e m e n t O r i e n t a t i o n (A) t o t h e P r o j e c t i v e and R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i a ( C ) , P a r t i a l l i n g o u t the E f f e c t s o f E d u c a t i o n (E) i n D i f f e r e n t Sex-Race G r o u p i n g s 103
5.32 R e g r e s s i o n on E d u c a t i o n w i t h I n t e l l i g e n c e (SCT) and
R e s u l t a n t A c h i e v e m e n t O r i e n t a t i o n as P r e d i c t o r s a l o n g w i t h
S t a t u s B a c k g r o u n d and Age (By Sex x Race G r o u p s ) 105
i
L I S T OF FIGURES
Number T i t l e Page
3.1 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e S c o r e s O b t a i n e d on t h e S e n t e n c e
C o m p l e t i o n T e s t 46
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
I n e a r l y 1971, 365 D e t r o i t e r s t o o k p a r t i n a h o u s e h o l d s u r v e y t h a t
a t t e m p t e d t o a s s e s s i n t e l l e c t u a l cgmpetence and a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n .
The m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h i s monograph r e p r e s e n t s a r e v i e w o f t h a t s u r v e y --
iiow i t came i n t o b e i n g , i t s p r o c e d u r e s , m a j o r r e s u l t s , and i m p l i c a t i o n s .
From our way o f t h i n k i n g , t h i s s t u d y i s more t h a n a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i -
but i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e methods o f a s s e s s i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e
and m o t i v a t i o n i n a s u r v e y s e t t i n g ; i t a l s o c o n t a i n s some s p e c i a l a d v a n c e s
i n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the n a t u r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and m o t i v a t i o n .
A l t h o u g h t h e r e s e a r c h was c o n t r a c t e d o n l y t o answer p r a g m a t i c a s s e s s m e n t
q u e s t i o n s , we t h i n k we have some new c o n c e p t u a l i n s i g h t s a b o u t A m e r i c a n
s o c i a l phenomena. T h e r e f o r e , t h i s r e p o r t w i l l p o i n t t o the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l ,
c o n c e p t u a l , and s o c i a 1 c o n e l u s i o n s t h a t s t e m f r o m t h e D e t r o i t s u r v e y .
The P r o b l e m
The i m p e t u s f o r t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s came f r o m Morgan and Snii th's
l o n g term and c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t i n u s i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s ;is
e x p l a n a t o r y v a r i a b l e s i n c o n s i d e r i n g euonomic b e h a v i o r (Morgan and S m i t h ,
1970). V a r i a b l e s s u c h as the ones we a r e e x p l o r i n g i n t h i s r e p o r t
i n t e l l i g e n c e and m o t i v a t i o n c a n be v i e w e d i n two ways. They can l e n d
new p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s o u r c e s o f e c o n o m i c b e h a v i o r s s i n c e
t h e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f the s o c i o - e c o n o m i c v a r i a b l e s u s u a l l y
e m p l o y e d i n macro-sociological analyses. Or t h e y can be t h o u g h t o f as
i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s l i n k i n g t h e m a c r o - s o c i o l o g i c a 1 v a r i a b l e s w i t h
e c o n o m i c b e h a v i o r a l v a r i a b l e s . Such i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s l e n d a r i c h e r
p i c t u r e t o t h e e x p l a n a t o r y n e t w o r k b u t do not have an i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t u s
as p r e d i c t o r s . I n e i t h e r c a s e , i n s i g h t s a b o u t t h e s e p s y c h o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e s
c a n a i d i n c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g what e f f e c t s v a r i o u s p r o g r a m s of: p l a n n e d e c o n o m i c
change m i g h t have. I n t h i s r e p o r t we a r e a s s u m i n g t h a t measures o f
Lnte 11 i g e n c e and m o t i v a t i o n . 1 re e x c i t i n g v a r i a b l e s 1 0 i n c l u d e i n s u r v e y
s t u d i e s and t h a t o u r t a s k i s t o cunie up w i t h the bo s t way t o measu re t lie 111.
The m e t h o d o l o g i c a 1 work we a r e about t o p r e sen t had the p r i n c i p l e aim
o f deve i op i n g va I i d m e a s u r e s o f mtit i va t i o n and i n te l i i g e n c e wh i c h e c u Id be
used i n h o u s e h o l d i n t e r v i e w s and c o u l d meet t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a :
1. Be f e a s i b l e i n a c r o s s - s e c t i o n sample o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s
p o p u l a t i o n ;
2. Be r e l i a b l e and v a l i d f o r m a j o r g r o u p s w i t h i n the p o p u l a t i o n ;
3. Not p r o v o k e h o s t i l i t y o r a n x i e t y ;
4. Be e x t r e m e l y b r i e f ( n o t more t h a n f i v e m i n u t e s even f o r r e s p o n d e n t s
d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r v i e w ) .
These a r e f a i r l y s t r i n g e n t c r i t e r i a f o r s u r v e y methods a p p l i e d t o s u c h
c o m p l i c a t e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e s as m o t i v a t i o n and i n t e l l i g e n c e ; p e r h a p s
t h e most s e v e r e i s the c r i t e r i o n o f v a l i d i t y . As soon as a s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t
a s k s w h e t h e r a measure o f a c o m p l e x p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r a e t e r i s t i c i s v a l i d
n o t o n l y f o r a s p e c i a l g r o u p o f the p o p u l a 11 on bu t f o r a l l ma j o r g r o u p s o f
a p o p u l a t i o n , he i s con f r o n t e d w i t h one o f the most c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k s he
c a n s e t f o r h i m s e l f . I n so d o i n g he c a n f o r e s e e two i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
(1) t h e r e i s some l i k e l i h o o d t h a t no s i n g l e measure o f i n t e l l i g e n c e o r
m o t i v a t i o n c o u l d do the e x p l a n a t o r y j o b ; (2) t h e r e i s no s i n g l e c r i t e r i o n
f o r v a l i d i t y o f a g i v e n measure. T h e s e two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e n o t u n r e l a t e d .
As s o o n as a s c i e n t i s t owns up t o a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f measures f o r a c o n c e p t u a l
a r e a of: i n v e s t i g a t i o n , i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d he i s f a c e d w i t h a s e t o f c r i t e r i a
f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f v a l i d i t y r a t h e r t h a n j u s t a s i n g l e one. L e t us d i s c u s s
t h e p r o b l e m o f m u l t i p l e measurement f i r s t .
From A t k i n s o n 1 s t h e o r y and r e s e a r c h on a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n ( 1 9 6 4 ) ,
we knew t h a t i t w o u l d be f o o l h a r d y t o e x p e c t a s i n g l e measure o f a c h i e v e
ment mot i v a t i o n - a l o n e t o have much p r e d i c t i v e v a l u e . A t k i n s o n ' s work
"We w i L L f o l l o w A t k i n s o n ' s t e r m i n o l o g y , us i n g "mot i v a t i o n " t o re fe r t o the
j o i n t e f f e c t o f v a r i o u s d e t e r m i n a n t s o f b e h a v i o r and " m o t i v e " and " e x p e c t
a n c y " t o r e f e r t o s p e c i f i c components o f ove r - a l 1 mot i v a t i o n . At: t i mes we
w i l l use the term " o r i e n t a t i o n " as a g e n e r i c term f o r v a r i o u s t y p e s oT
components o f m o t i v a t i o n .
3
u s e s a mor i ve f o r s u c c e s s in i nt e f a c I i on w i t h a inoi i ve l o ave i J I a i 1 n r e ,
and a l s o c o n s L d e r s expee t a n c i e s and i n c e n t i ves qu i Le s c p a r a t e 1 y frnni
m o t i v e s . O t h e r a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v e t h e o r i s t s have p o i n t e d t o the i m p o r t -
ance o f s t i l l o t h e r components o f the g e n e r a l m o t i v e ; t h e s e a r e d i s c u s s e d
f u l l y i n C h a p t e r 4. Hence we saw t h a t o u r t a s k m i g h t be t o come up w i t h
n o t a s i n g l e measure o f m o t i v a t i o n , but m u l t i p l e m e a s u r e s . G i v e n t h e
s e v e r e t i m e l i m i t a t i o n f o r a s s e s s m e n t o f m o t i v a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s , o u r t a s k
became e v e n more demanding.
R e c e n t c o n c e r n s a b o u t c u l t u r a l b i a s i n measurement o f i n t e l l i g e n c e
had u n d e r s c o r e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d a l s o be a m u l t i p l e
c r i t e r i o n a p p r o a c h t o t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r i k i n g
t o us was t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g two i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s : one
t h a t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f l e c t s the e f f e c t s o f l e a r n i n g the d o m i n a n t c u l t u r a l
i n t e l l e c t u a l demand -- a v e r b a l m e d i a t i o n a l f a c i l i t y ; and a n o t h e r r e f l e c -
t i n g a l e s s obv i o u s l y c u l t u r a l l y b i a s e d f a c i l i t y -- a p e r c e p t u a l p e r f o r
mance f a c i l i t y . T h i s i s a d i s t i n c t i o n t r a d i t i o n a l l y made, and we t h o u g h t
i t w o r t h k e e p i n g f o r the c o n c e r n s o f OEO. So a g a i n , we t o o k i t as a
c h a l l e n g e t o d e v e l o p a t l e a s t two d i f f e r e n t a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e d u r e s f o r
i n t e l l i g e n c e , w i s h i n g t h a t t h e r e were t i m e i n the p a n e l s t u d y f o r even
more. As we s h a l l s e e , we u l t i m a t e l y f o u n d a s i n g l e measure s u f f i c i e n t
f o r c u r r e n t p u r p o s e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n a n t i c i p a t e d
m u l t i p l e measurement.
How c a n t h e v a l i d i t y o f e a c h o f s e v e r a l m u l t i p l e measures be a s s e s s e d ?
We a p p r o a c h e d t h i s p r o b l e m i n t h r e e ways. F i r s t , we t o o k e x i s t i n g measures
as a n c h o r s , w i t h new measures e v a l u a t e d on t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e s e
a n c h o r s . S e c o n d l y , we s e l e c t e d a p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v i o r and a s k e d i f a new
measure c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h a t b e h a v i o r . F i n a l l y , we used t h e one a p p r o a c h
t o v a l i d i t y t h a t t o d a y has t h e most c u r r e n c y i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e -- c o n s t r u c t
v a l i d a t i o n . I n t h i s a p p r o a c h a measure must be r e l a t e d t o a whole n e t w o r k
o f o t h e r v a r i a b l e s t h a t make some s e n s e i n a t h e o r e t i c a l scheme.
I t was q u i c k l y a p p a r e n t i n a p p r o a c h i n g the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a
t i o n o f m u l t i p l e measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and m o t i v a t i o n t h a t b o t h f i e l d s
4
o f r e s e a r c h have had d i v e r g e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o v a l i d i t y o l" me a s u r e men L .
The measurement o f i n t e 1 1 i g e n c e has r e l i e d on v e r y pragma t i c c r i t e r i a
o f v a l i d i t y -- p a r t i c u l a r l y e d u c a t i o n a l s u c c e s s . The more t h e o r e t i c a l
a p p r o a c h e s t o i n t e l l i g e n c e ( e . g . , P i a g e t ) have i n c l u d e d l i t t l e s y s t e m a t i c
measurement o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . Thus v e r y r e f i n e d measurements
have been u s e d f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e w i t h o u t the k i n d o f t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r
p i n n i n g t h a t c o u l d g u i d e , a s c i e n t i s t who w i s h e d t o a d o p t the s t r a t e g y o f
c o n s t r u c t v a l i d a t i o n i n m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . We c o n t i n u e d t h e
u s u a l t r a d i t i o n o f v a l i d a t i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e measures i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o
s t a n d a r d t e s t s and t o e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t .
By s h a r p c o n t r a s t , t h e r e has been c o n s i d e r a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p
ment i n t h e t h e o r y o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n , b u t l e s s work on t e c h n i q u e s
f o r a s s e s s m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . We t h u s had gu i d e 1 i h e s L - f o r
s t u d y i n g c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y b u t l i t t l e t o t u r n t o i n p r e v i o u s l y r e f i n e d
a s s e s s m e n t s o f m o t i v a t i o n t o a n c h o r o u r work. We t h e r e f o r e used b o t h a
t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d measure o f r i s k - t a k i n g and an e m p i r i c a l l y d e r i v e d
p r o j e c t i v e f a n t a s y measure as c r i t e r i a f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f
m o t i v a t i o n a l m e a s u r e s .
W i t h m u l t i p l e measures and c o m p l e x c r i t e r i a f o r a n a l y z i n g v a l i d i t y ,
we p r o c e e d e d c a u t i o u s l y . T h e r e were no e a s i l y a g r e e d upon g u i d e p o s t s
f o r t r a c k i n g down the v a l i d i t y o f a g i v e n measure. The i n s and o u t s o f
t h e p r o g r e s s we a r e a b o u t t o p r e s e n t by n e c e s s i t y d i d n o t .always f o l l o w
c l e a r p a t h s . We f o u n d t h a t , a l t h o u g h we f o l l o w e d s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g i e s
f o r v a l i d a t i o n , i n t h e c o u r s e o f i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s we came
a c r o s s new f i n d i n g s , new ways o f l o o k i n g a t d a t a t h a t made us p r o c e e d
on a somewhat ad hoc b a s i s . As a r e s u i t any recommendat i o n s f o r . use o f
t e c h n i q u e s i n t h e f u t u r e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d as c a u t i o u s a p p r a i s a l s l a c k i n g
o v e r w h e l m i n g s c i e n t i f i c u n d e r p i n n i n g s .
P l a n o f t h i s Monograph
i
I n p l a n n i n g t h e D e t r o i t s u r v e y we had t o go t h r o u g h a number o f
p r e p a r a t o r y s t e p s : f i r s t , r e v i e w the a v a i l a b l e a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e d u r e s f o r
i n t e l l i g e n c e and m o t i v a t i o n i n o r d e r t o s e l e c t t e c h n i q u e s f e a s i b l e i n a
5
s u r v e y se 11 i n g ; s e c o n d , des i g n s t r a t e g i e s t o e s t a b l i s h t he va l i d i t y o f
t h e s e m e a s u r e s ; and f i n a l l y , p r e t e s t t h e measures t o a s s u r e t h e i r f e a s i
b i l i t y . The s e c o n d c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h t h e s e b a c k g r o u n d i s s u e s , and
p r e s e n t s the d e s i g n o f t h e D e t r o i t s u r v e y . F o l l o w i n g a r e c h a p t e r s
s u m m a r i z i n g the r e s u l t s and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e and
mot i v a t i o n m e a s u r e s . Append i c e s a r e a t t a c h e d c o v e r i n g some s p e c i f i c
s t u d i e s and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h t e n d t o i n t e r r u p t t h e f l o w
o f p r e s e n t a t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r , b u t may be o f i n t e r e s t t o r e s e a r c h e r s
a c t i v e l y w o r k i n g on t h e s e p r o b l e m s . A p p e n d i c e s i n c l u d i n g the i n t e r v i e w e r s '
m a n u a l , the r e s p o n d e n t ' s b o o k i e t , and the a c t u a l t e s t m a t e r i a l s used i n the
i n t e r v i e w a r e a v a i l a b l e from the a u t h o r s on r e q u e s t . L i m i t e d i n t e r e s t and
c o p y r i g h t l a w s p r e v e n t t h e i r g e n e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n .
CHAPTER TWO
BACKGROUND TO THE DETROIT STUDY
M e a s u r e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and a c h i e v e m e n t mot i v a t i o n wh i'ch cou Id be
u s e d i n h o u s e h o l d i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n we r e
needed f o r i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o a f i v e - y e a r p a n e l s t u d y o f v a r i a b l e s
i n f l u e n c i n g movement i n and p u t o f p o v e r t y . S e v e r a l p i l o t s t u d i e s
i n v e s t i g a t i n g the u s e f u l n e s s o f e x i s t i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e and mot i v a t i o n
measures were u n d e r t a k e n and a r e d e s c r i b e d be l o w . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e
s t u d i e s p o i n t e d up t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e measurement p r o b l e m and h i g h
l i g h t e d a r e a s i n need o f more i n t e n s i v e s t u d y w i t h l a r g e r numbers o f
r e s p o n d e n t s . The m a j o r r e s u l t s o f t h e p i l o t s t u d i e s w h i c h shaped t h e
d e s i g n o f t h e f i n a l r e s e a r c h a r e g i v e n h e r e .
The J a c k s o n I S t u d y •
•In d i r e c t i n g t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f the p a n e l s t u d y o f c h a n g e s i n
e c o n o m i c s t a t u s , James Morgan was i n t e r e s t e d i n h a v i n g a v a i l a b l e q u i c k
o b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e s o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n t h a t w o u l d be u s e f u l f o r
p r e d i c t i n g e c o n o m i c c h a n g e . The S u r v e y R e s e a r c h C e n t e r has been engaged
i n m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f m e a s u r e s o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n i n
a n a t i o n a l s u r v e y f o r many y e a r s ( V e r o f f e t a l , , 1960; Morgan and S m i t h ,
1 9 7 0 ) . R e c e n t l y A t k i n s o n and M o u l t o n (1969) s t a r t e d on t h e f i r s t s t e p o f
a c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t t o come up w i t h o b j e c t i v e measures o f m o t i v a t i o n t h a t
c o u l d be g e n e r a l l y u s e f u l . C o n s e q u e n t l y , Morgan e n l i s t e d A t k i n s o n and
h i s c o l l e a g u e s t o c o n d u c t a h o u s e h o l d s u r v e y t o see w h e t h e r t h e
methods e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e i r work w i t h c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s c o u l d be e a s i l y
t r a n s f e r a b l e t o a more h e t e r o g e n e o u s h o u s e h o l d s a m p l e . D u r i n g the y e a r
1968-69 A t k i n s o n d i r e c t e d s u c h a s t u d y i n J a c k s o n , M i c h i g a n ( J a c k s o n I
S t u d y ) t h a t began o u r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l work f o r OEO. P r e v i o u s l y v a l i d a t e d
methods were a d o p t e d and new methods e x p l o r e d i n s t u d y i n g 50 a d u l t s
s e l e c t e d on a q u o t a b a s i s ( h a l f b l a c k , h a l f w h i t e ; h a l f m a l e , h a l f
f e m a l e ) f r o m a r e l a t i v e l y low s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a r e a o f J a c k s o n f o r the
7
s u r v e y . W h i l e t h i s s t u d y showed t h a t the methods c o u l d be a p p l i e d , and
t h a t t h e r e was no d i f f i c u l t y i n g e t L i ng r e s p o n d e n t s t o g i v e r e s p o n s e s ,
t h e r e was l i t t l e i n t e r n a 1 c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h i n the s e t o f i t e m s u s e d ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e most p r o m i s i n g s c a l e o f a c h i e v e m e n t mo t i v a t i o n d e v e l o p e d
w i t h c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s by A t k i n s o n and M o u l t o n .
Some more s p e c i f i c r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y p r o v e d more i n t e r e s t i n g and
c h a l l e n g i n g t h a n o r i g i n a l l y a n t i c i p a t e d : (1) The o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f open-ended q u e s t i o n s a f f e c t e d t h e q u a l i t y o f the r e s p o n s e ( e . g . , when
a q u e s t i o n a b o u t j o b s was a s k e d f i r s t , t w i c e as much c o d a b l e e c o n o m i c
i m a g e r y was f o u n d as when t h e q u e s t i o n was a s k e d l a t e r i n t h e i n t e r v i e w ) ;
(2) r e s p o n d e n t s were g e n e r a l l y u n w i l l i n g a n d / o r u n a b l e t o g i v e more t h a n
f o u r s e t s o f f a n t a s y - l i k e r e s p o n s e s ( e . g . , t e l l i n g a s t o r y t o a v e r b a l
l e a d ) ; (3) p r o p e r p r o b i n g t e c h n i q u e s on the open-ended q u e s t i o n s were
d i f f i c u l t t o s p e c i f y .
Some a n a l y s e s o f o b j e c t i v e s c a l e s were e n c o u r a g i n g f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .
C o m p a r i s o n o f mean s c o r e s on A t k i n s o n and M o u l t o n ' s o b j e c t i v e s c a l e w i t h
mean s c o r e s f o r a F l i n t c o l l e g e n i g h t s c h o o l c l a s s showed h i g h e r means and
a more r e s t r i c t e d range f o r t h e F l i n t s a m p l e . The p a t t e r n o f i n t e r c o r
r e l a t i o n s was a l s o d i f f e r e n t , w i t h a P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y S c a l e c o r r e l a t i n g
h i g h e r w i t h t h e o b j e c t i v e m o t i v a t i o n s c a l e i n the F l i n t sample t h a n i n
the J a c k s o n s a m p l e .
A l l o f t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l and c o n t e n t r e s u l t s , t a k e n t o g e t h e r ,
i n d i c a t e d t h a t : (1) T h i s t y p e o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e a p p r o a c h was f e a s i b l e
and j u s t i f i e d f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , a l t h o u g h some i n d i v i d u a l i t e m s m i g h t n o t
be c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d ; (2) b e h a v i o r a l v a l i d i t y c r i t e r i a w o u l d h e l p i n
t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f the q u e s t i o n n a i r e m e a s u r e s ; and (3) as we moved t o a
more h e t e r o g e n e o u s p o p u l a t i o n t h e m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l i t y o f a c h ievement
m o t i v a t i o n became more i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r . A t the c o n c l u s i o n o f the
J a c k s o n I S t u d y , J o s e p h V e r o f f was a s k e d t o t a k e o v e r A t k i n s o n ' s p o s i t i o n ,
s i n c e A t k i n s o n was o u t o f t h e c o u n t r y f o r a y e a r .
8
The .l;u'kson 11 S t u d y
Gu i d e d by the r e s u 1 t s o I" the J a c k s o n 1 S L udy, we we i u enge r t o t r y
o u t d i f f e r e n t , and l e s s a b s t r a c t ways o f w o r d i n g i t e m s . We a l s o began
t h i n k i n g s e r i o u s l y o f d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t u a l f a c e t s o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n .
B e c a u s e J a c k s o n I l a c k e d any s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r a l b a s e s f o r v a l i d a t i n g the
methods and dimens i o n s e x a m i n e d w i t h i n t h e s u r v e y i t s e l f , we wanted t o
i n c l u d e t h i s t y p e o f m e a s u r e . These became t h e m a j o r aims i n o u r method
o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f mot i v a t i o n i n the s e c o n d J a c k s o n S t u d y ( J a c k s o n I I ) - .
I n J a c k s o n I I we a l s o began s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f
measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . We w i l l d i s c u s s m o t i v a t i o n and i n t e l l i g e n c e
s e p a r a t e l y .
M e a s u r i n g M o t i v a t i o n
W i t h the J a c k s o n I I S t u d y we s y s t e m a t i c a l l y began t o i s o l a t e components
o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n . From o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s ' e x a m i n a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t
g r o u p s ( E p p s , 1969 on b l a c k h i g h s c h o o l e r s ; G u r i n , e_t a _ l . , 1969 on b l a c k
c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ; S o m m e r f e l d , 1969 on j o b t r a i n e e s ; and A t k i n s o n and
M o u l t o n , 1969, on c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ) we c o n s i d e r e d i t e m s t h a t f i t s l i g h t l y
d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t u a l d i m e n s i o n s o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n : f u t u r e o r i e n t a -
t i o n , a v o i d a n c e o f s o c i a l a p p r o v a l , s o c i a l c o m p a r i s o n f o r a c h i e v e m e n t ,
s t r o n g emphas i s on autonomy, p r e f e r e n c e f o r mode r a t e r i s k .
9
T a b l e 2.1
D i f f e r e n t Types o f Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Items
f o r M e a s u r i n g Components o f A c h i e v e m e n t
M o t i v a t i o n , w i t h E x a m p l e s
Component o f
A c h i e v e m e n t M o t i v a t i o n Example
R i s k O r i e n t a t i o n
F u t u r e O r i e n t a t i o n
I n t e r e s t i n Soc i a 1
Compar i s o n
S e l f - b l a m e f o r F a i l u r e
C o n c e r n a b o u t S o c i a l
A p p r o v a l f o r
A c h i e v e m e n t
S e l f - e s t e e m a b o u t
A c h i e v e m e n t
I m a g i n e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g where y o u r c h a n c e s o f
s u c c e s s a r e 50-50.
a. Would you r a t h e r be d o i n g s o m e t h i n g e l s e ?
b. Do you e n j o y t h e c h a l l e n g e and c o m p e t i t i o n ?
When you f i n i s h s o m e t h i n g i m p o r t a n t t o y o u r f u t u r e
p l a n s , what u s u a l l y happens n e x t ?
a. You s t a r t w o r k i n g on o t h e r t h i n g s f o r the
f u t u r e .
b. You r e l a x and a r e g l a d n o t t o have t o w o r r y
abou t do i n g the work aga i n .
When you t r y to g e t b e t t e r a t s o m e t h i n g , do you
a. See how you do compared t o o t h e r p e o p l e , o r
b. See i f you have i m p r o v e d s i n c e the l a s t t i m e
you t r i e d t o do i t ?
When you c a n 1 1 do s o m e t h i n g t h a t you r e a l l y want
t o do, w h i c h i s most l i k e l y t o happen?
a. You t h i n k about why you f a i l e d and t r y aga i n .
b. You f o r g e t a b o u t f a i l i n g and d o n ' t t r y a g a i n .
A f t e r you do a j o b w e l l , w h i c h comes c l o s e s t t o
d e s c r i b i n g why you f e e l so good?
a. Because you w i l l g e t p r a i s e f o r w o r k i n g h a r d .
b. B e c a u s e you know you d i d s o m e t h i n g w e l l .
" I f e e l I do n o t have much to be p r o u d o f . "
a. A g r e e
b. D i s a g r e e
10
Til b i t ' 2.1 - - Cone inuc-d
Component o f
A c h i e v e m e n t M o t i v a t i o n Example
S a l i e n c e o f A c h i e v e m e n t
f o r S e l f
P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y
( 1 s t P e r s o n )
P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y
( 3 r d P e r s o n )
W h i c h i s t r u e s t f o r you? Which o f the t h r e e i s
l e a s t t r u e ?
a. I w o u l d l i k e t o have more f r i e n d s .
b. I w o u l d l i k e t o do b e t t e r a t what I t r y .
c. I w o u l d l i k e t o have more .people pay a t t e n t i o n
t o my p o i n t o f v i e w .
" I am a b l e t o do t h i n g s as w e l l as most o t h e r
p e o p l e . "
a. A g r e e
b. D i s a g r e e
" i t d o e s n ' t make much d i f f e r e n c e what a p e r s o n t r i e s
t o do; some f o l k s a r e j u s t l u c k y , o t h e r s a r e n o t . "
a.
b.
A g r e e
D i s a g r e e
Competence O r i e n t a t i o n
t o F e e l i n g s o f P r i d e
A d m i s s i o n o f F a i l u r e
T h e r e a r e t i m e s when many o f us a r e p r o u d o f some
t h i n g we have done. T e l l me a b o u t some t i m e when
you have been p r o u d o f some t h i n g you have done.
( W i t h f u r t h e r p r o b e s a b o u t a s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e )
Te11 me a b o u t a t i m e when you have f e l t d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h some t h i n g you have done. ( S i m i l a r t o above)
A c h ievement O r i e n t a t i o n
t o F a i l u r e
R e t r o s p e c t i v e R e p o r t
a b o u t A n x i e t y i n T e s t s
( I n p r o b e s f o r above q u e s t i o n )
you f e e l bad?
Why d i d t h i s make
T e s t A n x i e t y Ques t i o n n a i r e : "My e m o t i o n s h u r t my
p e r f o r m a n c e on t e s t s I t o o k i n s c h o o l . "
a. A g r e e
b. D i s a g r e e
1 L
These a r e f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e d i n A p p e n d i x 2. A l t h o u g h we were i n t e r e s t e d
i n how t h e s e m e a s u r e s r e l a t e d one t o a n o t h e r , we were e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d
i n how any o f t h e above r e l a t e d Lo the b e h a v i o r a l measures t o be d i s c u s s e d
b e l o w . From t h e J a c k s o n 1 S t u d y we r e a l i z e d we we re l a c k i n g any b e h a v i o r a l
c r i t e r i a f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f p r o p o s e d m e a s u r e s o f a c h i e v e m e n t
m o t i v a t i o n . We t h e r e f o r e s e t up what we t h i n k a r e i n n o v a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s
f o r ge 11 i n g a t s t a n d a r d i z e d a s s e s s m e n t o f r i s k p r e f e r e n e e b e h a v i o r s as we 11
as p e r f o r m a n c e on a c h i e v e m e n t t a s k s u n d e r d i f f e r e n t p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f s u c c e s s .
These t e c h n i q u e s , d e s c r i b e d i n more d e t a i l b e l o w , t a p r i s k p r e f e r e n e e and
p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r v a r i o u s e x p e c t a t i o n s o f s u c c e s s , b e h a v i o r s t h a t have been
c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e s u s e d by A t k i n s o n and M o u l t o n , and V e r o f f i n o t h e r
c o n t e x t s . T h e s e c r i t e r i a t h e n became v a l i d i t y c h e c k s f o r e v a l u a t i n g
q u e s t i o n n a i r e m e a s u r e s o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n .
A s e r i e s o f b e h a v i o r a l t a s k s d e r i v e d f r o m A t k i n s o n and F e a t h e r ' s (1966)
t h i n k i n g were g i v e n t o t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n t h e J a c k s o n I I s u r v e y by g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t s f a m i l i a r w i t h c u r r e n t me t h o d o l o g y i n ach i e v e m e n t mot i v a t i o n
r e s e a r c h . The p r i n c i p a l m e a s u r e s were b u i l t a r o u n d p e r f o r m a n c e on and
r e a c t i o n s t o some o f the i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s . We f e l t t h a t we had a
u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y t o g e t what we c o n s i d e r e d m o t i v a t i o n a l l y r e l e v a n t r e a c t i o n s
t o the r e s p o n d e n t s 1 own p e r f o r m a n c e on the i n t e 1 1 i g e n c e t a s k s . We were
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n the r e s p o n d e n t s 1 c h o i c e s o f modera t e l y d i f f i c u l t
p e r formance ( R i s k P r e f e r e n c e 1 and R i s k P r e f e r e n e e 2 a r e d e s c r i b e d i n
T a b l e 2.2 b e l o w . ) and t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e on h a r d ,
m o d e r a t e l y h a r d , and e a s y t a s k s ( R e a c t i v e P e r f o r m a n c e and P e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r
D i f f e r e n t P e r c e i v e d D i f f i c u l t i e s ) . T a b l e 2.2 s u m m a r i z e s t h e b e h a v i o r a l
measures o f m o t i v a t i o n u s e d and t h e t y p e o f p e r f o r m a n c e ( u s u a l l y i n t e l l i
g e n c e ) i n s t r u m e n t i n w h i c h t h i s m o t i v a t i o n a l a s s e s s m e n t was s e t .
T a b l e 2.2
B e h a v i o r a l M e a s u r e s o f M o t i v a t i o n u s e d i n the J a c k s o n I I S t u d y
Index o f H i g h
M e a s u r e P e r f o r m a n c e S e t t i n g A c h i e v e m e n t M o t i v a t i o n
R e a c t i v e P e r f o r m a n c e
( D i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f s u c c e s s
and f a i l u r e on s u b s e q u e n t
p e r f o r m a n c e )
R i s k P r e f e r e n c e I : R e p e a t e d
O b s e r v a t i o n s
( R e p e a t e d o b s e r v a t i o n s o f c h o o s i n g
m o d e r a t e r i s k i n p r e f e r e n c e t o
e a s y o r d i f f i c u l t c h o i c e s )
R i s k P r e f e r e n c e 2: S i n g l e
O b s e r v a t i o n s
( C h o o s i n g m o d e r a t e l y h a r d t a s k
a f t e r f a i l u r e a t t h a t t a s k )
P e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r D i f f e r e n t
P e r c e i v e d D i f f i c u l t i e s
( P e r f o r m a n c e a t a m o d e r a t e 1 y h a r d
t a s k c o n t r a s t e d t o p e r f o r m a n c e a t
an e a s y and a d i f f i c u l t t a s k )
P e r f o r m a n c e on D i g i t Symbol Sub
s t i t u t i o n f o l l o w i n g s u c c e s s and
f a i l u r e a t P o r t e u s Mazes
( d e s c r i b e d i n A p p e n d i x 2)
S e l e c t i n g l i n e p u z z l e s o f d i f
f e r e n t d i f f i c u l t y t o work on
( W e i n e r , 1963)
D i g i t Span and B l o c k D e s i g n
( d e s c r i b e d i n A p p e n d i x 2)
T h r e e forms o f the D i g i t Symbol
S u b s t i t u t i o n T a s k v a r y i n g i n
l e n g t h t o be p e r f o r m e d i n
c o n s t a n t t i m e
P e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r f a i l u r e
minus p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r
s u c c e s s
Numbe r o f mode r a te cho i l e s
t—' to
Mode r a t e
P e r f o r m a n c e a t a modera t e l y
h a r d t a s k - 1/2 ( p e r f o r m a n c e
a t e a s y t a s k p l u s p e r f o r m a n c e
a t h a r d t a s k )
13
Because we wanted a r e l i a b l e behav i o r a I i ude.N, w>.' 1 ooked f o r a
c o m p o s i t e o f t h e s e p a r a t e i n d i c e s o f m o t i v a t i o n f r o m the b e h a v i o r a l
c r i t e r i a . However, the i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f the v a r i o u s measures f o r the
t o t a l s a m p l e were low and t h e r e were v e r y few p o s i t i v e t r e n d s r e l a t i n g
p a i r s o f t h e s e m e a s u r e s . When t h e sample was d i v i d e d by s e x , however, the
r e s u l t s f o r m a l e s o f b o t h r a c e s d i d r e p l i c a t e some o f t h o s e o b t a i n e d w i t h
a c o l l e g e male s a m p l e . Sometimes the f e m a l e r e s u l t s showed an o p p o s i t e
p a t t e r n . As o t h e r r e s u i t s we r e i n v e s t i g a t e d , t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l m a l e - f e m a l e
p a t t e r n c o n t i n u e d . And s o we t h o u g h t we were on t o s o m e t h i n g s y s t e m a t i c .
Due t o the r e s t r i c t e d sample s i z e , however, a d e q u a t e a n a l y s e s o f the r e s u l t s
were n o t f e a s i b l e . H y p o t h e s e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e d e a l i n g w i t h m a l e - f e m a l e
d i f f e r e n c e s , c o u l d o n l y be t e s t e d i n a l a r g e r sample where more d e t a i l e d
a n a l y s i s w o u l d be p o s s i b l e .
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Q u e s t i o n n a i r e M e a s u r e s o f M o t i v a t i o n t o B e h a v i o r a l M e a s u r e s
As i n t h e J a c k s o n I S t u d y , t h e r e was l i t t l e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t v a r i o u s
components o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e measure o f m o t i v a t i o n were c o n s i s t e n t l y
r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e r e were a g a i n some w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t i n t e r r e l a t i o n
s h i p s when t h e d a t a were a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t e l y f o r men and women. What
became p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r i s t h a t r e s p o n s e s t o e v e n m i l d l y a b s t r a c t
r e f e r e n c e s t o a c h i e v e m e n t ( e . g . , " c h a l l e n g i n g c a s k " ) were j u s t not r e l a t e d
t o any c r i t e r i a o f v a l i d i t y t h a t we u s e d . The i t e m s t h a t d i d work seemed
t o have more s p e c i f i c c o n c r e t e r e f e r e n c e s , s u c h as t o a p e r s o n ' s j o b . Any
f u r t h e r v a l i d a s s e s s m e n t i n a h e t e r o g e n e o u s p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d t h e r e f o r e have
t o t a k e t h a t i n t o a c c o u n t . We f o u n d t h a t r a n k o r d e r i n g l o n g l i s t s o f i t e m s
m i g h t no t be m e a n i n g f u l , but t h a t r a n k o r d e r i n g t h r e e i t e m s d i d p r o d u c e
some m e a n i n g f u l c o r r e l a t i o n s t o b e h a v i o r a l c r i t e r i a . F u r t h e r m o r e , some o f
t h e open-ended q u e s t i o n s i n c l u d e d were p r o m i s i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o b e h a v i o r a l
c r i t e r i a , and we t h e r e f o r e r e c o n s i d e r e d open-ended s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e f u t u r e
Dimens i o n s o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n seemed t o work d i f f e r e n t l y i n
d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s : f o r e x a m p l e , s o c i a l c o m p a r i s o n seemed t o be a p o s i t i v e
a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n i n women b u t a n e g a t i v e a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n i n
14
men. O r i e n t a t i o n t o the f u t u r e seemed t o be more d i a g n o s t i c f o r women
t h a n f o r men. A h i g h g e n e r a 1 expec t a n c y o f e f f i c a e y was more d Lagnos 1: ie
f o r men t h a n f o r women. Thus, s c a l e s t h a t 1ooked p r o m i s i n g f o r one s u b g r o u p
e i t h e r had l o w c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e o t h e r s u b g r o u p s o r were o p p o s i t e i n s i g n .
The p r e f e r r e d p s y c h o m e t r i e t e c h n i q u e f o r i d e n t i f y i n g m e a n i n g f u l d i m e n s i o n s
w o u l d have been f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , b u t t h e s u b g r o u p s i z e was n o t s u f f i c i e n t
f o r t h i s p r o c e d u r e . The l a r g e r sample s i z e we p l a n n e d f o r t h e D e t r o i t S t u d y
p a r t i a l l y came o u t o f the i d e a o f u s i n g f a c t o r a n a l y s i s programs on s u b g r o u p
d a t a s e p a r a t e l y f o r men and women. '
M e a s u r i n g I n t e l l i g e n c e
The s e c o n d p a r t o f the J a c k s o n I I S t u d y was the b e g i n n i n g o f an e v a l u
a t i o n o f t e c h n i q u e s t o be u s e d t o measure i n t e l l i g e n c e i n a n a t i o n w i d e
s u r v e y . A s h o r t ( 5 - m i n u t e ) v a l i d measure was wanted f o r the p a n e l s t u d y .
P r e v i o u s work w i t h t h e Ammons Q u i c k T e s t i n a s m a l l sampLe o f the p a n e l s t u d y
was e n c o u r a g i n g and an i n - d e p t h l o o k a t s u c h a measure was w a n t e d . We were
g i v e n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t we s h o u l d g e t f e a s i b l e ways o f m e a s u r i n g what
p s y c h o l o g i s t s have cus tomar i l y c a l l e d i n t e l l i g e n c e . A1 t h o u g h i t was tempt i n g
t o use new c r i t e r i a f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y t a k e n f r o m r e a l l i f e
b e h a v i o r ( i . e . , s u c c e s s f u l p e r f o r m a n c e a t a j o b , income o r o c c u p a t i o n a l
mob i l i t y ) we were a s k e d t o a v o i d s u c h c r i t e r i a . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n the
OEO p r o j e c t wanted t o know w h e t h e r o r n o t t i i e i n t e l l i g e n c e measures were
u s e f u l i n p r e d i c t i n g e c o n o m i c b e h a v i o r . I f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e v a l u a t i o n were
i t s e l f b a s e d on r e a l l i f e e c o n o m i c c r i t e r i a we were v i r t u a l l y g u a r a n t e e i n g
t h a t t h e measures w o u l d be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h c h a n g e s i n e c o n o m i c s t a t u s . We
t o o k as o u r m a i n c h a r g e , t h e r e f o r e , g e t t i n g t e s t s t h a t c o r r e l a t e w i t h
s t a n d a r d i z e d a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e d u r e s . T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y a t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h
t o v a l i d i t y , but one t h a t has some j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h i s c a s e , e s p e c i a l l y
b e c a u s e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r p i n n i n g s t o the n a t u r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e weak
i n s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n , as we p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d .
W i t h i n t h a t o v e r a 1 1 mandate, h o w e v e r , we f e 1 1 we d i d have some l e e w a y .
T r a d i t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s have n o t a l w a y s seemed t o measure the same
15
t h i n g , f o r measurement t h e o r i s t s t h i n k o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i n a v a r i e t y o f ways.
Some assume a 3 f a c t o r , a c o r e i n t e l l i g e n c e r e l a t e d t o o t h e r more s p e c i f i c
c o m p e t e n c e s . O t h e r s t a l k o f components w i t h o u t any g f a c t o r . Our o r i g i n a l
o r i e n t a t i o n was t o assume s e p a r a b l e components p a r t i c u l a r l y v e r b a l
m e d i a t i o n a l a b i l i t i e s c o n t r a s t e d t o p e r c e p t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e a b i l i t i e s , as
m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r . W i t h i n e a c h o f t h e s e c l u s t e r s we hoped t o be a b l e t o
s e l e c t a s i n g l e most f e a s i b l e m e a s u r e , e s p e c i a l l y one t h a t had s t r o n g f a c e
v a l i d i t y .
I m m e d i a t e l y a q u e s t i o n a r i s e s : i s t h e same measure e q u a l l y v a l i d f o r
a l l g r o u p s ? I t c e r t a i n l y s i m p l i f i e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h i n k s o , b u t t h a t
b e l i e s some o f o u r b e s t s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s . S u b c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s
i n d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s c a n c h a n n e l g e n e r a l c o m p e t e n c e s i n t o v e r y d i f f e r e n t
k i n d s o f s p e c i f i c p e r f o r m a n c e s . We were h o p i n g t o f i n d t e s t s t h a t w o u l d be
e q u a l l y v a l i d f o r the f o l l o w i n g g r o u p s -- men and women, b l a c k s and w h i t e s ,
o l d and young. N e v e r t h e l e s s , we wanted t o be a l e r t e d t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t s u c h t e s t s may n o t be a v a i l a b l e and a d v i s e OEO a c c o r d i n g l y .
I n summary, we l o o k e d f o r v a l i d i t y i n measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e by:
h y p o t h e s i z i n g two c l u s t e r s o f a b i l i t i e s , a v e r b a l m e d i a t i o n a l f a c i l i t y and
p e r c e p t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e f a c i l i t y ; t h e n l o o k i n g a t t h e p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r -
c o r r e 1 a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e c l u s t e r and see i n g w h e t h e r t h e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s
were c o n s i s t e n t a c r o s s c r i t i c a l g r o u p s , and f i n a l l y s e e i n g t h a t t h e
measures had f a c e v a l i d i t y f o r a n a t i o n w i d e s u r v e y .
Between A p r i l 1969 and J u n e 1969 a g r o u p o f us s u r v e y e d a v a i l a b l e
m a t e r i a l on m e a s u r i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e . Two m a j o r A m e r i c a n s u r v e y t e c h n i q u e s
i n c l u d e a m u l t i p l e c h o i c e - v o c a b u l a r y t y p e o f t e s t (Ammons Q u i c k T e s t and
M i n e r ' s V o c a b u l a r y T e s t ) . These were c o n s i d e r e d a l o n g w i t h s u b t e s t s o f
t h e most w i d e l y u s e d A m e r i c a n t e s t s t h e W e s c h l e r - B e l l e v u e and t h e
S t a n f o r d B i n e t . (See A p p e n d i x 2 f o r a c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e measures
u s e d . ) We a l s o l o o k e d a t and f i n a l l y a d o p t e d t h e P o r t e u s Maze T e s t
( p u r p o r t e d t o be r e l a t i v e l y c u l t u r e f r e e and r e f l e c t i n g a s e r i e s o f s k i l l s ,
t h e most i m p o r t a n t o f w h i c h i s p r e - p l a n n i n g ) ; a C l o z e p r o c e d u r e recommended
by J e n s e n t o a s s e s s what he t h i n k s i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t f a c t o r i n most
l b
i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s o f a b s t r a c t t h i n k i n g -- v e r b a l m e d i a t i o n ; a more
s t a n d a r d i z e d v e r s ion' o f the C l o z e p r o c e d u r e f o u n d i n t h e L o r g e - T h o r n d i k e
t e s t ; and a m u l t i p l e c h o i c e f i l l - i n - o f i n c o m p l e t e d s e n t e n c e s ( h e n c e f o r t h
c a l l e d t h e S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t ) . A : f t e r c o n s u l t i n g w i t h l o c a l t e s t i n g
e x p e r t s , we s e l e c t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g t e s t s f r o m t h e W e s c h l e r - B e l l e v u e and
fronv t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t :
S i m i l a r i t i e s - ( e . g . , how a r e o r a n g e s and a p p l e s a l i k e ? )
I n f o r m a t i o n - ( e . g . , what i s a t h e r m o m e t e r ? )
B l o c k D e s i g n - ( a r r a n g e ' b l o c k s t o d u p l i c a t e p a t t e r n s )
D i g i t Span - ( r e p e a t i n g s e q u e n c e s o f d i g i t s b a c k w a r d s )
D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n - ( w r i t i n g down s y m b o l s e n c o d i n g
numbers a c c o r d i n g t o a p r e - a r r a n g e d code)
S i n c e t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n the J a c k s o n I I S t u d y had a l i m i t e d r a n g e o f
e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , we c o u l d ' n o t use e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t as a
c r i t e r i o n f o r t e s t i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f m e a s u r e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , as we
w o u l d i n t h e D e t r o i t S u r v e y . R a t h e r we had t o a d o p t c e r t a i n measures as
a p r i o r i v a l i d measures and t h e n a s s e s s t h e d e g r e e s t o w h i c h o t h e r measures
c o r r e l a t e w i t h t h e s e s t a n d a r d s . S i n c e we had h y p o t h e s i z e d a t w o - f a c t o r
a s s e s s m e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , we s e l e c t e d two c r i t e r i a .
A p r i o r i , t h e Maze t e s t was s e l e c t e d as t h e b e s t measure o f p e r f o r m a n c e
and t h e C l o z e t e s t as the b e s t v e r b a l measure. W i t h the a d o p t i o n o f t h e s e
c r i t e r i a , we c o u l d ' ask w h i c h o f t h e r e m a i n i n g t e s t s b e s t p r e d i c t s b o t h
c r i t e r i a , o r w h i c h t e s t p r e d i c t s the f i r s t c r i t e r i o n , and w h i c h the s e c o n d .
T h e s e q u e s t i o n s were f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a p r e d i c t i o n
t o a c r i t e r i o n was n o t s t a b l e a c r o s s a l l g r o u p s -- male and f e m a l e , b l a c k
and w h i t e , o l d e r and y o u n g e r .
A s k i n g w h i c h t e s t r e l i a b l y p r e d i c t s b o t h C l o z e and Maze t e s t s , we
f o u n d t h a t t h e D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n " T e s t (DSST) was b e s t , and was
r e l i a b l e a c r o s s a l l g r o u p s e x c e p t p e o p l e o v e r 35 ( s e e T a b l e 2.3 on page 1 7 ) .
A s k i n g w h i c h t e s t r e l i a b l y p r e d i c t s C l o z e p e r f o r m a n c e , we had a v e r y c l e a r
a n s w e r -- t h e S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t ( s e e T a b l e 2.4 on page 1 8 ) . A s k i n g
w h i c h t e s t r e l i a b l y p r e d i c t s t h e Maze p e r f o r m a n c e , we had a c l e a r answer
a g a i n -- t h e D i g i t Symbol S u t s t i t u t i o n T e s t (DSST).
( 7
T a b l e 2.3
C o r r e l a t i o n s (Tau B e t a ) o t D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n T e s t
w i t h C l o z e and Maze T e s t s
by R e s p o n d e n t D e m o g r a p h i c Group
R e s p o n d e n t Demographic G r o u p N C l o z e Maze
By S e x :
M a l e s 25 .43* . .32
F e m a l e s 24 .33 .25
By R a c e :
W h i t e 25 .40* .37
B l a c k 24 .34 .17
By Age:
Over 35 25 .38* .04
Under 35 24 .28 .52*
TOTAL 49 • .36** .25
*p = .05.
**p = .01.
18
T a b l e 2.4
C o r r e l a t i o n s (Tau B e t a ) o f S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t
( L o r g e T h o r n d i k e ) w i t h C l o z e and Maze T e s t s
•by R e s p o n d e n t Demographic Group
R e s p o n d e n t D e m o g r a p h i c
G r o u p N C l o z e Maze
By S e x :
M a l e s 31 .57** .16
Females 29 .57** .09
By Race:
W h i t e 2 7 .52** .20
B l a c k 33 . .57** .20
By Age:
Over 35 28 . .53** -.10
Under 35 32 .55** .45*
TOTAL 60 .53** .17
*p = .05.
**p = .01.
19
The c o r r e l a t i o n between C l o z e and Maze i s l o w - p o s i t i v e ; t h e c o r r e
l a t i o n between DSST and SCT i s somewhat h i g h e r . E a c h o f t h e s e c o n s i s t e n t l y ,
r e l a t e d t o some o t h e r t e s t s . T a b l e s 2.5 on page 20 and 2.6 on page 21
l i s t the i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e s e t e s t s w i t h t h e o t h e r t e s t s . DSST seems
t o r e l a t e c o n s i s t e n t l y t o the p e r f o r m a n c e syndrome; t h e SCT t o the v e r b a l
syndrome.
T h e s e two t h e n seemed 1 i k e o u r most p r o m i s i n g m e a s u r e s . However,
f u r t h e r a n a l y s e s o f t h e DSST and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e p o r t e d a n x i e t y
s u g g e s t e d t h a t i t was h i g h l y i n f l u e n c e d by i m m e d i a t e m o t i v a t i o n a l f a c t o r s .
T h e r e f o r e we s o u g h t o t h e r n o n - v e r b a l m e a s u r e s . The B l o c k D e s i g n T e s t was
v e r y r e l i a b l y r e l a t e d t o c r i t e r i a a c r o s s g r o u p s , b u t was u n f e a s i b l e f o r
s u r v e y work; t h e r e f o r e we t u r n e d i n t h e D e t r o i t S u r v e y t o a s u b s t i t u t e f o r
i t . The D i g i t Span T e s t was a l s o p r o m i s i n g ; so we l o o k e d f o r p a r a l l e l
measures o f a t t e n t i o n t h a t w o u l d be r e l a t e d t o more c o m p l e x s k i l l s .
We were d i s a p p o i n t e d i n t h e M i n e r V o c a b u l a r y T e s t -- i t s range seemed
t o o l i m i t e d t o p r o d u c e any r e s u l t s a t a l l . Our t h o u g h t s t u r n e d t o o t h e r
v o c a b u l a r y t e s t s .
E a c h o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l e d us t o d e s i g n new methods t o use a l o n g
w i t l i the mos t p r o m i s i n g ones f r o m J a c k s o n I I f o r e v a l u a t i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e
i n a n o t h e r s u r v e y .
Our p r i m a r y e f f o r t o f the r e s e a r c h was t o t e s t t h e f e a s i b i 1 i t y and
v a l i d i t y o f a s u r v e y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s . The d a t a
i n d i c a t e d t h a t a number o f s c a l e s c o u l d be used i n an i n t e r v i e w s e t t i n g .
The p a t t e r n s o f c o r r e l a t i o n a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e t h a t m i g h t be p r e d i c t e d
by p s y c h o d i a g n o s t i c i a n s . . However, p r o b l e m s d i d o c c u r i n t h e i n t e r v i e w
a s s e s s m e n t w h i c h s u g g e s t e d f u r t h e r s t u d y f o r t h e n e x t m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
e x p l o r a t i o n .
A n a l y s e s o f d a t a f o r d i f f e r e n t i n t e r v i e w e r s i n the J a c k s o n IE S t u d y
r e v e a l e d a p o t e n t i a l f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r v i e w e r e f f e c t on t e s t a n x i e t y -
a v a r i a b l e t h a t c o u l d a f f e c t b o t h i n t e l l i g e n c e p e r f o r m a n c e and m o t i v a t i o n a l
a s s e s s m e n t s . D i f f e r e n t i n t e r v i e w e r s seemed t o p r o d u c e v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t
c o r r e l a t i o n s between t e s t a n x i e t y and p e r f o r m a n c e . Such a f a c t o r c o u l d
20
T a b l e 2.3
C o r r e l a t i o n (Tau B e t a ) Between D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n
T e s t and A l l O t h e r T e s t s
T o t a l
P o p u l a t i o n M a l e s F e m a l e s W h i t e s B l a c k s O v e r 35 Under 35
N=50 N=26 N=24 N=26 N=24 N=25 N=2 5
D i g i t Span
V o c a b u l a r y
B l o c k s
I n f o r m a t i o n
S e n t e n c e
C o m p l e t i o n
C l o z e
S i m i l a r i t y
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.479,'.-;
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**p = .01-
21
T a b l e 2.6
C o r r e l a t i o n (Tau B e t a ) Between S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n
T e s t and A l l O t h e r Tests
T o t a l
P o p u l a t i o n M a l e s F e m a l e s W h i t e s B L a c k s O v e r 35 Under 35
N=50 N=26 N=24 N=26 N=24 N=25 N=25
D i g i t Symbol
D i g i t Span
V o c a b u l a r y
B l o c k s
I n f o r m a t i o n
C I oze
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**p s .01.
22
c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r m i n e a s s e s s m e n t e f f o r t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , we began t h i n k i n g
s e r i o u s l y o f s t u d y i n g a c r i t i c a l i n t e r v i e w e r e f f e c t -- one i n w h i c h we
c o u l d have some c o n t r o l -- r a c e o f the i n t e r v i e w e r , e s p e c i a l l y i n i n t e r
a c t i o n w i t h t h e r a c e of. the r e s p o n d e n t .
Where We S t o o d P r i o r t o t h e D e t r o i t S u r v e y
Hav i n g e x p l o r e d methods o f measur i n g I n t e l 1 i g e n c e and mot i v a t i o n i n
two s u r v e y s e t t i n g s and h a v i n g o b t a i n e d some m e a n i n g f u l r e s u l t s , we began
t o f e e l o p t i m i s t i c a b o u t t h e i r f e a s i b i l i t y b u t s t i l l c o n c e r n e d a b o u t how
t o e v a l u a t e v a l i d i t y . I n a s u r v e y i n t e r v i e w the r e s p o n d e n t s seemed t o
a c c e p t n o v e l methods, but what d i d t h e y mean?
I n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s had a g r e a t d e a l o f i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c e but
we l a c k e d any way t o compare them t o s t a n d a r d s o u t s i d e o f the i n t e r v i e w
s e t t i n g . We needed a more h e t e r o g e n e o u s p o p u l a t i o n t o t e s t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
between measures and e d u c a t i o n , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e s e
t e s t s we r e v a l I d a t e d t o beg i n w i t h . f u r t h e r m o r e , we were a l e r t e d t o t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e r a c e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e r m i g h t a f f e c t t h e v a l i d i t y o f the
a s s e s s m e n t . These r e s u l t s c l e a r l y c a l l e d f o r a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a 1 s u r v e y
w i t h some c o n t r o l on r a c e o f i n t e r v i e w e r and r e s p o n d e n t .
The r e s p o n s e s t o t h e m o t i v a t i o n measures had l i t t l e i n t e r n a l c o n s i s
t e n c y but d i d s u g g e s t the f o i l o w i n g :
1. ' Open-ended a s s e s s m e n t t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h as t e l l i n g s t o r i e s i n
r e s p o n s e t o p i c t u r e s , a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o s t y l e s o f p r e s e n t a t i o n but i n
f a c t a r e p r o m i s i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f t h e s t o r y - t e 1 1 i n g a s s e s s m e n t o f a c h i e v e
ment m o t i v a t i o n has the most c u r r e n c y w i t h s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s , i t s h o u l d
be i n c l u d e d i n o r d e r t o g e t some d a t a on the v a l i d i t y o f n e w ' p r o c e d u r e s .
2. O b j e c t i v e measures do n o t c o r r e l a t e we 11 w i t h one a n o t h e r , a f a c t
t h a t f o r c e s us t o examine the p s y c h o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the c o n t e n t s
o f a c h i e v e m e n t i t e m s . A m u l t i - f a c e t e d a p p r o a c h t o t h e c o n c e p t o f a c h i e v e
ment g o a l s seems c a l l e d f o r . A l a r g e r sample w o u l d p e r m i t a more c a r e f u l
a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e phenomenology o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n .
23
3 . The behav i o r a 1 c r i t e r i a f o r eva 1 u a t i n g the va l u e o f ach i evement
m o t i v a t i o n measures a r e c o m p l i c a t e d , but f e a s i b l e . They b e a r r e p e a t i n g i n
a more h e t e r o g e n e o u s c o n t e x t and a r e w o r t h c o n s i d e r i n g as m a j o r c r i t e r i a
a g a i n s t w h i c h t o e s t a b l i s h v a l i d i t y o f new p r o c e d u r e s .
The D e t r o i t S u r v e y : O v e r a l l P r o c e d u r e
R e s u l t s f r o m t h e J a c k s o n I I S t u d y s u g g e s t e d new m e a s u r e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e
and mot i v a t i o n , and ways o f r e w o r k i n g o l d measure s. The c r o s s - s e c t i o n a 1
s u r v e y d e s i g n o f the D e t r o i t S t u d y , w i t h i t s l a r g e r and w i d e r s p e c t r u m o f
s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s a m p l i n g , a l l o w e d us t o v a l i d a t e m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t a s o c i a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u c h as e d u c a t i o n , as w e l l as r e p e a t the v a l i d i t y p r o c e d u r e s
u s e d i n J a c k s o n I I . T h i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r the i n t e l l i g e n c e
m e a s u r e s . A f u r t h e r v i r t u e i n t h e D e t r o i t s u r v e y was the o p p o r t u n i t y t o
do a . c a r e f u l t e s t o f t h e e f f e c t o f r a c e o f i n t e r v i e w e r -- a f a c t o r we t h o u g h t
s o c r i t i c a l i n a s s e s s m e n t o f m o t i v a t i o n and i n t e l l i g e n c e measures t h a t i t
needed s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y . H a l f o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s were t o be b l a c k ; h a l f o f
t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w h i t e . The same was t r u e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e r s . A d e t a i l e d
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y , i t s d e s i g n , and s t r a t e g y a p p e a r s b e l o w .
The f o l l o w i n g h i g h l i g h t the s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s o f the s u r v e y :
1. Two s i g n i f i c a n t new measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e were i n t r o d u c e d ,
t h e Raven P r o g r e s s i v e M a t r i c e s and t h e P i c t u r e O r d e r T e s t ( s e e A p p e n d i x 2
f o r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f b o t h ) .
2. Some i m p o r t a n t open-ended p r o c e d u r e s f o r m e a s u r i n g a c h i e v e m e n t
m o t i v a t i o n were i n t r o d u c e d , e s p e c i a l l y one t h a t had p r o v e d s u c c e s s f u l f o r
a s i m i l a r p o p u l a t i o n . We were e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n g e t t i n g a t a s s e s s
ment o f f e a r o f s u c c e s s i n women and b l a c k s .
3. The b e h a v i o r a l m e a s u r e s u s e d as v a l i d i t y c r i t e r i a i n J a c k s o n I I
were s h a r p e n e d c o n s i d e r a b l y .
4. A n x i e t y m e a s u r e s were i n t r o d u c e d f o r t e s t i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w e r s 1
e f f e c t s on r e p o r t e d a n x i e t y , and f o r some t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d p r e d i c t i o n s
o f a c h i e v e m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . New e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s i n the way a n x i e t y
i s r e p o r t e d t o t h e i n t e r v i e w e r were a l s o i n c l u d e d . A l l o f t h e s e new
24
f a c i o r s i n mot i vat i on a l . l s s u s s m e n i
o v e r v i e w o f the D e t r o i t s t u d y , l e t
d e s c r i p t i o n o f i t .
w i l l be il i se us sed be 1 ow . W i l l i t h i s
us p r o c e e d w i t h a more d e t a i l e d
The Sample
A p r o b a b i l i t y sample o f 1,027 h o u s e h o l d s w i t h i n t h e c i t y o f D e t r o i t
was c o n t a c t e d by s i x b l a c k and e i g h t w h i t e S u r v e y R e s e a r c h C e n t e r i n t e r -
v i e w e r s . The a d d r e s s e s sampled were f r o m p r i m a r i l y b l a c k , w h i t e , and
m i x e d n e i g h b o r h o o d s and were d e s i g n e d t o y i e l d a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f e a c h r a c e
g r o u p . ( M e x i c a n s , O r i e n t a l s , and o t h e r s n o t i d e n t i f i a b l e as b l a c k o r w h i t e
we r e e l i m i n a t e d f r o m t h e s a m p l e . ) W i t h i n e a c h h o u s e h o l d , a random s e l e c t i o n
t a b l e was used t o s e l e c t t h e r e s p o n d e n t f r o m a l l r e s i d e n t s .between 18 and 4 9 .
A r e s p o n s e r a t e o f 7 1 % y i e l d e d - t h e f o l l o w i n g :
365 I n t e r v i e w s
407 H o u s e h o l d s w i t h no e l i g i b l e r e s p o n d e n t s
( i . e . , between 18 and 49 y e a r s o l d )
89 U n o c c u p i e d a d d r e s s e s
172 R e f u s a l s o r r e s p o n d e n t a b s e n t
34 A d d r e s s e s n o t c o n t a c t e d
The i n t e r v i e w s were s t r a t i f i e d i n t o f o u r e q u a l g r o u p s by r a c e and s e x
o f r e s p o n d e n t : 90 b l a c k m a l e s ; 96 . b l a c k f e m a l e s ; 89 w h i t e m a l e s ; and 90
w h i t e f e m a l e s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f o f e a c h g r o u p was i n t e r v i e w e d by b l a c k s ,
h a l f by w h i t e s .
M e a s u r e s
A t the b e g i n n i n g o f the i n t e r v i e w , e a c h r e s p o n d e n t was a s k e d a b o u t h i s
m a r i t a l s t a t u s , h i s o c c u p a t i o n , and t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f h i s spouse and f a t h e r .
L a t e r , t h e h i g h e s t g r a d e c o m p l e t e d and p e r s o n a l 1969 income f o r b o t h
r e s p o n d e n t and s_pouse were a s s e s s e d . T h e s e d a t a were c o l l e c t e d t o p r o v i d e
f o r b o t h d e m o g r a p h i c c o n t r o l s on t h e sample and e x t e r n a l v a l i d i t y c h e c k s
on t h e m o t i v a t i o n and i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s .
25
S e v e n i n t e l l i g e n c e measures and s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t y p e s oF m o t i v a t i o n
measures were a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t h e main p a r t o f t h e i n t e r v i e w ; t h e s e a r e
d e s c r i b e d f u l l y i n t h e f o l l o w i n g two s e c t i o n s , a l o n g w i t h the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n a t t a c h e d t o e a c h .
•i
26
CHAPTER THREE
VALIDATING MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE
A t the c o n c l u s i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r , we recommend t h e a d o p t i o n o f the
S e n t e n c e Complet.ion T e s t f r o m the L o r g e - T h o r n d i k e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t as
a f e a s i b l e , r e a s o n a b l y v a l i d a s s e s s m e n t o f what p s y c h o l o g i s t s have l a b e l e d
i n t e l 1 i g e n c e . We d i d n o t e x p e c t t o recommend j u s t one measure; r a t h e r , we
e x p e c t e d t o f i n d two t y p e s o f m e a s u r e s , e a c h r e f l e c t i n g a d i f f e r e n t k i n d
o f i n t e 1 1 i g e n c e commonly cons i d e r e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e on i n t e l l e c t u a l
c o m p e t e n c e : a v e r b a l m e d i a t i o n a l f a c i l i t y and a p e r c e p t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e
f a c i l i t y - . What we f o u n d i s t h a t one t e s t , the S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t ,
seems t o c o r r e l a t e w e l l w i t h most d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f t e s t s o f - i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
w e l 1 enough t o sugge s t us i n g i t s i n g l y w i t h o u t g o i n g t o m u l t i p l e measure
ment. When we t o o k a c l o s e l o o k a t t h e c e s t , we r e a l i z e d why t h i s i s s o .
The t e s t a s k s t h e r e s p o n d e n t t o s u p p l y f r o m a s e t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s a m i s s i n g
word i n a s e n t e n c e . C e r t a i n l y , i t i s a measure o f v e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s i o n
and l e a r n i n g . I n s p i t e o f t h i s v e r b a l emphas i s , however, the SCT a l s o r e
q u i r e s h y p o t h e s i s - t e s t i n g and s k i l l i n p a t t e r n i n g s e n t e n c e s s i m i l a r t o the
s k i l l s i n v o l v e d i n some o f t h e p e r c e p t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e measures we u s e d .
M e a s u r e s
S e v e n i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e D e t r o i t s u r v e y . A l l
a r e s h o r t , and f e a s i b l e i n a h o u s e h o l d i n t e r v i e w . A c c o r d i n g t o c l u s t e r s
p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d t h e y a r e :
V e r b a l m e d i a t i o n a l f a c i l i t y :
S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t ( L o r g e - T h o r n d i k e )
Ammons Q u i c k T e s t
I n f o r m a t i o n ( W e s c h l e r )
P e r c e p t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e f a c i l i t y :
D i g i t Span ( W e s c h l e r )
Raven P r o g r e s s i v e M a t r i c e s
D i g i t Symbol Subs t i t u t i o n ( W e s c h I e r )
P i c t u r e O r d e r , C e n t r a l and I n c i d e n t a l
27
F o r a c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f e a c h t e s t , see Append i x 2. S e n t e n c e
C o m p l e t i o n and I n f o r m a t i o n , as u s e d i n J a c k s o n I I , were c l o s e l y r e l a t e d
t o o u r m e d i a t i o n a l c r i t e r i o n , the C l o z e T e s t . The Ammons was i n c l u d e d
b e c a u s e i t had p r e v i o u s l y a p p e a r e d p r o m i s i n g i n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n at the low
end o f the s c a l e a q u a l i c y n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the V o c a b u l a r y T e s t
u s e d i n J a c k s o n I I . The s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e f o r the Ammons was r e v i s e d , and
some i t e m s were e l i m i n a t e d .
Because t h e i n t e r v i e w was l o n g , n o t a l l t e s t s c o u l d be g i v e n t o a l l
r e s p o n d e n t s . T h e r e f o r e , a random h a l f r e c e i v e d the Ammons and I n f o r m a t i o n
T e s t s ; the o t h e r h a l f , the P i c t u r e O r d e r T e s t . A l l o t h e r t e s t s were
admin i s t e r e d t o a l l r e s p o n d e n t s .
D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n and D i g i t Span c o r r e l a t e d w e l l w i t h the
a t t e n t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i o n , P o r t e u s M a z e s , i n J a c k s o n I I . I n
a d d i t i o n , t h e D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n a l s o c o r r e l a t e d h i g h l y w i t h t h e
C l o z e T e s t .
Most c r i t i c a l l y , we i n t r o d u c e d two new a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e d u r e s f o r
i n t e l l i g e n c e i n the D e t r o i t s u r v e y : Raven P r o g r e s s i v e M a t r i c e s and the
P i c t u r e O r d e r T e s t . Koh's B l o c k D e s i g n T e s t had p r o v e d v e r y p r o m i s i n g i n
J a c k s o n I I , b u t i t was c l e a r l y u n f e a s i b l e f o r g e n e r a l househo Id s u r v e y u s e .
T h i s t e s t was r e p l a c e d by t h e P r o g r e s s i v e M a t r i c e s , w h i c h has been shown t o
be h i g h l y r e l a t e d t o t h e Koh's T e s t ( H a l l , 1 9 5 7 ) . The M a t r i c e s i s an e a s i l y
a d m i n i s t e r e d p e r c e p t u a l t a s k o f c h o o s i n g one p a t t e r n t o c o m p l e t e a l a r g e r
d e s i g n . The P i c t u r e O r d e r T e s t was s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e i t seemed t o be a
more c o m p l e x v e r s i o n o f the s k i l l i n v o l v e d i n t h e D i g i t Span -- a t t e n d i n g
t o the p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h a g i v e n p i c t u r e o c c u r r e d . I t i s a measure o f
a t t e n t i o n a l f a c i l i t y . S e c o n d a r i l y , i t a l s o a l l o w s f o r measurement o f
i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g , a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e f a c t o r i n v o l v e d i n c o m p e t e n c e . The
work on t h i s t e s t has been v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t i n p l o t t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l l y
m e a n i n g f u l d e v e l o p m e n t a l s h i f t s i n a t t e n t i o n (Hagen and Huntsman, 1 9 6 9 ) .
T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t a l c h a n g e s may a l s o be u s e f u l 1 i n a s s e s s i n g i n d i v i d u a l
d i f f e r e n c e s e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i n v o l v i n g b r a i n i n j u r y . The use o f t h i s
measure i s t h e most i n n o v a t i v e o f a l l o u r p r o c e d u r e s .
28
The De C r o i t s u r v e y t h u s u s e s a v a r i e t y o f me L l i o c i s " o f adm i n i s t r a t i o n
o f t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s . These can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as f o l l o w s ;
T a b l e 3.1
I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s Used i n t h e D e t r o i t S u r v e y
T e s t
Type o f
P r e s e r i t a t i o n Response Mode
S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n
Ammons Q u i c k T e s t
I n f o r m a t i o n
D i g i t Span
Raven P r o g r e s s i v e
M a t r i c e s
D i g i t Symbol
S u b s t i t u t i o n
P i c t u r e O r d e r
C e n t r a l
P i c t u r e O r d e r
I n c i d e n t a l
V e r b a l / w r i t t e n
V e r b a l
V e r b a l
V e r b a l
G r a p h i c
G r a p h i c
G r a p h i c
G r a p h i c
V e r b a l -- c h o i c e o f 5 words
P o i n t t o one o f 4 p i c t u r e s
V e r b a l (open)
V e r b a l
P o i n t t o one o f 8 p a t t e r n s
W r i t t e n ( t i m e d )
P o i n t t o one o f a s e r i e s o f
p i c t u r e s
M a t c h one s e t o f p i c t u r e s w i t h
a n o t h e r
A n a l y s i s
We f o l l o w e d t h r e e s t e p s i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f d a t a s u m m a r i z i n g the d i f f e r e n t
measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e e m p l o y e d i n the s u r v e y . F i r s t , we i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d
a l l t h e s e m e a s u r e s , i n hopes o f f i n d i n g t h e two c l u s t e r s we had h y p o t h e s i z e d -•
a v e r b a l f a c i l i t y and a p e r c e p t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e f a c i l i t y , and i n hopes o f
l o c a t i n g t h e one t e s t i n e a c h c l u s t e r t h a t a c c o u n t e d f o r the most v a r i a n c e i n
t h e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s . As we i n d i c a t e d , t h i s c l u s t e r i n g was n o t a p p a r e n t ,
29
s o we j u s t a s k e d oi: .the n a t r i x w h i c h t e s t -••*t: th.: :rvivv <-. (: {ec'• i v e i n the
i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s i n g e n e r a l , o r w h i c h te,;>: e n r r e ' a: ':,•••> ''ighes! w i t h
o t h e r t e s t s .
S e c o n d l y , we l o o k e d a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n . " o f t h e va- Lous t e s t y w i t h
e d u c a t i o n , r e c o g n i z i n g t h e n a t u r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e assessment, used i n
r e s e a r c h and i n p r a c t i c e i n p r e v i o u s y e a r s . E v e r s i n c e i i i n e t began t h e
s t a n d a r d i z e d a s s e s s m e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t o p r e d i c t s c h o o l s u c c e s s ,
d e v e l o p e r s o f measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e have r e l i e d e x p l i c i t l y o r i m p l i c i t l y
on e d u c a t i o n a l s u c c e s s as t h e i r ma i n v a l i d i t y c r i t e r i o n . U s u a l l y a new
t e s t was " v a l i d a t e d " a g a i n s t an o l d one. T h e r e f o r e , Bir°t'.'? c r i t e r i o n was
the u l t i m a t e one. C o n s e q u e n t l y , we t u r n e d t o e d u c a t i o n a t t a i n e d by a r e s p o n
d e n t as a c r i t e r i o n a g a i n s t w h i c h t o a s s e s s t h e v a l i d i t y o f the measures
we u s e d .
T h i r d l y , we r e t u r n e d a g a i n t o a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e
v a r i o u s measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h i s t i m e c o n t r o l l i n g f o r v a r i o u s demo
g r a p h i c c o r r e l a t e s o f the i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s . We wanted to make s u r e
t h a t any recommended i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t had sutae v a r i a n c e l e f t o v e r a f t e r
v a r i o u s demograph i c f a c t o r s , e s p e c i a I l y edu;:a c i o n , w-2 re c o n t r o l l e d . We
r e a s o n e d t h a t i f the measures were n o t r e a s o n a b l y h i g h l y i n t e r r e l a t e d a t
t h i s p o i n t , us i n g a recommended i n t e l 1 i g e n c e t e s t wou Id no'; y i.eld any
i n c r e a s e i n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o v e r j u s t u s i n ^ t h e l e v ? } th.:/ r e s p o n d e n t ' s
e d u c a t i o n .
I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f M e a s u r e s o f In t e l l i g e n c e
We h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e e i g h t d i f f e r e n t measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e w o u l d
c l u s t e r i n t o two distinct g r o u p s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a h y p o t h e t i c a l v e r b a l
m e d i a t i o n a l f a c i l i t y and a h y p o t h e t i c a l pe r c e p r u a I p e r f o m a n e e f a c i l i t y .
We e x p e c t e d the D i g i t Span, Raven M a t r i c e s . p i n t u r * Or'Wr C e n t r a l , P i c t u r e
O r d e r I n c i d e n t a l , and D i g i L Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n ue->:.=; t o c l u s t e r i n t o the.
pe r c e p t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e ah i 1 i'.y c l u s t e r , a si'. I i-.ha -.smce Comp 1 e t i on, Amnions ,
and I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t s t o c l u s t e r i n t o t h e v e r b a l .tie J la'c ion.-'.! if uc i i i . t y -
30
Be f o r e proceed ing Co the i n t e r e o r r e l a t ion matr i x , however, we wanted
t o be sure t h a t none of the measures showed any i n t e r v i e w e r b i a s . We
were concerned about the p o s s i b i l i t y that both b l a c k and w h i t e respondents
would operate d i f f e r e n t l y w i t h a white i n t e r v i e w e r than w i t h a b l a c k i n t e r
v i e w e r . E s p e c i a l l y of concern was the d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y of an i n t e r a c t i o n
e f f e c t : t h a t b l a c k respondents would be more anxious and do l e s s w e l l i n
response to a white i n t e r v i e w e r than i n response to a b l a c k i n t e r v i e w e r ,
and v i c e v e r s a . I f so, t h i s would present some r e a l l y c r i t i c a l methodolog
i c a l problems f o r u s i n g both p o p u l a t i o n norms and i n d i v i d u a l data on i n t e l l i
gence. C o r r e c t i o n might be so unwieldy as to d i s a l l o w the u s e f u l n e s s of
such measures. In Appendix A, we d i s c u s s our e x a m i n a t i o n o f the i n t e r v i e w e r
e f f e c t , not o n l y on i n t e l l i g e n c e but on m o t i v a t i o n a l measurement a l s o . We
conclude t h a t there are no i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t would p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n t e s t the
use o f the s c o r e s , unadjusted f o r the race of the i n t e r v i e w e r , f o r our
c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s .
T h i s r e s u l t i s summarized i n Table 3.2 below, where we present the
mean score on each of the i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s f o r e i g h t groups: the p o p u l a t i o n
p a r t i t i o n e d e x h a u s t i v e l y by sex, r a c e , and race of i n t e r v i e w e r . The a n a l y s e s
of v a r i a n c e o f the e f f e c t s of these v a r i a b l e s on the mean scores are pre
sented i n Table 3.3 on page 32. There we see that there i s no s i g n i f i c a n t
race o f i n t e r v i e w e r - r a c e of respondent i n t e r a c t i o n ; in f a c t , there i s o n l y
one i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t a l t o g e t h e r t h a t i s s i g n i f i c a n t , one t h a t we can
perhaps d i s c o u n t s i n c e there were so many p o s s i b l e i n t e r a c t i o n s that could
have been s i g n i f i c a n t . In the t a b l e s we see the pronounced race d i f f e r e n c e
i n mean measured i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s , w i t h o n l y the P i c t u r e Order I n c i d e n t a l
showing no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . There i s a l s o a s i g n i f i c a n t race of
i n t e r v i e w e r e f f e c t . Black i n t e r v i e w e r s g e n e r a l l y were e l i c i t i n g h i g h e r
mean i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s from a l l groups. These r e s u l t s can be p a r t l y
e x p l a i n e d by the f a c t that the b l a c k i n t e r v i e w e r s i n t e r v i e w e d a s l i g h t l y
more educated p o p u l a t i o n . Table 3.A on page 33 shows c l e a r l y that the b l a c k
i n t e r v i e w e r s ' respondents, both b l a c k and w h i t e , were s l i g h t l y more educated.
"However, the e f f e c t o f the race o f the i n t e r v i e w e r on i n t e l l i g e n c e remained
31
Table 3.?.
Mean Scores on I n t e l l i g e n c e Measures, f o r Eight: P o p u l a t i o n Groups
White I n t e r v i e w e r Black I n t e r v i e w e r
Raven .39* .12 .40** .45** .46** Ammons .44** — .33* Informat i o n .09 P i c t u r e Order .17 .44*
C e n t r a l P i c t u r e Order .63**
I n c i d e n t a l
Low Socio-Economic Background (N = 79)
D i g i t Span .50** .39** .30* .18 .27 -07 .31** Sentence Completion .58** .67** .49** .55** .27 .54** Raven .56** .38* .33* .24 . 50** Ammons .52** .60** I n f o r m a t i o n .35* P i c t u r e Order .07 .34*
C e n t r a l P i c t u r e Order .31*
I n c i d e n t a l _ _ _ „
Medium Socio-Economic Background (N - 128)
D i g i t Span .47** .40** .35** .29* .36** .09 .48** Sentence Completion .46** .60** .59** .22 .09 . 50** Raven .52** .54** .28* -.09 .40** Ammons .49** — .46** I n f o r m a t i o n — .46** P i c t u r e Order .16 .26*
C e n t r a l P i c t u r e Order -.08
I n c i d e n t a l _
High Socio-Economic Background (N = 80)
D i g i t Span .34** .34** .28 .52** .32 -.05 .32** Sentence Completion .51** .49** .49** .43** .22 .33** Raven .29 .56** .30 -.04 .37** Ammons .50** .22 Informat ion .36* P i c t u r e Order -.10 .34*
C e n t r a l P i c t u r e Order -.17
I n c i d e n t a l _____
*p £ .05. **p •£ .01.
38
C o r r e l a t i o n s of I n t e l l i g e n c e Measures w i t h E d u c a t i o n
When B i n e t was c o n s t r u c t i n g the f i r s t s t a n d a r d i z e d i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t
i n France, h i s g o a l was to d e t e c t those c h i l d r e n who would not do w e l l i n
s c h o o l . A l t h o u g h he used age g r a d i n g to diagnose the u s e f u l n e s s of a
p a r t i c u l a r item, the v a l i d i t y of the t e s t as a whole depended on the p r a c t i c a l
u s e f u l n e s s i t had f o r d e t e c t i n g c h i l d r e n who would f a i l i n s c h o o l . S i m i l a r
v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s have been done s i n c e B i n e t ' s o r i g i n a l work. F o l l o w i n g
B i n e t ' s s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n and ones subsequent to i t , r e s e a r c h e r s i n i n t e l l i
gence used the s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s themselves as c r i t e r i a by which to e v a l u a t e
new tes ts . There f o r e , the educat i o n a l achievement o f c h i l d r e n served as the
u l t i m a t e c r i t e r i o n f o r the v a l i d i t y of most new t e s t s .
We adopted a s i m i l a r c r i t e r i o n f o r our measure. We c o u l d r i o t measure
success or f a i l u r e i n school d i r e c t l y , but we c o u l d measure how f a r i n school
the respondent went; t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y a m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l l y determined
measure, but one that c o u l d depend on i n t e l l e c t u a l competence, to some
e x t e n t , as i n B i n e t ' s c r i t e r i o n . We r e l a t e d the e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l a t t a i n e d
by the respondent to the measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ; the r e s u l t s are summarized
i n Table 3.7 below. In that t a b l e , we can see that o n l y one o t h e r t e s t , the
D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n T e s t , c o r r e l a t e d h i g h e r o v e r - a l l w i t h e d u c a t i o n
than the t e s t we are g o i n g to recommend, the Sentence Completion T e s t .
Table 3.7
C o r r e l a t i o n s of E d u c a t i o n w i t h I n t e l l i g e n c e Measures
I n t e l l i g e n c e Measure r
D i g i t Span Sentence Completion. Raven Ammons Informat i o n P i c t u r e Order C e n t r a l P i c t u r e Order I n c i d e n t a l D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n
.41**
.57**
. 50**
.51**
.35**
.43**
.15*
.62**
*p - .05.
**p £ .01.
39
Table 3.8 below shows the c o r r e l a t i o n s of the i n t e l l i g e n c e measures
w i t h e d u c a t i o n , separated by r a c i a l group and by f a t h e r ' s socio-economic
r a t i n g .
Table 3.8
C o r r e l a t i o n s of E d u c a t i o n w i t h I n t e l l i g e n c e Measures, by Race and Socio-Economic Background Groups
Socio-Economic Background *ii f ̂
F a t h e r Low SES Medium SES -High SES Measure Whites B l a c k s Absent Background Background Background
D i g i t Span .42* .35* .47* .34* .30* .40*
Sentence Completion .51* .58* .58* .61* .50* .45*
Raven .48* .43* .39* .56* .39* .41*
Ammons . 51* .47* .44* .67* .37* .32*
I n f o r m a t i o n .48* .44* .41*" .43* .49* .52*
P i c t u r e Order C e n t r a l
.38* .42* .46* .57* .15 .16
P i c t u r e Order Inc i d e n t a l
.03 .29* .50* .14 - . 12 .05
D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n
.59* .59* .52* .66* .56* .47*
(N) (1/7) (188) (78) (79) (128) (80)
*p * .01.
These were computed i n order to see whether the h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n s between the
SCT and educat i o n found over the whole group might be due not to the common
f a c t o r of i n t e l l i g e n c e , but r a t h e r to a t h i r d v a r i a b l e , c u l t u r a l l y - d e t e r m i n e d
40
o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e d u c a t i o n and i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t . I t may be t h a t
s o c i a l c l a s s , o r r a c e , d e t e r m i n e s b o t h e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t l e v e l and
S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t s c o r e s . The d a t a i n T a b l e 3.7 show q u i t e
r e a s s u r i n g l y t h a t , e v e n g r o u p i n g on r a c e and f a t h e r ' s s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s
as gauges o f c u l t u r a l l y / d e t e r m i n e d e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , t h e c o r r e l a
t i o n s between SCT s c o r e s and e d u c a t i o n r e m a i n r a t h e r h i g h and s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t ,
We s h o u l d n o t e t h a t f o r the b l a c k g r o u p , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between
P i c t u r e O r d e r Inc i d e n t a l and e d u c a t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n i t i s
f o r t h e w h i t e r e s p o n d e n t s . T h e r e t h u s seems t o be m o u n t i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t
t h i s measure may be r e f l e c t i n g a v e r y s p e c i a l t y p e o f f a c i l i t y f o r some
m i n o r i t y - g r o u p , l o w e r - s t a t u s r e s p o n d e n t s .
C o r r e l a t i n g t h e S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t w i t h O t h e r T e s t s ,
P a r t i a l i n g Out D e m o g r a p h i c C o r r e l a t e s
S i n c e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t w i t h e d u c a t i o n
were so c o n s i s t e n t and s t r i k i n g , we were c o n c e r n e d t h a t we m i g h t be m e a s u r i n g
o n l y e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n any s u r p l u s f a c i l i t y c a l l e d
i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e r e f o r e , we r e - e x a x i n e d t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f the SCT w i t h
t h e o t h e r m e a s u r e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h i s t i m e p a r t i a l i n g o u t t h e e f f e c t s o f
e d u c a t i o n and o t h e r s o c i a l f a c t o r s t h a t were c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a l l t h e
i n t e l l i g e n c e measures ( s e e T a b l e 3.9 on n e x t p a g e ) . The c o r r e l a t i o n s ,
a l t h o u g h s m a l l e r t h a n t h o s e r e p o r t e d i n t h e t a b l e o f raw c o r r e l a t i o n s , a r e
s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t and r e a s o n a b l y h i g h , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e S e n t e n c e Comple
t i o n T e s t e s p e c i a l l y i s more t h a n a p r o x y f o r e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t o r
o t h e r d e m o g r a p h i c v a r i a n c e .
41
T a b l e 3.9
I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s ,
w i t h E d u c a t i o n , Age, R a c e , S e x ,
I n t e r v i e w e r R a c e , and R e g i o n P a r t i a l e d Out
T e s t SC Raven Amm. I n f o . P.O.C. P.0.1. DSS
D i g i t Span
S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n
R a v e n
Ammons
I n f o r m a t i o n
P i c t u r e O r d e r C e n t r a l
P i c t u r e O r d e r
Inc i d e n t a l
*p tf .05.
**p A .01.
A M e a s u r e o f I n t e l l i g e n c e t o be Used i n S u r v e y s :
t h e S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t
We a r e t h u s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a t h i r t e e n i t e m t e s t , r e p r o d u c e d i n
T a b l e 3.10 on t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s , f r o m t h e v e r b a l p a r t o f t h e L o r g e - T h o r n d i k e
I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t (195C) c o u l d be u s e d i n sample s u r v e y s . I t s h o u l d n o t t a k e
more t h a n an a v e r a g e o f f i v e m i n u t e s t o a d m i n i s t e r . E a c h i t e m i s a s e n t e n c e
, i n w h i c h a w o r d i s m i s s i n g . The r e s p o n d e n t i s g i v e n f i v e words f r o m w h i c h he
i s t o s e l e c t t h e one t h a t makes the b e s t , t r u e s t , most s e n s i b l e s e n t e n c e .
28** .24** .12 - .11 . 2 6 * * .06 . 29**
.33** .47** .38** .30** .18* .23**
.28** .22** .19* -05 .22**
.33** .19*
.15*
.02 .12
T a b l e 3.10
S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t
H e r e ' s a n o t h e r t y p e o f t e s t . T u r n t o p a g e - i n y o u r b o o k l e t . I ' l l r e a d e a c h o f t h e s e s e n t e n c e s
I n e a c h one t h e r e ' s a word l e f t o u t . A f t e r I r e a d t h e s e n t e n c e , you p i c k one o f t h e words u n d e r t h e
s e n t e n c e t o c o m p l e t e i t . Say t h e word t h a t y o u t h i n k makes the b e s t , t r u e s t , most s e n s i b l e c o m p l e t e
s e n t e n c e . I f y o u ' r e n o t s u r e o f t h e a n s w e r , t a k e a g u e s s .
F o r e x a m p l e : "Lemons a r e s o u r , b u t s u g a r i s " B l a n k . " W h i c h word w o u l d y o u p i c k ? (READ ALL
ANSWERS, WORDS AND NUMBERS.) "One, b i t t e r ; two, w h i t e ; t h r e e , f a t t e n i n g ; f o u r , s w e e t . " (READ
ALL ANSWERS, EVEN I F INTERRUPTED.)
I F R PICKS "FOUR, SWEET," SAY "O.K.., l e t ' s t r y
some more."
F o r t h e r e s t , I won't t e l l you i f y o u ' r e r i g h t
o r w r o n g . J u s t g i v e me y o u r a n s w e r .
I F R GIVES THE WRONG ANSWER, s a y , "No, i t ' s
number f o u r , s w e e t . Lemons a r e s o u r , b u t
s u g a r i s s w e e t . Now, l e t ' s t r y some more." 4>
DO NOT ACCEPT "Don't know" RESPONSES OR REFUSALS TO GUESS.
DO NOT REINFORCE ANY ANSWERS.
USE THE TRANSITION STATEMENTS.
CIRCLE THE ANSWER GIVEN.
S C I . We see o n l y a t n i g h t .
1) C h i l d r e n 2) P l a n t s 3) S t a r s 4) Houses 5) T r e e s
H e r e ' s t h e
n e x t one SC2. Not e v e r y c l o u d g i v e s _
1) W e a t h e r 2) Shade 3) S k y 4) C l i m a t e 5) R a i n
O.K. SC3. I n t h e s p r i n g the buds f o r m on t h e b r a n c h e s o f t h e
1) T r e e s 2) R i v e r s 3) Bugs 4) L e a v e s 5) A n i m a l s
T a b l e 3.10 -- C o n t i n u e d
Mm Hmm SC4
The n e x t
q u e s t i o n SC5
L e t ' s t r y the
n e x t one SC6
T h e r e i s an o l d , "An a p p l e a day k e e p s the d o c t o r away."
1) T a l k 2) S a y i n g 3) R e a d e r 4) Book 5) Man
The r a g g e d may p r o v e a good h o r s e .
1) Puppy 2) C h i l d 3) C a l f 4) Lamb 5 C o l t
The i m p o r t a n t t h i n g i s n o t s o much t h a t e v e r y c h i l d s h o u l d be t a u g h t as
t h a t e v e r y c h i l d s h o u l d be g i v e n t h e w i s h t o .
1) L e a r n 2) P l a y 3) Hope 4) R e j e c t 5) T e a c h
OK SC7. The p e r s o n who a n o t h e r must make good t h e damages.
1) R e f o r m s 2) Improves 3) I n s t r u c t s 4) I n j u r e s 5) D e l i g h t s
4>
A l l r i g h t SC8. F a l s e f a c t s a r e h i g h l y
Number 9
i s SC9
t o t h e p r o g r e s s o f s c i e n c e .
1) I n j u r i o u s 2) N e c e s s a r y 3) D e v o t e d 4) U s e f u l 5) I n s t r u m e n t a l
I t i s b e t t e r t h a t t e n g u i l t y p e r s o n s s u f f e r .
1) S u f f e r 2) E s c a p e 3) C a p t u r e
, t h a n t h a t one i n n o c e n t
4) S t a r v e 5) Repent
Mm Hmm SC10. The w i n d s and t h e waves a r e a l w a y s on t h e s i d e o f t h e a b l e s t ___
1) S o l d i e r s 2) S t a t e s m e n 3) N a v i g a t o r s 4) S t u d e n t s 5) W e a t h e r s
T a b l e 3.10 -- C o n t i n u e d
O.K. SC11. The v a n q u i s h e d n e v e r y e t s p o k e o f t h e c o n q u e r o r .
1) H i 2) W e l l 3) L i t t l e 4) N a s t i l y 5) O f t e n
H e r e ' s the n e x t one SC12. T h i n k l o n g when you may o n l y o n c e .
1) A b s t a i n 2) L i v e 3) D i e 4) D e c i d e 5) E a t
O.K. SC13. The c o w a r d t h r e a t e n s o n l y when he i s ...
1) A f r a i d 2) S u r r o u n d e d 3) S a f e 4) C o n q u e r e d 5) Happy
45
We had o r i g i n a l l y u s e d a f i f t e e n - i t e m t e s t , f o u n d on page 18 o f the
i n t e r v i e w ( i n A p p e n d i x 1 ) . However, two o f t h e i t e m s (numbers 1 and 15)
had e x t r e m e l y low a v e r a g e i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e l a t i o n s ; hence we do n o t recom-
ment them f o r f u r t h e r u s e . One o f t h e s e i s s t i l l p a r t o f t h e t e s t as an
i n i t i a l "warm-up" i t e m , but s h o u l d n o t be c o u n t e d i n t h e s c o r e .
T h i s t e s t d i s c r i m i n a t e s b e s t a t t h e l o w e r end o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
( s e e F i g u r e 3.1 on page 4 5 ) . The i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t
( c o r r e l a t i o n o f e v e n - i t e m s c a l e t o o d d - i t e m s c a l e ) , .46, i s r e l a t i v e l y l o w ,
b u t t h a t s h o u l d n o t be o f t o o much c o n c e r n s i n c e the t e s t i s v e r y s h o r t .
T h e r e a r e a number o f component s k i l l s i n v o l v e d i n a n s w e r i n g a g i v e n i t e m
o f t h e t e s t s u c c e s s f u l l y ( e . g . , v o c a b u l a r y , grammar a w a r e n e s s , l o g i c a l
r e a s o n i n g ) . The d i f f e r e n t i t e m s p r o b a b l y t a p t h e s e s k i l l s i n d i f f e r e n t
p r o p o r t i o n s . We w o u l d g u e s s t h a t t h e t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e
S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t s h o u l d be much h i g h e r .
Use o f t h e T e s t
One m a j o r w a r n i n g s h o u l d accompany t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f t h e S e n t e n c e
C o m p l e t i o n T e s t f o r f u r t h e r u s e . T h e r e was a d e f i n i t e e f f e c t o f r a c e o f
i n t e r v i e w e r on the s c o r e s , w i t h b l a c k i n t e r v i e w e r s ' r e s p o n d e n t s s c o r i n g
h i g h e r . B e c a u s e i n t e r v i e w e r r a c e d i d n o t i n t e r a c t w i t h any o t h e r v a r i a b l e s
t o p r o d u c e c o m p l e x e f f e c t s , and b e c a u s e we were d e p e n d i n g a l m o s t e n t i r e l y
on c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s , we d i d n o t f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o remove t h i s
e f f e c t .
However, we w o u l d c a u t i o n f u t u r e u s e r s o f the SCT t o be a l e r t f o r
p o s s i b l e i n t e r v i e w e r r a c e e f f e c t s . Such an e f f e c t c a n be e a s i l y t e s t e d f o r
and removed i f i n t e r v i e w e r r a c e i s n o t c o n f o u n d e d w i t h r e s p o n d e n t r a c e and
i f no i n t e r a c t i o n s o c c u r . T h i s w o u l d be recommended f o r u s e i n any a n a l y s e s
i n v o l v i n g i n d i v i d u a l p r e d i c t i o n , as w o u l d a c o r r e c t i o n f o r a mean d i f f e r e n c e
due t o t h e r a c e o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t .
Thus t h e SCT i s e a s y and q u i c k t o a d m i n i s t e r , u n d e r s t a n d and s c o r e ,
l o n g enough t o g i v e a s t a b l e e s t i m a t e , and b r o a d i n s c o p e , t a p p i n g s e v e r a l
d i f f e r e n t f a c e t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . I t i s a measure o f " s t a n d a r d " i n t e l l i g e n t
46
F i g u r e 3.1
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f the S c o r e s
O b t a i n e d on t h e S e n t e n c e C o m p l e t i o n T e s t
30L
m 20L
< 10
A . 1 1 1 ! 1 i i 1—
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
SCT S c o r e (Number C o r r e c t )
47
w h i c h r e l a t e s s t r o n g l y t o b u t i s more t h a n a t t a i n e d e d u c a t i o n . A l t h o u g h
i t may be a f f e c t e d by t h e r a c e o f the a d m i n i s t r a t o r , i t o t h e r w i s e seems
i d e a l f o r use i n l a r g e h o u s e h o l d s u r v e y s o f v a r i e d p o p u l a t i o n s .
48
CHAPTER FOUR
METHODS OF ASSESSING ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION IN A SURVEY:
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND DESIGN OF STUDY
S i n c e M c C l e L l a n d ' s e a r l y work on achievement: m o t i v a t i o n ( 1 9 5 3 ) ,
r e s e a r c h on t h e meaning o f t h e a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v e has f o r c e d t h e m o t i v a t i o n
t h e o r i s t t o b r o a d e n t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v e i n t o s e v e r a l
d i s t i n c t c o m p o n e n t s . The i d e a o f a u n i t a r y " a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v e " was f i r s t
q u e s t i o n e d i n t h e A t k i n s o n (1964) t h e o r y , i n w h i c h m o t i v e t o s u c c e e d and
m o t i v e t o a v o i d f a i l u r e i n t e r a c t t o p r o d u c e a r e s u l t a n t m o t i v e . S i n c e t h e n ,
A t k i n s o n has s e p a r a t e d e x p e c t a n c i e s and i n c e n t i v e s f r o m m o t i v e s ; V e r o f f
(1965) and B i r c h and V e r o f f (1966) have j u s t i f i e d t h i n k i n g a b o u t a d d i t i o n a l ,
d i s p o s i t i o n a l e x p e c t a n c i e s ; H o r n e r (1968) has shown t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a
mot i v e t o avo i d s u c c e s s , e s p e c i a l l y i n women; V e r o f f (1969) has d i s t i n g u i s h e d .
m o t i v a t i o n s f o r autonomous s t a n d a r d s o f e x c e l l e n c e f r o m t h o s e f o r more
s o c i a l s t a n d a r d s ; and R a y n o r (1969) has s u g g e s t e d t h a t f u t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n
i s a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g p e r s i s t e n t a c h i e v e m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e .
Such d e v e l o p m e n t s c a n l e a d t o c o n s i d e r i n g a c h i e v e m e n t mot i v a t i o n as
an " u m b r e l l a " c o n c e p t , e m b r a c i n g many d i s t i n c t c o m p o n e n t s . The b r e a d t h and
v a r i e t y o f t h e s e components has been e x p l o r e d i n t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s o f
r e s e a r c h on a c h i e v e m e n t ; how t h e y combine and w e i g h t t o p r e d i c t d i f f e r e n t
b e h a v i o r s has n o t been so w e l l e x p l o r e d .
I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , i t i s r e v e a l i n g t o cons i d e r two o f t h e b e h a v i o r s
t h a t have f i g u r e d h e a v i l y i n a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n r e s e a r c h o v e r the p a s t
two d e c a d e s f a n t a s y b e h a v i o r f r o m w h i c h a measure o f a c h i e v e m e n t
m o t i v a t i o n i s d e r i v e d , and r i s k - t a k i n g b e h a v i o r , w h i c h has become one o f
t h e most c r i t i c a l c r i t e r i a f o r e v i d e n c e o f r e s u l t a n t a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n
s i n c e A t k i n s o n f i r s t d e v e l o p e d h i s t h i n k i n g on r i s k - t a k i n g i n 1957.
F a n t a s y measures o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n have become the s t a n d a r d
measure o f a c h i e v e m e n t mot i v a t i o n , ones by w h i c h more i n n o v a t i v e a s s e s s
ment t e c h n i q u e s a r e e v a l u a t e d . F a n t a s y measures were d e v e l o p e d o r i g i n a l l y
by c o n t r a s t i n g p e o p l e i n " a c h i e v e m e n t s i t u a t i o n s " ( e . g . , e g o - i n v o l v e m e n t
i9
a b o u t d o i n g we 11 on a t e s t ) t o t h o s e n o t i n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s . As s u c h ,
p r o j e c t i v e i m a g e r y , u s u a l l y i n r e s p o n s e t o s e l e c t e d TAT p i c t u r e s and c a r e
f u l l y coded by a h i g h l y r e l i a b l e s y s t e m ( A t k i n s o n , 1 9 5 8 ) , r e p r e s e n t s b o t h a
r e s u l t o f and a s y n t h e s i s o f many o f the s e p a r a t e a c h i e v e m e n t components.
Whether a p e r s o n i n a s t o r y i s f e a r f u l o r h o p e f u l , w h e t h e r n e g a t i v e c o n s e
q u e n c e s o c c u r i f he s u c c e e d s , w h e t h e r he has h i g h l y i n t e r n a l i z e d s t a n d a r d s
o f e x c e l l e n c e , o r u s e s t h o s e d e f i n e d by s o c i e t y , a r e n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
i n the o v e r - a l l s c o r e . Thus, t h e a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n s c o r e r e p r e s e n t s
a c o m p o s i t e o f p o t e n t i a l components o f a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n . I n d e e d ,
t h e s u c c e s s o f the measure may depend on i t s b e i n g an u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
p o t p o u r r i o f v a r i o u s a c h i e v e m e n t a t t i t u d e s .
Now l e t ' s l o o k a t r i s k - t a k i n g b e h a v i o r . A t k i n s o n ' s t h e o r y o f r i s k -
t a k i n g (1957) h y p o t h e s i z e s c h a t p e o p l e w i t h h i g h a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n l i k e
t o be c h a l l e n g e d by the work t h e y do o r t h e games t h e y p l a y . They l i k e t o
s u c c e e d b u t o n l y when t h e r e i s some c h a n c e o f f a i l u r e . S p e c i f i c a l l y ,
A t k i n s o n t h e o r i z e s t h a t t h e y l i k e t o o p e r a t e b e s t a t a 507o p r o b a b i l i t y o f
s u c c e s s . S i n c e A t k i n s o n ' s i n i t i a l s t a t e m e n t , a number o f e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s
have s u p p o r t e d t h i s t h e o r y . More r e c e n t l y , r e s e a r c h by H e c k h a u s o n (1967)
has s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e p r e f e r r e d r i s k f o r h i g h a c h i e v e r s may be a t a more
d i f f i c u l t l e v e l t h a n was o r i g i n a l l y t h o u g h t , as l o w as 3 0 % c h a n c e o f
s u c c e s s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h a t m o d e r a t e l e v e l s o f r i s k a r e
p j j ^ e f e j r r e ^ i ^ p - ^ m o t i v a t e d p e o p l e s t i l l seems
t ^ ^ h o . l d . O p e r a t i o n a l l y , t h i s has u s u a l l y been t a k e n t o mean a s e l e c t i o n o f
m o d e r a t e r i s k s i t u a t i o n s , and b e t t e r pe r f o r m a n c e o r p e r s i s t e n c e i n s u c h
s i t u a t i o n s by h i g h l y m o t i v a t e d s u b j e c t s . When one c l o s e l y e x a m i n e s moderate
r i s k t a k i n g , h o w e v e r , i t w o u l d be h a r d t o p i n p o i n t any one o f the a f o r e
m e n t i o n e d components as b e i n g d o m i n a n t i n a l l s i t u a t i o n s a c r o s s t h e b o a r d .
F e a r o f f a i l u r e , f e a r o f s u c c e s s , f u t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , autonomous s t a n d a r d s ,
s o c i a l c o m p a r i s o n s t a n d a r d s c a n a l l be i n v o l v e d . C e r t a i n l y i n any g i v e n
s i t u a t i o n , one o f t h e s e may p r e d o m i n a t e . And i n d e e d one c a n e x p e r i m e n t a 1 l y
m a n i p u l a t e r i s k - t a k i n g b e h a v i o r by e m p h a s i z i n g one o r a n o t h e r o f t h e s e
components ( H e c k h a u s o n , 1 9 6 7 ) . B u t , a c r o s s the b o a r d , r i s k - t a k i n g b e h a v i o r
50
seems t o be a c a t c h a l l b e h a v i o r , r e f l e c t i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f many components
o f a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n a t t h e same t ime.
Thus, p r o j e c t i v e a c h i e v e m e n t i m a g e r y r e s p o n s e s and m o d e r a t e r i s k - t a k i n g
a r e two t y p e s o f a c h i e v e m e n t b e h a v i o r s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e n d - p r o d u c t s o f
many d i f f e r e n t components o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n . As s u c h , t h e y a r e
u s e f u l ' b e h a v i o r i n d i c e s o f mot i v a t i o n t o f e r r e t o u t p o t e n t i a l r e f inement i n
a s s e s s m e n t and t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s . We w i l l make use o f t h i s c o n c l u s i o n
a b o u t t h e s e b e h a v i o r s i n o u r own p r o c e d u r e i n t h i s s t u d y .
The f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f the o n c e - u n i t a r y c o n c e p t o f a c h i e v e m e n t mot i v e has
b e e n p a r t i a l l y the r e s u l t o f work w i t h new s u b j e c t p o p u l a t i o n s . M o s t o f
t h e e a r l y t h e o r y o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n was t h e r e s u l t o f d a t a c o l l e c t e d
f r o m w h i t e c o l l e g e m a l e s . When v e r i f i c a t i o n on o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n s was
a t t e m p t e d , t h e t h e o r y o r t h e v a l i d i t y o f known a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e d u r e s o f t e n
were n o t s u p p o r t e d . T h i s r e s e a r c h , p l u s r e l a t e d s o c i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h and
o b s e r v a t i o n , p o i n t t o two p o p u l a t i o n d i v i s i o n s i m p o r t a n t t o work i n a c h i e v e
ment m o t i v a t i o n : d i v i s i o n by s e x and by r a c e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
A l a r g e amount o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h and t h e o r y
s u p p o r t s s e p a r a t e e x a m i n a t i o n s o f men and women. I n t h e i r 1962 n a t i o n a l
s u r v e y o f t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f s u b j e c t i v e a d j u s t m e n t , V e r o f f , F e l d , and G u r i n
f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o do s e p a r a t e f a c t o r a n a l y s e s f o r men and women and
a r r i v e d a t c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s t r u c t u r e s f o r e a c h s e x . H o r n e r
( 1 9 6 8 ) has c o g e n t l y a r g u e d , f r o m d a t a and t h e o r y , t h a t t h e m o t i v a t i o n s
p r i m a r i l y e f f e c t i v e i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g women's a c h i e v e m e n t p r e f e r e n c e s and
p e r f o r m a n c e s a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e o f men. She c o n t e n d s t h a t f e a r
o f s u c c e s s may be a s t r o n g i n h i b i t i n g f a c t o r f o r A m e r i c a n women, one t h a t
i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e i r a s s e r t i v e n e s s i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h one a n o t h e r as w e l l
as w i t h men. E l s e w h e r e , V e r o f f , W i l c o x , and A t k i n s o n ( 1 9 5 3 ) , F r e n c h and
L e s s e r ( 1 9 6 4 ) , P i e r c e and Bowman ( 1 9 6 0 ) , A n g i l i n i ( 1 9 5 5 ) , L e s s e r , K r a w i t z
and P a c k a r d ( 1 9 6 3 ) , and most r e c e n t l y F o n t a n a (1970) have p r o d u c e d r e s e a r c h
e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f f a n t a s y measures o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n
t o s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s and t o t y p e s o f p e r f o r m a n c e i s d i f f e r e n t f o r women
and men.
51
The f i n d i n g s o f D o r n b u s c h ( 1 9 6 6 ) , Mead ( 1 9 3 5 ) , K l u c k h o h n ( 1 9 5 3 ) ,
Mannes ( 1 9 6 3 ) , and P a r s o n s (1949) a r e j u s t a few e x a m p l e s o f s o c i o l o g i c a l
s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t how A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y i n d u c e s a d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f a c h i e v e
ment o r i e n t a t i o n i n women t h a n i n men. The c r u x o f the s o c i o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n
i s t h a t a woman 1 s a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e home,
c h i e f l y i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e s o c i a l demands o f h e r f a m i l y , w h i l e a man's
a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n i s i n t h e b u s i n e s s and p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r l d o u t s i d e
o f the home, ch i e f l y i n r e s p o n s e t o h i s own i n t e r n a l s t r i v i n g s . I n d e e d ,
V e r o f f and F e l d (1970) have f o u n d t h a t men and women w i t h h i g h a c h i e v e m e n t
m o t i v a t i o n a p p r o a c h b o t h m a r r i a g e and p a r e n t h o o d i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s ,
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s we have j u s t m e n t i o n e d .
Common s e n s e and s o c i o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s d i c t a t e t h a t r a c e i s a
f a c t o r w i t h as much p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t on a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n as s e x .
The b a r r i e r s t o a c h i e v e m e n t t h a t have e x i s t e d f o r b l a c k s i n o u r s o c i e t y
need no d o c u m e n t a t i o n h e r e . Such b a r r i e r s may c r e a t e f o r b l a c k s a p e c u l i a r
s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h r e g a r d t o the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n ,
t h e meaning o f m o d e r a t e r i s k - t a k i n g , and t h e w h o l e meaning o f s u c c e s s and
f a i l u r e . K a t z (1967) and V e r o f f and P e e l e (1969) have p o i n t e d t o t h e o v e r l y
r i g i d , u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y h i g h s t a n d a r d s o f e x c e l l e n c e sometimes d e v e l o p e d
by b l a c k s w h i c h may i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e i r own e x p e c t a t i o n s o f s u c c e s s .
A l s o p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r i k i n g i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e same f e a r o f s u c c e s s
o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t p e r v a d e s women's a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n m i g h t a l s o e x i s t
f o r many b l a c k s i n o u r s o c i e t y .
I n a g r o u p f o r whom a c h i e v e m e n t i s so d i f f i c u l t , i f an i n d i v i d u a l does
a c h i e v e on m i d d l e - c l a s s t e r m s , t h e r e i s a p o s s i b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n
o f t h e p e r s o n ' s own s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y w i t h t h e g r o u p o f h i s o r i g i n . Such
c o n f l i c t s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f s u c c e s s , c o u p l e d w i t h v e r y low e x p e c t a t i o n s
o f s u c c e s s , may p r o d u c e i n b l a c k s an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p s y c h o l o g i c a l
s t r u c t u r e a b o u t a c h i e v e m e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e f a m i l y p a t t e r n o f most b l a c k s
r a i s e d i n u r b a n s o c i e t y i s s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m most w h i t e f a m i l y
p a t t e r n s , w h i c h may a f f e c t how b o t h men and women from b l a c k g r o u p s s t r u c t u r e
t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t f o r a c h i e v e m e n t . I f the r o l e o f p r o v i d e r i s t h r o w n on t h e
bl
s h o u l d e r s o f women i n u r b a n b l a c k soc i e t y , and men a r e b a r r e d f r o m
d i g n i f i e d work, b l a c k men and women may g e t a v e r y d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e
i n t h e l e a r n i n g o f a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n t h a n t h e i r w h i t e c o u n t e r p a r t s .
F i n a l l y , the s c h o o l e n v i r o n m e n t s f o r b l a c k s and w h i t e s a r e c r i t i c a l l y
d i f f e r e n t . G e n e r a l l y , t h e g h e t t o s c h o o l r e i n f o r c e s t h e b l a c k c h i l d ' s low
e v a l u a t i o n o f h i s own competence and hope o f s u c c e s s .
A l t h o u g h r a c e and s e x w o u l d a t t h i s p o i n t seem t o be t h e most p o w e r f u l
/rpr^ d e m o g r a p h i c i n f l u e n c e s upon a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n , many o t h e r s a l s o d e s e r v e
zJ^-^S' c o n s i d e r a t i o n . F o r t h o s e o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s , i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
r e l i g i o n , o r t y p e o f j o b , t h e m e a n i n g o f a c h i e v e m e n t m i g h t a l s o v a r y .
C l e a r l y , t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e e n d l e s s .
T h u s , t h e " a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v e " has grown f r o m a u n i t a r y c o n c e p t w i t h
one meaning f o r a l l p o p u l a t i o n g r o u p s t o an u m b r e l l a c o n c e p t c o v e r i n g many
d i v e r s e components, e a c h o f w h i c h m i g h t c a r r y d i f f e r e n t meanings f o r
d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n g r o u p s . I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e measurement o f a c h i e v e
ment m o t i v a t i o n a r e immense. No l o n g e r c a n one hope to.make a c c u r a t e
p r e d i c t i o n s a b o u t ach i e v e m e n t b e h a v i o r s oh t h e bas i s o f one m o t i v a t i o n
s c o r e d e r i v e d i n the same way f o r a l l .
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h i s new c o n c e p t i o n has t h r e e . c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n s
f o r measurement:
J> 1. I n d i v i d u a l components o f a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n must be m e a s u r e d .
These l i k e l y i n c l u d e m o t i v e t o s u c c e e d , f e a r o f f a i l u r e , f e a r o f s u c c e s s ,
autonomous a c h i e v e m e n t , e x p e c t a n c i e s , and s o on. % d
ij T 2. A component may need t o be measured d i f f e r e n t l y i n d i f f e r e n t
segments o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
3. The components may combine and w e i g h t d i f f e r e n t l y f o r v a r i o u s
a c h i e v e m e n t c o n t e x t s ( j o b , s c h o o l , l e i s u r e , e t c . ) o r f o r d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n
g r o u p s .
C l e a r l y , t h e u l t i m a t e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e s e t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s w o u l d r e s u l t
i n no p r e d i c t i o n a t a l l , f o r one c a n i n f i n i t e l y f r a g m e n t components,
p o p u l a t i o n s , and b e h a v i o r s . The i n c r e a s e i n a c c u r a c y g a i n e d by s u c h f r a g
m e n t a t i o n ( o b v i o u s l y , t h e b e s t " p r e d i c t i o n " i s a f t e r che f a c t ) , must be
b a l a n c e d a g a i n s t the d e c r e a s e d p r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l v a l u e .
53
P l a n o f the I n t e r v i e w
I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e above d i c t a t e s f o r measurement, t h e D e t r o i t
i n t e r v i e w i n c l u d e d many v a r i e d a c h i e v e m e n t m e a s u r e s . These i n c l u d e d
s e v e r a l new m e t h o d s , p l u s r e v i s i o n s o f some t r a d i t i o n a l o n e s ; t h e y a r e
l i s t e d b e l o w a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t y p e o f r e s p o n s e r e q u i r e d .
1, S t o r y - t e l 1 i n g i n r e s p o n s e t o p i c t o r i a l and v e r b a l c u e s . T h i s
t a s k was p l a c e d n e a r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e i n t e r v i e w w i t h a s p e c i a l f i l l -
i n - t h e - b l a n k "warm-up" e x e r c i s e p r e c e e d i n g i t , t o i n s u r e a d e q u a t e r e s p o n s e s . *
The f o u r s t o r y - t e l 1 i n g i t e m s a p p e a r on pages 7 t o 10 o f t h e i n t e r v i e w
( A p p e n d i x 1 ) . The f i r s t two a r e based on the f o u r p i c t u r e s w h i c h p r o d u c e d
t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g a c h i e v e m e n t r e s p o n s e s i n t h e 1960 n a t i o n a l s u r v e y :
a b l u e c o l l a r work s c e n e ( p i c t u r e 1) and a w h i t e c o l l a r work scene
( p i c t u r e 2) f o r men; a c a r e e r s e t t i n g ( p i c t u r e 3) and a homemaking s e t t i n g
( p i c t u r e 4) f o r women. The t h i r d i t e m , a v e r b a l cue ("Ted/Joan n e v e r
h e s i t a t e s t o g i v e h i s / h e r o p i n i o n . " ) , was meant t o e l i c i t power c o n c e r n s ,
b u t was a l s o i n t e n d e d as a warm-up f o r t h e f o u r t h i t e m . The l a s t i t e m
( " A f t e r f i r s t t e r m f i n a l exams, P h i l / J i l l f i n d s h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f a t the t o p
o f h i s / h e r c l a s s a t m e d i c a l s c h o o l . " ) was the i t e m most d i a g n o s t i c o f f e a r
o f s u c c e s s i n women i n H o r n e r ' s r e s e a r c h ( 1 9 6 8 ) .
A p p e n d i x 2 d e s c r i b e s i n f u l l the c o d i n g o f t h e s e f o u r i t e m s f o r com
p o n e n t s o f a c h i e v e m e n t mot i v a t i o n . B r i e f l y , " s t a n d a r d " a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n
( f r o m the 1958 A t k i n s o n m a n u a l ) , power m o t i v a t i o n ( V e r o f f , 1958), t y p e o f
outcome ( p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e , o r no o u t c o m e ) , i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y , and b l o c k s t o
a c h i e v e m e n t were c o d e d on a l l f o u r i t e m s . I n a d d i t i o n , m a s t e r y , s o c i a l
c o m p a r i s o n , s o c i a l a p p r o v a l , autonomy, f u t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , p e r s o n a l e f f i c a c y ,
f e a r o f f a i l u r e ( B i r n e y , et_ a l _ . , 1 9 6 9 ) , and f e a r o f s u c c e s s ( H o r n e r , 1968)
were coded on i t e m s 1, 2, and 4.
*The t e c h n i q u e a p p a r e n t l y was s u c c e s s f u l : o n l y 4 o f t h e 365 p r o t o c o l s ,
o r 1%, were n o t c o d a b l e , compared t o 15% i n a I960 n a t i o n a l s u r v e y ( V e r o f f ,
e t a l . , 1 9 6 0 ) .
1. S h o r t e r open - endc:) i t e m s ol" c o j n p : > t i n g a s e i r t s r about onese I f.
These i t e m s w e r e : "Tn '-he onxt t e n y e a r : i'm g'-inv; 'G.-.'1, and "Compared
t o o t h e r men/women my age . 1 . . . " , from pnv.:: 8 o f th<- i n t e r v i e w . B a c k g r o u n d
f o r t h i s t e c h n i q u e came f r o m the M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s p r e d i c t i n g
e c o n o m i c b e h a v i o r i n C o l u m b i a n f a r m e r s ( R o g e r s and N e i l . l , 1 9 6 6 ) . The items
t a p f u t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and s o c i a l c o m p a r i s o n and were coded f o r " s t a n d a r d "
a c h i e v e m e n t mot i v a t i o n .
3. S e l f - r e p o r t i n f o r c e d c h o i c e s among e i t h e r two o r t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e s
Many o f t h e s e i t e m s were a d o p t e d f r o m the J a c k s o n I I S t u d y a n d o t h e r p r e v i o u s
work i n m o t i v a t i o n , w i t h two m a j o r r e v i s i o n s : a f o r c e d c h o i c e f o r m a t was
u s e d t o a v o i d the r e s p o n s e b i a s t h a t was c o n f o u n d i n g t h e r e s p o n s e s t o the
a g r e e - d i s a g r e e f o r m a t ; and more c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s were u s e d as t h e c o n t e x t
f o r t h e i t e m s t o i n c r e a s e t h e p e r s o n a l r e l e v a n c e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o the
r e s p o n d e n t s . See pages 9-12, 2 1 , and 26 o f the i n t e r v i e w .
4. A n x i e t y m e a s u r e s . These t e c h n i q u e s r e c e i v e d s p e c i a l m e t h o d o l o g i c r . i
a t t e n t i o n . F i r s t , s e v e n i t e m s from t h e M a n d l e r - S a r a s o n T e s t A n x i e t y
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e were s e l e c t e d f r o m t h e twe1ve u s e d i n J a c k s o n . The t e s t had a
v e r y h i g h i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y , and s o c o u l d be s h o r t e n e d w i t h o u t a p p r e c i a b l y '
l o w e r i n g r e l i a b i l i t y . S e c o n d , t h e i t e m s were c h a n g e d f r o m a g r e e - d i s a g r e e
f o r m a t t o a t h r e e - p o i n t c h e c k - s c a l e t o a v o i d response, b i a s and i n c r e a s e
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . N e x t , an " i n t e r v i e w e x p e r i e n c e " s c a l e ( p a g e s 26-27)
p a r a l l e l t o the more u s u a l " p a s t t e s t e x p e r i e n c e " s c a l e was c o n s t r u c t e d t o
t a p a n x i e t y i n the i n t e r v i e w as c o n t r a s t e d t o more c h r o n i c a n x i e t y . Th i s
d i s t i n c t i o n p l a y s a m a j o r p a r t i n a s s e s s m e n t o f the i n t e r v i e w e r - r a c e e f f e c t
i n c a s e r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t d i f f e r e n t a n x i e t y r e s p o n s e s t o a b l a c k t h a n t o
a w h i t e i n t e r v i e w e r n o t o n l y a b o u t p a s t p e r t o r m a n c e but a l s o a b o u t p r e s e n t
p e r f o r m a n c e . F i n a l l y , two methods o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , " p u b l i c " ( r e s p o n d e n t
g i v e s o r a l a n s w e r s t o i n t e r - / i e w e r ) and " p r i v a t e " ( r e s p o n d e n t marks h i s own
a n s w e r s , wh i c h t h e i n t e r v i ewer does n o t see) we re a d o p t e d w i t h the " p a s t
t e s t e x p e r i e n c e " s c a l e , -:<.s o. way t o see I r. t he re was any i n d i c a t i o n t h a t
r e s p o n d e n t s make an " a p p r o p r i a t e " a n x i e t y r e s p o n s e p u b l i c l y t h a t t h e y d o n ' t
do p r i v a t e l y . R e s u l t s o f t h i s m a n i p u l a t i o n a r e r e p o r t e d i n A p p e n d i x 5;
55
t h e y show no d i f f e r e n c e s . A l l " i n t e r v i e w e x p e r i e n c e " s c a l e s were admin
i s t e r e d i n t h e p r i v a t e c o n d i t i o n .
5. C h o i c e o f m o d e r a t e r i s k i n a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e s e t t i n g s . A f t e r
e a c h o f f i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t m e a s u r e s , t h e r e s p o n d e n t s were g i v e n an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o c h o o s e a m o d e r a t e l y d i f f i c u l t i n t e l l i g e n c e i t e m ( s e e pages
15-16, 20, 23, 29, 31 o f the i n t e r v i e w A p p e n d i x 1) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way.*
The i n t e r v i e w e r s a i d , a f t e r t h e t e s t was c o m p l e t e d : " I ' v e s c o r e d y o u r
p e r f o r m a n c e so f a r on c h i s t e s t . L e t ' s t r y j u s t one more o f t h e s e i t e m s .
W h i c h one w o u l d you l i k e t o t r y ?
a. One t h a t s h o u l d be e a s y f o r you?
b. One t h a t s h o u l d be h a r d f o r you?
c. Or s o m e t h i n g i n between?
I f t h e r e s p o n d e n t c h o s e c, he was f u r t h e r a s k e d : " L i k e most o f t h e ones
you g o t r i g h t , o r a l i t t l e h a r d e r t h a n most o f t h e ones y o u g o t r i g h t ? "
The l a s t r e s p o n s e was coded h i g h on m o d e r a t e r i s k - t a k i n g . Th i s measu re
was d e r i v e d f r o m t h e A t k i n s o n (1957) t h e o r y t h a t p e o p l e w i t h h i g h a c h i e v e
ment o r i e n t a t i o n p r e f e r t o o p e r a t e u n d e r a m o d e r a t e , o r 50% c h a n c e o f
s u c c e s s .
6. M e a s u r e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n T e s t s
( p a g e s 24-25 o f t h e i n t e r v i e w ) . A n o t h e r a s s e s s m e n t o f m o d e r a t e r i s k i n
t h e i n t e r v i e w came i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e DSST, i n w h i c h t h e t a s k was t o
w r i t e i n s y m b o l s f o r numbers a c c o r d i n g t o a p r e s c r i b e d c o d e . E a c h r e s p o n d e n t
was g i v e n t h e D i g i t Symbol t a s k f o r one m i n u t e . He was t h e n o f f e r e d v i s u a l
e x a m p l e s o f forms t h a t were e i t h e r s h o r t e r o r j u s t a l i t t l e l o n g e r t h a n h i s
i n i t i a l base r a t e p e r f o r m a n c e , and was a s k e d t o c h o o s e one f o r m . I f he
c h o s e one j u s t a l i t t l e l o n g e r t h a n h i s base r a t e , he was c l a s s i f i e d as
someone c h o o s i n g a m o d e r a t e r i s k ; i f he c h o s e a s h o r t e r one, he was
c l a s s i f i e d as someone n o t c h o o s i n g m o d e r a t e r i s k . T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
c o m p r i s e d t h e D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n M o d e r a t e P r e f e r e n c e .
* T h i s p r o c e d u r e was s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r D i g i t Span c h o i c e ( s e e pages
15-16 o f t h e I n t e r v i e w A p p e n d i x ) .
5b
A s e c o n d measure d e r i v e d from t h e DSST i s the d i f f e r e n t i a l between a
p e r s o n ' s p e r f o r m a n c e on a t a s k i n w h i c h he e x p e c t s t o be a b l e t o do w e l l
and h i s p e r f o r m a n c e on an o b v i o u s l y imposs i b l e t a s k , t h e number o f s y m b o l s
t o be t r a n s c r i b e d b e i n g much l o n g e r t h a n he had p r e v i o u s l y been a b l e t o
do. The measure, D i f f e r e n t i a l DSS P e r f o r m a n c e , i s formed by s u b t r a c t i n g
r a t e on Form L ( l o n g ) f r o m r a t e on Form M ( m o d e r a t e ) . (See A p p e n d i x 2
f o r a c o m p l e t e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t f o r m s . ) Thus the r e s p o n d e n t
s e r v e s as h i s own c o n t r o l , t h e r e b y m i n i m i z i n g t h e e f f e c t o f i n d i v i d u a l
d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t y . ( I n A p p e n d i x 5, t h e r e i s a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f
a s m a l l e x p e r i m e n t c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i n t e r v i e w t o t e s t
w h e t h e r o r n o t s t a t i n g the p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s e x p l i c i t l y . had any
e f f e c t on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e DSS f o r m s . I t d i d n o t . )
Thus t h e m o t i v a t i o n m e a s u r e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e i n t e r v i e w v a r i e d a c r o s s
s e v e r a l components o f a c h i e v e m e n t ( f u t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , power, autonomy,
m a s t e r y , and so on) and a c r o s s s e v e r a l a s s e s s m e n t methods ( s t o r y - t e l l i n g ,
f o r c e s c h o i c e , and a c t u a l b e h a v i o r ) .
P r a c t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
The t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n o f measurement above i m p l i e s e x t e n s i v e
a n a l y s e s i n t e r m s o f d i v i d i n g the i t e m s i n t o component m e a s u r e s , d i v i d i n g
t h e sample i n t o homogeneous g r o u p s , and f i n d i n g o p t ima1 c o m b i n a t i o n s o f
measures f o r p r e d i c t i n g v a r i o u s b e h a v i o r s . However, t h e s e i m p l i c a t i o n s
had t o be b a l a n c e d a g a i n s t t h e e c o n o m i c and t i m e c o n s t r a i n t s upon b o t h t h e
i n t e r v i e w and t h e d a t a a n a l y s e s . To r e d u c e t h e number o f p o s s i b l e a n a l y s e s
and make t h e most e f f i c i e n t use o f l i m i t e d d a t a , t h e f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s
and a r b i t r a r y d e c i s i o n s were made.
1. P r o j e c t i v e a c h i e v e m e n t i m a g e r y and r i s k - t a k i n g b e h a v i o r were
assumed t o be t h e b e s t measures o f a c h i e v e m e n t p r e s e n t i n t h e i n t e r v i e w .
T h e s e two w o u l d be t h e c r i t e r i a a g a i n s t w h i c h p r o s p e c t i v e s u r v e y measures
w o u l d be t e s t e d . These were a d o p t e d f o r two m a j o r r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e y
do seem t o be c l e a r u m b r e l l a m e a s u r e s , as we p o i n t e d o u t e a r l i e r . As
s u c h , t h e y s h o u l d g i v e c o n s i d e r a b l e l a t i t u d e i n a s e a r c h f o r v a l i d new
57
t e c h n i q u e s . S e c o n d l y , b o t h a r e f i r m l y e n t r e n c h e d i n a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n
t h e o r y and r e s e a r c h as p r o x i e s f o r the g e n e r a l m o t i v e . E v e n though b o t h
p u r p o r t t o measure t h i s same e n t i t y , the methods d i f f e r so t o t a l l y as t o
make s e l e c t i o n o f one o v e r t h e o t h e r i m p o s s i b l e . Thus t h e d u a l c r i t e r i o n
m i g h t be e x p e c t e d t o r e l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o b o t h o f t h e s e c r i t e r i a .
2. P o p u l a t i o n . A l l a n a l y s e s w o u l d be r u n s e p a r a t e l y f o r t h e f o u r
r a c e - s e x g r o u p s : w h i t e m a l e s , b l a c k m a l e s , w h i t e f e m a l e s , and b l a c k f e m a l e s .
T h i s break-down was made f o r two r e a s o n s : f i r s t , r a c e and s e x seem by f a r
t h e most i m p o r t a n t d e m o g r a p h i c f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g a c h i e v e m e n t , and s e c o n d ,
t h e s e a r e d i s t i n c t i o n s w h i c h c a n be e a s i l y made on any s u r v e y s a m p l e ,
w h e r e a s o t h e r s ( I Q , SES, age) m i g h t n o t be.
3. To q u a l i f y as a "component m e a s u r e " , a s c a l e must be composed o f
t h r e e o r more " o b j e c t i v e " i t e m s f e a s i b l e f o r u s e i n a n a t i o n a l s u r v e y .
4. To q u a l i f y as a "component measure", a s c a l e must e i t h e r :
a. i n c l u d e i t e m s w h i c h a p r i o r i i n s p e c t i o n shows t o be r e l a t e d
t o one a n o t h e r and w h i c h meet some m i n i m a l c r i t e r i o n o f i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y ,
o r
b. i n c l u d e i t e m s e m p i r i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o one a n o t h e r i n t h e sub-
s a m p l e and a p p e a r t o make some t h e o r e t i c a l s e n s e .
T h e s e two methods o f component c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e s e e n as e q u a l l y
i m p o r t a n t . The f i r s t , o r "a p r i o r i " method u t i l i z e s p a s t work on t h e
components o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n . The s e c o n d , o r " e m p i r i c a l " method
a l l o w s l e e w a y f o r v a r i a t i o n i n t h e number and c o n t e n t o f components a c r o s s
s u b - s a m p l e s .
5. Component measures w o u l d be c o n s t a n t w i t h i n any one g r o u p . T h a t
i s , a b l a c k male power measure w o u l d n o t change w i t h t h e b e h a v i o r t o be
p r e d i c t e d , b u t r e m a i n c o n s t a n t f o r a l l a n a l y s e s .
6. To q u a l i f y f o r recommended u s e , a component measure must show a
d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n t o e i t h e r r i s k - t a k i n g o r p r o j e c t i v e a c h i e v e m e n t i m a g e r y ,
p r e f e r a b l y h o t h .
7. L i n e a r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f e q u a l l y w e i g h t e d components w o u l d be
assumed.
58
P l a n o f A n a l y s i s
I n k e e p i n g ; w i t h the above a s s u m p t i o n s , the d a t a a n a l y s i s was d i v i d e d
i n t o t h r e e m a j o r s t e p s :
1. C r i t e r i a d e v e l o p m e n t . F o r e a c h c r i t e r i o n - , s e v e r a l measures were
a v a i l a b l e : i t e m s P I , P2, P3, and P4 f o r p r o j e c t i v e s ; . f i v e p o s t - i n t e l l i g e n c e
t e s t - c h o i c e s and D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n c h o i c e and d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r f o r
mance f o r r i s k - t a k i n g . C o r r e l a t i o n a l d a t a and p a s t r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s were
used' t o s e l e c t t h e b e s t o f t h e s e measures w h i c h were t h e n formed i n t o two
c r i t e r i o n s c a l e s . By a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , t h e s c a l e s were c h e c k e d f o r
c o n t a m i n a n t s ; e f f e c t s o f r a c e o f i n t e r v i e w e r , IQ, o r l e n g t h o f p r o j e c t i v e
r e s p o n s e ; and i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h e s e w i t h the r e s p o n d e n t ' s r a c e and s e x .
Any c o n t a m i n a t i n g e f f e c t s were removed by r e g r e s s i o n .
2. Component d e v e l o p m e n t . F i v e a p r i o r i s c a l e s were formed f r o m t h e
34 i t e m s by i n s p e c t i o n . T h i s p r o c e s s was n o t done s e p a r a t e l y f o r r a c e - s e x
g r o u p s . The e m p i r i c a l s c a l e s were f o r m e d by means o f a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f
t h e 34 i t e m s f o r e a c h g r o u p and s e l e c t i o n o f t h e " d e f i n i n g " i t e m s f r o m
e a c h f a c t o r f o r e a c h g r o u p . The i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e i t e m s on the
s c a l e s was e x a m i n e d .
3. T e s t i n g t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f component measure. E a c h component
measure was t h e n t e s t e d f o r i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e two c r i t e r i a .
S e l e c t i o n o f s c a l e s f o r use i n - a n a t i o n a l s u r v e y was b a s e d on the
a n a l y s e s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , p l u s some p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a b o u t admin
i s t r a t i v e d i f f i c u l t i e s and t h e r e s u l t s o f an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e s c a l e s '
h e u r i s t i c v a l u e i n r e l a t i n g t o v a r i o u s s o c i a l s t a t u s v a r i a b l e s . T h e s e
f a c t o r s w i l l b e - f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d i n t h e c h a p t e r on r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s .
59
CHAPTER F I V E
METHODS OF ASSESSING ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION IN A SURVEY:
ANALYSIS OF DATA
C r i t e r i a D e v e l o p m e n t
P r o j e c t i v e C r i t e r i o n
S l x p r o j e c t i v e i t e m s were a d m i n i s t e r e d ; t h e i r i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s ,
computed s e p a r a t e l y f o r males and females, a r e shown i n T a b l e 5.1. Items SP1
and SP2, t h e two i n c o m p l e t e s e n t e n c e s , were r e j e c t e d f r o m t h e c r i t e r i o n
b e c a u s e o f t h e i r n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h the. o t h e r i t e m s . I t e m P3 was
a l s o r e j e c t e d , f o r two r e a s o n s : (1) i t s a v e r a g e c o r r e l a t i o n s t o i t e m s P2
and P4, a l t h o u g h p o s i t i v e , were l o w e r t h a n t h e o t h e r a v e r a g e i n t e r c o r r e
l a t i o n s , and (2) t h i s i t e m was n o t c o d e d on t h e s t a n d a r d 0-11 s c a l e , but
on a 0-2 a b b r e v i a t e d s c a l e . T h u s , t h e t h r e e i t e m s coded by the s t a n d a r d
method ( a n 1 1 - p o i n t s c a l e d e v e l o p e d by A t k i n s o n , 1 9 5 8 ) , P I , P2, and P4,
were summed t o f o r m t h e p r o j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n s c a l e . B e c a u s e p r e v i o u s
r e s e a r c h ( V e r o f f , e t a l . , 1960) had f o u n d t h a t t h e s h e e r l e n g t h o f r e s p o n s e
a f f e c t s t h e amount o f a c h i e v e m e n t i m a g e r y , an a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w i t h
r e s p o n s e l e n g t h as c o v a r i a t e was r u n . The r e s u l t s , i n T a b l e 5.2, show
l e n g t h o f r e s p o n s e , i n t e r v i e w e r r a c e , and s e x t o be s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s ,
w i t h no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s : t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w i t h b l a c k i n t e r v i e w e r s
had more a c h i e v e m e n t i m a g e r y , * w h i l e women gave more a c h i e v e m e n t i m a g e r y
t h a n men. ( S i n c e d i f f e r e n t s t i m u l u s p i c t u r e s were e m p l o y e d f o r t h e two
s e x g r o u p s , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e was n o t o f c o n c e r n ) . However, t h e e f f e c t s o f
i n t e r v i e w e r r a c e and r e s p o n s e l e n g t h ( q u a n t i f i e d by a r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n ,
as shown i n T a b l e 5.3) had t o be removed f r o m t h e p r o j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n .
T h e r e f o r e , a new s c o r e , t h e p r o j e c t i v e r e s i d u a l , was computed f o r each
* T h i s was i n s p i t e o f the f a c t t h a t t h e b l a c k i n t e r v i e w e r s t e n d t o e l i c i t
s h o r t e r s t o r i e s i n g e n e r a l .
60
Table 5.1
I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s ' of, P r o j e c t i v e Assessments o f -
Achievement M o t i v a t i o n , by Sex.
S t o r i e s T o l d . t o S t o r i e s Told to Sentence P i c t u r e Cues V e r b a l Cues Completions.
P(l') ?<2). P(<0 P(3) S P l SP2
Male .0_v P(2)
Female . 28**
Male .14* ..OoV
P(4) Female .06 .11
Male .15* .09 .04
P(3) Female .07 .02 .11
Male .13 .11 .07 -.06 S P l
Female .14* .00 -.03'' .09
Male .01" - .07 - .01 ..Ol'i -.03
SP2 Female .03 .11 -.11. .25** .27**
N Males, 173 N Females, 184
*p < .05 **p < .01
61
Table 5.2
A n a l y s i s o f Covariance of Achievement Imagery on P I , P2, and P4, w i t h Length of Response as C o v a r i a t e :
Race of Respondent x Race of I n t e r v i e w e r x Sex
Mean Achievement Imagery, S t a n d a r d i z e d + A d j u s t e d f o r Length of Response
Race of Respondent
White B l a c k
Male Female Male Female
- — . White -.37 -.03 -.47 -.03 Race of I n t e r v i e w e r : ^ _ _ u ^
A n a l y s i s of C o v a r i a n c e
d f Sum of Squares F
I n t e r v i e w e r Race 1 99.9 11.03**
Respondent Race 1 2.5 0.28
Respondent Sex 1 98.7 10.90**
I n t e r v i e w e r x Respondent Race 1 9.2 1.01
I n t e r v i e w e r Race x Sex 1 18.3 2.03
Sex x Respondent Race 1 1.9 0.21
I n t e r v i e w e r Race x Respondent Race x Sex 1 0.6 0.06
R e g r e s s i o n (Words) 1 259.2 28.62**
A d j u s t e d E r r o r 3 3196.9
**p< .01
62
Table 5.3
R e g r e s s i o n on Achievement Imagery on P1+P2+P4, Race o f I n t e r v i e w e r and Length of Response as P r e d i c t o r s
P r e d i c t o r
Race o f I n t e r v i e w e r
Length of Response
T o t a l v a r i a n c e e x p l a i n e d : 9%
.169
.262
63
respondent: by s u b t r a c t i n g h i s p r e d i c t e d score based on the r e g r e s s i o n
a n a l y s i s i n Table 5.3 from h i s raw s c o r e . T h i s r e s i d u a l , then, i s f r e e
of c o n t a m i n a t i n g e f f e c t s and i s the P r o j e c t i v e C r i t e r i o n to be used i n
f u r t h e r a n a l y s e s .
R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i o n
Seven d i f f e r e n t assessments o f r i s k - t a k i n g were i n c l u d e d i n the i n t e r
view: c h o i c e s of easy, d i f f i c u l t , or moderate items a f t e r the D i g i t Span,
Sentence Completion, Raven, I n f o r m a t i o n , and Ammons t e s t s ; c h o i c e of an
easy or moderate D i g i t Symbol S u b s t i t u t i o n form; and the d i f f e r e n c e i n
performance on DSS moderate and DSS l o n g forms. The i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s of
these measures, by sex groups, are shown i n Table 5.4. The D i g i t Span and
DSS c h o i c e s and DSS performance d i f f e r e n t i a l do not c o r r e l a t e among them
s e l v e s or w i t h the o t h e r f o u r c h o i c e s ; however, the SCT, Raven, Ammons, and
I n f o r m a t i o n c h o i c e s do form a c l u s t e r of s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s .
A c c o r d i n g l y , these f o u r items were s e l e c t e d f o r the s c a l e .
The s c a l e i s the number of m o d e r a t e l y - d i f f i c u l t c h o i c e s made by the
respondent i n f o u r o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Choices were made i n response to the
f o l l o w i n g query from the i n t e r v i e w e r :
"I've s c o r e d your performance so f a r on t h i s t e s t . L e t ' s t r y j u s t one
more of these sentences. Which one would you l i k e to t r y ?
a. One t h a t should be easy f o r you,
b. One that should be hard f o r you, or
c. Something i n between?"
A " c " c h o i c e was met by another c h o i c e , between d. "One l i k e most of the
ones you got r i g h t , " or e. "One a l i t t l e harder than most o f the ones you
got r i g h t ? "
The wording o f these q u e s t i o n s to emphasize a d i f f i c u l t y range t a i l o r e d
t o the respondent's p e r f o r m a n c e — t h e arrangement of t e s t items from easy to
hard and the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of a f u r t h e r item a c t u a l l y c o n t i n g e n t upon
t h a t performance l e v e l ( i . e . , a respondent who scored high on a t e s t and
then chose a l t e r n a t i v e b was g i v e n the most d i f f i c u l t item)-were a l l
r
64
Table 5.4
I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s of B e h a v i o r a l R i s k - t a k i n g Measures, by Sex
D i f f e r e n t i a l DSS D i g i t
Amnions I n f o r m a t i o n DSS Performance Raven Span SCT (7) (5) (6) (1 (3) (2) (4)
intended to e q u a l i z e e x p e c t a t i o n s of success a c r o s s respondents and t e s t s .
That i s , i t was hoped that a l l R's choosing a g i v e n a l t e r n a t i v e would
c o n s i d e r the p r o b a b i l i t y o f success on t h a t i t e m the same. T h i s p r o b a b i l i t y
should have between .80 and 1.00 f o r easy, .60 and .80 f o r moderately easy,
.30 and .60 f o r moderately d i f f i c u l t , and .00 and .30 f o r d i f f i c u l t .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the success e x p e c t a t i o n s a p p a r e n t l y were not e q u a l i z e d
across a l l s u b j e c t s but were r e l a t e d to t e s t performance. Table 5.5 shows
the percent o f low and h i g h IQ R's choosing the d i f f i c u l t a l t e r n a t i v e on
a l l f o u r o p p o r t u n i t i e s ; Table 5.6 shows the c o r r e l a t i o n s between d i f f i c u l t y
of c h o i c e and Sentence Completion t e s t performance. C l e a r l y , the high-IQ
respondents d i d not b e l i e v e t h a t the c h o i c e s were t a i l o r e d to t h e i r own
performance, and had a h i g h e r e x p e c t a t i o n of success than d i d the low-lQ
respondents.
Since our assumption t h a t there are equal e x p e c t a n c i e s across responden
i s c r u c i a l i f the r i s k - t a k i n g measure i s to r e f l e c t achievement m o t i v a t i o n ,
a c o r r e c t i o n f o r the contaminants l i k e t h a t f o r the p r o j e c t i v e s was
f o l l o w e d . Table 5.7 shows the r e s u l t s o f an a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e on c h o i c e
d i f f i c u l t y , w i t h IQ as c o v a r i a t e . Again,, i n t e r v i e w e r race and respondent
sex, i n a d d i t i o n to IQ, a f f e c t the d i f f i c u l t y s c a l e . The i n t e r v i e w e r race
e f f e c t i s very s t r o n g : white i n t e r v i e w e r s e l i c i t e d more d i f f i c u l t c h o i c e s ,
r e g a r d l e s s of race of respondent. T h i s r e s u l t i s c o n s i d e r e d i n f u l l d e t a i l
i n Appendix 4.
The sex d i f f e r e n c e seems to be a r e a l d i f f e r e n c e r a t h e r than a
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e . Much p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h has demonstrated t h a t
women are l e s s l i k e l y t o take extreme r i s k s than men (see V e r o f f , 1969, and
C r a n d a l l , 1969). T h e r e f o r e , we d i d not view the sex d i f f e r e n c e i n r i s k
c h o i c e as c a l l i n g f o r a c o r r e c t i o n . Furthermore, we are c o n s i d e r i n g a l l
a n a l y s e s s e p a r a t e l y f o r males and females.
However, the IQ and race o f i n t e r v i e w e r e f f e c t s do seem to c a l l f o r
c o r r e c t i o n i n the r i s k - t a k i n g assessment. S i n c e these e f f e c t s were not ones
t h a t seem to r e f l e c t i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , t h e i r d i r e c t e f f e c t s
on r i s k - t a k i n g were removed by the use o f the r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n .
66
Table 5.5
P e r c e n t of Respondents Choosing A l l "Very D i f f i c u l t " C h o i c e s , by Sex and I n t e l l i g e n c e Measures
Low -I.Q. High I.Q.
Males 20% 37%
Females 13% 22%
67
Table 5.6
C o r r e l a t i o n between I.Q. (Sentence Completion T e s t ) and Mean D i f f i c u l t y of C h o i c e , by Sex and Race Groups
Group r N
Males .28** 178
Females .37** 187
Whites .37** 177
B l a c k s .24* 188
*p < .05 **p < .01
68
Table 5.7
A n a l y s i s of Covariance of Mean D i f f i c u l t y i n R i s k P r e f e r e n c e , w i t h I.Q. as C o v a r i a t e
Race of Respondent x Race of I n t e r v i e w e r x Sex
Mean D i f f i c u l t y of R i s k , S t a n d a r d i z e d and A d j u s t e d f o r I.Q.
Race of Respondent
Race of I n t e r v i e w e r :
White
Male Female
White B l a c k
.28 -.28
.01 - .59
B l a c k
Male Female
.96 -.22
- .15 - .30
A n a l y s i s o f Covariance
df Sum o f Squares F
I n t e r v i e w e r Race
Respondent Race
Respondent Sex
I n t e r v i e w e r x Respondent Race
I n t e r v i e w e r Race x Sex
Sex x Respondent Race
I n t e r v i e w e r Race x Respondent Race x Sex
R e g r e s s i o n (I.Q.)
A d j u s t e d E r r o r
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
354
282.814
2.584
160,486
1.328
3.905
0.478
21.868
557.615
3933.104
25.455**
0.233
14.445**
0.120
0.352
0.043
1.968
50.188**
P < .01
69
Table 5.8 shows the r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n used to p r e d i c t d i f f i c u l t y
o f c h o i c e ; the d i f f e r e n c e between p r e d i c t e d and raw score i s r e s i d u a l
r i s k d i f f i c u l t y .
Table 5.8
R e g r e s s i o n on Mean D i f f i c u l t y of C h o i c e , I n t e r v i e w e r Race and IQ as P r e d i c t o r s
P r e d i c t o r ^
IQ .373
Race o f I n t e r v i e w e r .243 ( B l a c k Coded 1) (White Coded 0)
T o t a l V a r i a n c e E x p l a i n e d : 18%
T h i s new s c a l e , now uncontaminated by the e f f e c t s o f I.Q. and i n t e r
viewer r a c e , should have a c u r v i l i n e a r r e l a t i o n to achievement m o t i v a t i o n :
respondents w i t h h i g h achievement m o t i v a t i o n s h o u l d , according' to the
t h e o r y , have moderate score on the s c a l e , and respondents w i t h low achieve
ment m o t i v a t i o n should have scores at the extremes. In order t o use the
s c a l e more e a s i l y i n f u r t h e r c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , i t was " f o l d e d " by
forming a new s c a l e t h a t g i v e s high s c o r e s to moderate r i s k c h o i c e s and low
scores to e i t h e r e x t r e m e l y low or h i g h r i s k c h o i c e s .
Table 5.9 shows how these f o l d e d moderate r i s k scores were a s s i g n e d
t o each p o i n t on the d i s t r i b u t i o n . To do t h i s , we looked f o r that l e v e l
of moderate r i s k - t a k i n g c o r r e c t i o n t h a t would g i v e us a mean and modal
v a l u e i n the u n c o r r e c t e d s c o r e s t h a t was e q u i v a l e n t to choosing a l l
moderate r i s k ( 8 ) . T h i s o c c u r r e d f o r a c a t e g o r y o f -.25 to 2.00, and so
we a s s i g n e d t h i s the h i g h e s t v a l u e on the c o r r e c t e d scores and then gave
p r o g r e s s i v e l y lower scores to l e v e l s f o l d i n g from t h a t p o i n t , as can be
seen i n Table 5.9. Those a s s i g n e d "0" i n the r i s k - t a k i n g c r i t e r i a had a
70
Table 5.9
R e l a t i o n of R i s k - t a k i n g C r i t e r i o n , C o r r e c t e d R i s k D i f f i c u l t y , and U n c o r r e c t e d R i s k Choice S c a l e s
Score on Score on Uncorrected R i s k - t a k i n g ^ C o r r e c t e d R i s k 2 R i s k Choice N C r i t e r i o n D i f f i c u l t y Range Mean Mode
0 -10.00' to -3.50 0-6 2.10 2 63 1 - 3.50 to -1.75 2-8 4.35 4 52 2 - 1.75 to -0.25 2-9 6.00 6 52 3 - 0.25 to 2.00 4-12 8.65 8 86 2 • 2.00 to 3.00 8-12 10.63 10 38 1 3.00 to 4.25 8-12 11.05 12 38 0 4.25 to 10.00 10-12 11.58 12j 33
I s a r e c o d i n g of (2) i n which score i s l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d to the "moderateness" o f the r i s k c h o i c e .
I s the d i f f e r e n c e between (1) and the r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n p r e d i c t i o n of ( 1 ) , based on i n t e r v i e w e r race and I.Q.
I s the sum of scores on 4 separate c h o i c e s ( S e t , Raven, Ammons, Information)., where each c h o i c e i s coded 0 ( e a s y ) , 1(moderately e a s y ) , 2 (moderately d i f f i c u l t ) , and 4 ( d i f f i c u l t ) . Thus a l l easy would be scored 0; a l l moderate, 8; a l l hard, 12.
mean r i s k - t a k i n g score t h a t was c l o s e to b e i n g a l l easy c h o i c e s or a l l
d i f f i c u l t c h o i c e s . T h i s new s c a l e w i l l become the R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i o n .
I t i s important to note i n p a s s i n g t h a t the two c r i t e r i a we have
i s o l a t e d show a s i g n i f i c a n t pos i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n i n males (+.19) but an
i n s i g n i f i c a n t and n e g a t i v e (-.04) c o r r e l a t i o n i n females (both race groups
i n each c a s e ) . Although t h i s i s f u r t h e r evidence f o r the poor g e n e r a l -
i z a b i l i t y o f achievement m o t i v a t i o n r e s e a r c h to female p o p u l a t i o n s , the
p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n found i n males was r e a s s u r i n g . S i n c e i t i s so low,
71
we f e l t t h a t a combined c r i t e r i o n was not j u s t i f i e d , and proceeded to use
each c r i t e r ion separate 1y, expect ing that a prom i s ing new technique should
r e l a t e to one or the o t h e r c r i t e r i o n , and h o p e f u l l y both.
Component Development
A P r i o r i Component Measures
The ten p a i r e d - c o m p a r i s o n , seven t r i a d , three i n t e r v i e w e x p e r i e n c e ,
and two s e m i - p r o j e c t i v e items were d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r a p r i o r i s c a l e s :
M a s t e r y , ( c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h a s e l f - s e t standard o f e x c e l l e n c e ; f e e l i n g s of
competence), Future O r i e n t a t i o n ( l o n g - t e r m g o a l s ) , Autonomy-Power ( a b i l i t y
to do t h i n g s on one's own and to i n f l u e n c e o t h e r s ) , and S o c i a l Comparison
( c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r s ) . These s c a l e s are d i s p l a y e d i n Table 5.10.
A l s o c o n s i d e r e d a p r i o r i s c a l e s were the Past Test A n x i e t y s c a l e of seven
items and the P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y S c a l e , a f i v e - i t e m s c a l e d e r i v e d from the
work o f Epps, G u r i n , and Morgan (Epps, 1969; G u r i n , e_t al_. , 1969; Morgan
and Smith, 1970). These are shown i n Tables 5.11 and 5.12.
To t e s t i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y , a l p h a c o e f f i c i e n t s were computed f o r each
s c a l e , where
oC = (average i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n r) x no. of items n .
1 + r x (n-1)
These are shown i n Table 5.13. The range of c o e f f i c i e n t s i s adequate f o r
a l l the s c a l e s except Future O r i e n t a t i o n and S o c i a l Comparison, which
d i s p l a y v i r t u a l l y no i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y .
E m p i r i c a l l y - D e r i v e d Component Measures
A p r i n c i p a l components f a c t o r a n a l y s i s w i t h varimax r o t a t i o n was computed
f o r each race-sex group; f a c t o r s were e x t r a c t e d u n t i l 507. o f the v a r i a n c e
was " e x p l a i n e d " . The 34 items i n c l u d e d , p l u s the a b b r e v i a t e d d e s c r i p t i o n of
each used i n l i s t i n g the f a c t o r s s c a l e s , are l i s t e d i n Table. 5.14.
For each f a c t o r , a l l items w i t h l o a d i n g s of .40 or more were taken as
" d e f i n i n g " ; i n a d d i t i o n , items not l o a d i n g over .40 on any f a c t o r were
a s s i g n e d t o the f a c t o r on which they loaded h i g h e s t . In forming the s c a l e s
from these d e f i n i n g items, a few items which made no t h e o r e t i c a l (or common)
72
Table 5.1.0
^ P r i u r 1 Achievement M o t i v a t i o n S c a l e s
Item P o i n t C r e d i t
Symbol i n S c a l e Item A l t e r n a t i v e s
MASTERY SCALE
p c j Why would you q u i t a job? 0 I t was too d i f f i c u l t a f t e r a l l 2 I t was not c h a l l e n g i n g any more
pc7 Which would you r a t h e r hear about y o u r s e l f ? 0 Other people l i k e him v e r y much 2 He can do a n y t h i n g he s e t s h i s mind on doing
pc8 Which would you r a t h e r hear about y o u r s e l f ? 0 He can e a s i l y g e t o t h e r people to do t h i n g s f o r him 2 He i s l i v i n g proof that hard work gets a person, ahead
pc9 Which would you r a t h e r hear about y o u r s e l f ? 0 He i s a r e a l l y dependable and l o y a l f r i e n d 2 He i s always ready to meet c h a l l e n g e s that come h i s way
i e 2 I f you l e a r n you are doing w e l l on the t e s t s , would you 0 F e e l good about t h a t 2 Want to know more about the t e s t s
t i c Would you want your c h i l d to want v e r y much to do h i s b e s t 0 L e a s t 1 N e i t h e r ( a l t e r n a t i v e s : stand up f o r h i s r i g h t s , show k i n d n e s s 2 Most toward h i s playmates)
t5b I would l i k e to do b e t t e r at what I t r y 0 L e a s t 1 N e i t h e r ( a l t e r n a t i v e s : have more f r i e n d s , have o t h e r people 2 Most pay a t t e n t i o n to my p o i n t of view)
t 6 c Would you l i k e a job where you can show your r e a l s k i l l s 0 Least 1 N e i t h e r ( a l t e r n a t i v e s : where no one bosses you around, where 2 Most you have l o t s of f r i e n d s )
FUTURE ORIENTATION SCALE
pc4 What k i n d of work do you l i k e b e s t ?
0 S t a r t f r e s h every day 2 Have to p l a n f o r the f u t u r e and f o l l o w up on plans
ie3 I f you l e a r n you are doing w e l l on the t e s t s , would you 0 F e e l good about what you've done so f a r 2 M o s t l y t h i n k about the t e s t s yet to come
t3a Would you l i k e your c h i l d to l e a r n to p l a n ahead f o r the f u t u r e 0 L e a s t 1 N e i t h e r ( a l t e r n a t i v e s : not to appear weak to o t h e r s ; to do what 2 Most h i s teachers expect of him)
c o n t i n u e d
73
Table 5.10 -- Continued
Item P o i n t C r e d i t
Symbol i n S c a l e Item A l t e r n a t i v e s
s p l Response to "In the next ten years I'm going to ." 0 No achievement imagery 1 D o u b t f u l or low achievement imagery 2 D e f i n i t e achievement imagery
AUTONOMY-POWER SCALE p e l Why would you q u i t a job?
0 Had too many t h i n g s to d e c i d e about 2 Had too l i t t l e to say about how t h i n g s got done
pc5 What do you t h i n k about a f t e r a hard job? 0 Whether the boss thought you d i d a good job 2 whether you thought you d i d a good job
t7a Would you want a job where you had to t h i n k f o r y o u r s e l f ? 0 L e a s t 1 N e i t h e r ( a l t e r n a t i v e s : people you work w i t h are n i c e group, 2 Most you have a l o t to say i n what's going on)
t4b Would you want your c h i l d to be a l e a d e r ? 0 L e a s t 1 N e i t h e r ( a l t e r n a t i v e s : to do the work h i e teacher e x p e c t s , 2 Most to be p o p u l a r w i t h h i s c l a s s m a t e s )
pc6 Which would you r a t h e r overhear about y o u r s e l f ? 0 People l i k e to l i v e next door to him 2 His o p i n i o n c a r r i e s a l o t o f weight among people who know him
pclO Which would you r a t h e r overhear about y o u r s e l f ? 0 He i s fun to have a t a p a r t y 2 People l i k e to go to him f o r a d v i c e on i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r s
SOCIAL COMPARISON SCALE pc2 Why would you q u i t a job?
0 Too much c o m p e t i t i o n among the workers 2 You were a much b e t t e r worker than anyone e l s e
i e l What would you l i k e to know about the t e s t s 0 How w e l l you d i d compared to o t h e r s i n the c o u n t r y 2 How w e l l you d i d compared to someone of your background
t2b Would you l i k e your c h i l d to do as w e l l as most k i d s h i s age? 0 L e a s t 1 N e i t h e r ( a l t e r n a t i v e s : make f r i e n d s e a s i l y , defend h i m s e l f 2 Most i f a t t a c k e d )
sp2 Response to "compared to o t h e r men/women my age, I ." 0 No achievement imagery 1 D o u b t f u l or low achievement imagery 2 D e f i n i t e achievement imagery
74
Table 5.11
Past Test A n x i e t y S c a l e
1 A f t e r you f i n i s h e d an' important t e s t , how c o n f i d e n t d i d you f e e l about how you'd done?
- - 0 i 1 j 2 not v e r y c o n f i d e n t about average very c o n f i d e n t
2 When you took a f i n a l exam, d i d you have an uneasy, upset f e e l i n g ?
0 , 1 2
was very upset was somewhat upset was not upset a t a l l
3 When you were working on important t e s t s , how f a s t d i d your h e a r t beat?
0 , 1 , 2 beat very f a s t f a s t e r than normal about normal
4 How much do you t h i n k your emotions h u r t your performance on the t e s t s ?
2 , 1 , 2
h u r t i t v e r y much h u r t i t s l i g h t l y .did not h u r t at a l l
5 When you were t a k i n g an important e x a m i n a t i o n , how much d i d you p e r s p i r e ?
0 , 1 , 2
a g r e a t d e a l more than u s u a l not at a l l
6 During t e s t s , how much d i d you worry about what i t would mean to f a i l ?
0 , 1 . 2 w o r r i e d a l o t w o r r i e d some d i d not worry at a l l
7 D u r i n g a f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n , d i d you get so nervous t h a t you c o u l d n ' t remember some t h i n g s you r e a l l y knew?
- 0 , 1 , 2 f o r g o t most of what f o r g o t a few t h i n g s d i d not f o r g e t a n y t h i n g
I knew I knew I knew
75
Table 5.12
P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y Scale
Item P o i n t C r e d i t Symbol i n S c a l e Item A l t e r n a t i v e s
PE.1 1 What happens t o me i s my own d o i n g .
0 Sometimes I f e e l t h a t I don't have enough'control over my 1 i f e .
PE.2 0 Many times, I might j u s t as w e l l decide what to do by f l i p p i n g a c o i n .
1 In my case, g e t t i n g what I want has l i t t l e or n o t h i n g to do w i t h l u c k .
PE.3 1 I've u s u a l l y f e l t p r e t t y sure my l i f e would work out the way I want i t t o .
0 There have been times when I haven't been v e r y sure that my l i f e would work out the way I want i t t o .
PE.4 1 I am the k i n d o f person who p l a n s h i s l i f e ahead a l l the time.
0 I am the k i n d of person who l i v e s more from day to day.
PE.5 1 When I make plans ahead, I u s u a l l y get to c a r r y t h i n g s out the way I expected.
0 When I make p l a n s ahead, t h i n g s u s u a l l y come up to make me change my p l a n s .
76
Table 5.13
C o e f f i c i e n t s of I n t e r n a l C o n s i s t e n c y (ot*) f o r the A P r i o r i S c a l e s
White B l a c k White B l a c k S c a l e Males Males Females Females
Autonomy-Power .22 .35 .40 .18
S o c i a l Comparison .07 .04 -.25 .00
Future O r i e n t a t i o n .04 .04 .00 .20
Mastery .24 .42 .25 .38
P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y .41 .29 .31 .19
A n x i e t y .70 .67 .58 .76
77
Table 5.14
Items Used i n F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , With A b b r e v i a t i o n s
Symbol A b b r e v i a t i o n (Item)
p e l Too l i t t l e say so q u i t j o b / t o o much to decide on
Suppose you were on a j o b and you were t h i n k i n g of q u i t t i n g Why do you suppose you'd q u i t ? Which of these would come c l o s e s t to d e s c r i b i n g you?
a. You had too l i t t l e to say about how t h i n g s got done, or b. You had too many t h i n g s to d e c i d e about.
pc2 Too much c o m p e t i t i o n so q u i t j o b / b e t t e r worker
Which of these two would come c l o s e r to d e s c r i b i n g why you might q u i t a job?
a. Too much c o m p e t i t i o n among workers on the j o b , or b. You were a much b e t t e r worker than anyone e l s e ?
pc3 Job too d i f f i c u l t so q u i t / j o b no c h a l l e n g e
How about these?
a. The job was too d i f f i c u l t a f t e r a l l , or b. The job was not c h a l l e n g i n g anymore?
pc4 P l a n f o r f u t u r e / s t a r t f r e s h e v e r y day
Now which o f these two would d e s c r i b e what k i n d of work you l i k e best?
a. Work where you have to p l a n f o r the f u t u r e and f o l l o w up on p l a n s , o r
b. Work where you can s t a r t on something f r e s h every day?
pc5 Boss thought you d i d a good job/you d i d
I f you'd f i n i s h e d a hard j o b , which would you t h i n k about?
a. Whether your boss thought you d i d a good j o b , or b. Whether you thought you d i d a good job?
Symbol
78
Table 5.14 -- Continued
A b b r e v i a t i o n (Item)
pc6 Weighty opinion/good neighbor
Which would you r a t h e r overhear about y o u r s e l f ?
a. His/Her o p i n i o n c a r r i e s a l o t o f weight among people who know him/her, or
b. People l i k e to l i v e next door to him/her.
pc7 Other people l i k e him/can do whatever he wants
Now these two. Which would you r a t h e r hear about y o u r s e l f ?
a. Other people l i k e him/her v e r y much, or b. He/She c o u l d do a n y t h i n g he/she s e t s h i s / h e r mind on d o i n g .
pc8 Can .get o t h e r s t o a c t / h a r d work gets ah^ead
Now these two...
a. He/She can e a s i l y get o t h e r people to do t h i n g s f o r him/her, or
b. He/She i s l i v i n g p r o o f t h a t hard work gets a person ahead.
pc9 Ready to meet challenges/good f r i e n d
Now these two... .
a. He/She i s always ready t o meet c h a l l e n g e s t h a t come h i s / h e r way, or
b. He/she i s a r e a l l y dependable and l o y a l f r i e n d .
pclO P a r t y f u n / g i v e s important a d v i c e
Now these two...
a. He/she i s fun to have at a p a r t y , or b. People l i k e to go to him/her f o r advice on important
m a t t e r s .
t i c Want to do h i s b e s t / s t a n d up f o r own r i g h t s , be k i n d
What would you l i k e your c h i l d to do most? Which of the three would you l e a s t l i k e him to do?
a. Stand up f o r h i s own r i g h t s , b. Show k i n d n e s s toward h i s playmates, c. Want v e r y much to do h i s b e s t .
79
Table 5.U -- Continued
Symbol A b b r e v i a t i o n (Item)
t2a Make f r i e n d s e a s i l y / d o as w e l l as o t h e r s , defend s e l f
How about these? Which o f these would you most l i k e your c h i l d to do? Which of the three would you l e a s t l i k e him to do?
a. Make f r i e n d s e a s i l y , b. Do as w e l l as most k i d s h i s age, c. Defend h i m s e l f i f a t t a c k e d .
t3c Do what t e a c h e r s e x p e c t / p l a n ahead, not be weak
How about these? Which of these would you most l i k e your c h i l d to l e a r n ? Which of the three would you l e a s t l i k e him to l e a r n ?
a. To p l a n ahead f o r the f u t u r e , b. Not to appear weak to o t h e r s , c. To do what h i s t e a c h e r s expect o f him.
tAb Be a l e a d e r / d o what teacher e x p e c t s , be p o p u l a r
How about these? Which of these would you most and l e a s t l i k e to teach your c h i l d ?
a. To do the work h i s t e a c h e r e x p e c t s , b. To be a l e a d e r , c. To be p o p u l a r w i t h h i s c l a s s m a t e s .
t5b Do b e t t e r at what I try/more f r i e n d s , get a t t e n t i o n
Which i s t r u e s t f o r you? Which of the t h r e e i s l e a s t true?
a. I would l i k e to have more f r i e n d s , b. I would l i k e t o do b e t t e r at what I t r y , c. I would l i k e to have more people pay a t t e n t i o n to my
p o i n t of view.
t6b L o t s of f r i e n d s / n o bosses, show r e a l s k i l l s
I f you were t o take a j o b -- maybe even something q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from what you're doing now -- what would you most want? Which o f these would you want l e a s t ?
a. A job where no one bosses you around too much, b. A job whereyou have a l o t o f f r i e n d s , c. A job where you can show your r e a l s k i l l s .
80
Table 5.14 -- Continued
Symbol A b b r e v i a t i o n (Item)
t7b N i c e group of w o r k e r s / t h i n k f o r s e l f , l o t s of say on job
How about these a s p e c t s of a job? Which of these would you want most? Which of the three would you want l e a s t ?
a. A job where you had to t h i n k f o r y o u r s e l f ? b. A job where the people you work w i t h are a n i c e group? c. A job where you have a l o t to say i n what's going on.
i e l Compare s e l f to o t h e r s i n n a t i o n / o f own background
What would you l i k e to know most about the t e s t s ?
a. How w e l l you've done compared to most o t h e r s i n t h i s c o u n t r y , or
b. J u s t how w e l l you have done f o r someone of your background?
ie2 Want to know more about t e s t s / f e e l good
Suppose I t o l d you t h a t you were doing v e r y w e l l on the t e s t s .
a. Would you want to know more about the t e s t s , or. b. Would you f e e l good about t h a t ?
ie3 F e e l good/think of t e s t s to come
Suppose I t o l d you t h a t up u n t i l now you were doing very w e l l on these t e s t s .
a. Would you mostly f e e l good about what you've done so f a r , or b. Would you mostly t h i n k about the t e s t s y e t to come?
p e l What happens i s my own doing/not enough c o n t r o l over l i f e
a. What happens to me i s ray own d o i n g . b. Sometimes I f e e l t h a t 1 don't have enough c o n t r o l over
my 1 i f e .
pe2 Could d e c i d e by c o i n ' f l i p / n o l u c k i n v o l v e d i n 1 i f e
a. Many times, I might j u s t as w e l l d e c i d e what to do by f l i p p i n g a c o i n .
b. In my case, g e t t i n g what I want has l i t t l e or n o t h i n g to do w i t h l u c k .
81
Table 5.14 -- Continued
Symbol A b b r e v i a t i o n (Item)
pe3 L i f e w i l l work out OK/not so sure
a. I've u s u a l l y f e l t p r e t t y sure my l i f e would work out the way I want i t t o .
b. There have been times when I haven't been very sure that my l i f e would work out the way I want i t t o .
pe4 P l a n a h e a d / l i v e day-to-day
a. I am the k i n d of person who p l a n s h i s l i f e ahead a l l the t ime.
b. I am the k i n d o f person who l i v e s more from day t o day.
pe5 P l a n s work out OK/plans change
a. When I make plans ahead, I u s u a l l y get t o c a r r y t h i n g s out the way I expected.
b. When I make p l a n s ahead, t h i n g s u s u a l l y come up to make me change my p l a n s .
A l Confidence
A f t e r you f i n i s h an important t e s t , how c o n f i d e n t d i d you f e e l about how you'd done?
A2 Uneasy, upset f e e l i n g
When you took a f i n a l exam, d i d you have an uneasy, upset f e e l i n g ?
A3 Heart beat
When you were working on important t e s t s , how f a s t d i d your h e a r t beat?
A4 Emotions
How much do you t h i n k your emotions hurt your performance on the t e s t s ?
A5 P e r s p i r e
When you were t a k i n g an important e x a m i n a t i o n , how much d i d you p e r s p i r e ?
82
Table 5.14 -- Continued
Symbol A b b r e v i a t i o n (Item)
A6 Worry about f a i l u r e
D u r i n g t e s t s , how much d i d you worry about what i t would mean to f a i l ?
A7 Nervous f o r g e t t i n g
During a f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n , d i d you get so nervous that you c o u l d n ' t remember some t h i n g s you r e a l l y knew?
83
sense were d e l e t e d . The r e s u l t i n g s c a l e s are shown i n Tables 5.15 through
5.18. A l t h o u g h most of the s c a l e s are very s h o r t , the a l p h a c o e f f i c i e n t s
are q u i t e h i g h , as would be expected f o r e m p i r i c a l l y - d e r i v e d s c a l e s . For
many of the s c a l e s there seem to be few d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n
the s c a l e s ' c o n t e n t s ; many are a mixture o f the t h e o r e t i c a l components used
i n forming the a p r i o r i s c a l e s . T h e r e f o r e , r a t h e r than l a b e l i n g each
f a c t o r , we w i l l c l o s e l y examine o n l y those t h a t c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
w i t h t h e c r i t e r i a .
T e s t i n g the S c a l e s
Table 5.19 r e p o r t s the c o r r e l a t i o n s of each a_ p r i o r i and e m p i r i c a l
s c a l e w i t h the p r o j e c t i v e and r i s k - t a k i n g c r i t e r i a i n each race-sex group.
A P r i o r i S c a l e s
S e v e r a l of the a p r i o r i component measures c o r r e l a t e h i g h l y w i t h the
c r i t e r i a . A n x i e t y should c o r r e l a t e n e g a t i v e l y , and does, e s p e c i a l l y f o r
b l a c k males. The Mastery s c a l e , w h i l e showing no e x t r e m e l y high c o r r e l a t i o n s ,
r e l a t e s c o n s i s t e n t l y p o s i t i v e l y to both c r i t e r i a , as does the Autonomy-
Power s c a l e . The Future O r i e n t a t i o n measure shows l i t t l e c o n s i s t e n c y a c r o s s
groups, although i t too shows a g e n e r a l p o s i t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n r e a c h i n g
s i g n i f i c a n c e i n white females. The S o c i a l Comparison s c a l e seems u s e l e s s
except t h a t i t i s the best p r e d i c t o r f o r r i s k - t a k i n g i n white males,
s u g g e s t i n g t h a t w h i t e males who take such an o r i e n t a t i o n tend not to be
moderate r i s k - t a k e r s . F i n a l l y the P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y measure shows a very
i n t e r e s t i n g p a t t e r n of c o r r e l a t i o n s : p o s i t i v e to both c r i t e r i a f o r white
males, but negat i v e to p r o j e c t i v e imagery and p o s i t i v e to r i s k - t a k i n g i n
the o t h e r three groups. These r e s u l t s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d more f u l l y i n a
l a t e r s e c t i o n .
E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s
A l t h o u g h many of the e m p i r i c a l s c a l e s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h n e i t h e r c r i t e r i o n ,
a few do appear p r o m i s i n g . L e t us b r i e f l y d i s c u s s the s c a l e s that c o r r e l a t e
e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h e i t h e r or both c r i t e r i a f o r each o f the sub-groups s e p a r a t e l y .
84
Table 5.15
E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s R e s u l t i n g from F a c t o r A n a l y s e s , White Males
S c a l e , F a c t o r A l p h a Items Achievement a l t e r n a t i v e / O t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e Loadings
WM1 A2-, .72
WM2 pc8 .48 i e l
i e 2 s p l
WM3 pc4 .52 p e l
pe2
WM4 t l .32 pe2
s P 2
WM5 pc2 .51 pc3
t7
WM6 t2 .42 53
i e 3 pe4
WM7 pc6 .39 t4
pe5
WM8 p e l .48 pc5
t6
WM9 pc7 .49 pc9
pe3
A2-A6 ( A l l a n x i e t y items) 49-73
Can get o t h e r s to act/Hard worker 50 Compare to o t h e r s i n country/Own background 50 Want to know more/Feel good 66 High achievement-next 10 years/Low 55
Job to p l a n and f o l l o w u p / S t a r t f r e s h 71 What happens i s own doing/No c o n t r o l 71 Ho l u c k i n v o l v e d i n l i f e / C o i n f l i p 34
Wants to do best/Own r i g h t s , show kindness 76 No l u c k i n v o l v e d i n l i f e / C o i n f l i p 36 High achievement-compared to others/Low 60
B e t t e r worker so q u i t / T o o much c o m p e t i t i o n 48 Job no c h a l l e n g e so q u i t / T o o hard 56 Job to t h i n k f o r s e l f / N i c e group, l o t s of say 56
Do as w e l l as others/Make f r i e n d s , defend s e l f 56 P l a n ahead/Not be weak, t e a c h e r e x p e c t s . 49 Think o f t e s t s t o come/feel good 46 P l a n ahead/Live day-to-day 63
Weighty opinion/Good neighbor 62 Leader/Teacher e x p e c t s , be p o p u l a r 59 P l a n s work o u t / P l a n s change 57
Too l i t t l e say so q u i t / T o o many d e c i s i o n s 60 You thought you d i d a good job/Boss d i d 37 Show s k i l l s / N o b o s s , l o t s of f r i e n d s 76
Can do whatever he wants/Others l i k e him 72 C h a l l e n g e meeter/Good f r i e n d 60 L i f e w i l l work out OK/Not sure 48
85
Table 5.16
E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s R e s u l t i n g from F a c t o r A n a l y s e s , B l a c k Males -
S c a l e , F a c t o r Alpha Items Achievement a l t e r n a t i v e / O t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e Loadings
BM1 AI Confidence .71 .60 A2 Upset f e e l i n g .42
A4 Emotions .60
BM2 p e l Too l i t t l e say so q u i t / T o o many d e c i s i o n s .38 .51 pc5 You thought you d i d a good job/Boss d i d .71
pc7 Can do whatever he wants/Others l i k e him .69 t4 Leader/Teacher expects be p o p u l a r .50
BM3 A2 A n x i e t y upset f e e l i n g .41 .67 A3 Heart beat .42
A5 P e r s p i r e .69 A6 F a i l u r e worry .46
BM4 pc6 Weighty opinion/Good neighbor 38 .38 pclO G i v e s important a d v i c e / P a r t y fun 41
i e 2 Wants to know more/Feel good 64
i e 3 Think of t e s t s to come/Feel good 62
BM5 pc4 Job to p l a n and f o l l o w u p / S t a r t f r e s h 45 .50 pc8 Hard worker/Can get o t h e r s to act 64
pe2 No l u c k i n v o l v e d / C o i n f l i p 60 pe4 P l a n ahead/Live day-to-day 64
BM6 pc9 C h a l l e n g e meeter/Good f r i e n d 64 .36 T7 Thinks f o r s e l f / N i c e group, l o t s of say 49
sp2 High achievement-compared to others/Low 41 pe5 P l a n s work o u t / P l a n s change 40
BM7 t5 Do better/More f r i e n d s , pay a t t e n t i o n 61 .47 t l Wants to do best/Own r i g h t s , show kindness 62
p e l What happens Is own doing/No c o n t r o l 47
BM8 pc2 B e t t e r worker so q u i t / T o o much c o m p e t i t i o n 76 .57 pc3 Job no c h a l l e n g e so q u i t / T o o hard 62
t5 Do better/More f r i e n d s , pay a t t e n t i o n 36 t6 Show s k i l l s / N o boss, l o t s o f f r i e n d s 61
86
Table 5.17
E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s R e s u l t i n g from F a c t o r A n a l y s e s , White Females
S c a l e , F a c t o r Alpha Items Achievement a l t e r n a t i v e / O t h e r A l t e r n a t i v e Loadings
A1-A7 ( A l l a n x i e t y items)
You thought you d i d a good job/Boss d i d 40 Can do whatever he wants/Others l i k e him 57 Challenge meeter/Good f r i e n d 49 Think f o r s e l f / N i c e group, l o t s o f say 67
You thought you d i d a good job/Boss d i d 45 Weighty opinion/Good neighbor 35 Leader/Teacher e x p e c t s , be p o p u l a r 73 Want to know more/Feel good 44 P l a n s work o u t / P l a n s change 55
Hard worker/Can get others to a c t 63 Do better/More f r i e n d s , pay a t t e n t i o n 78 What happens i s own doing/No c o n t r o l 55 No l u c k i n v o l v e d i n l i f e / C o i n f l i p 41
Wants to do best/Own r i g h t s , kindness 54 P l a n ahead/Not be weak, teacher expects 34 Not sure l i f e w i l l work out/Sure 43 L i v e d a y - t o - d a y / P l a n ahead 66
B e t t e r worker so q u i t / T o o much c o m p e t i t i o n 52 Job no challenge/Too hard 65
pclO Gives i m p o r t a n t - a d v i c e / P a r t y fun 65
High achievement-next 10 years/Low 67 High achievement-compared to others/Low 47
WF1 A1-A7 .58
WF2 pc5 .44 pc7
pc9 t7
WF3 pc5 .56 pc6
t4 i e 2 pe5
WF4 pc8 .54 t5
p e l pe2
WF5 t l .30 t3
pe3 pe4
WF6 pc2 .52 pc3
pclO
WF7 s p l .23 sp2
87
Table 5.18
E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s R e s u l t i n g from F a c t o r A n a l y s e s , B l a c k Females
S c a l e , F a c t o r Alpha Items Achievement A l t e r n a t i v e / O t h e r A l t e r n a t i v e Loadings
BF1 A1-A7 ( A l l a n x i e t y items) .76
BF2 pc4 Job to p l a n and f o l l o w u p / S t a r t f r e s h 50 .22 pc9 Challenge meeter/Good f r i e n d 41
t 3 P l a n ahead/Not be weak, t e a c h e r expects 50 pe2 No l u c k i n v o l v e d i n l i f e / C o i n f l i p 46
BF3 p:7 Can do whatever he wants/Others l i k e him 64 .60 pc8 Hard worker/Can get o t h e r s to a c t 64
t5 Do better/More f r i e n d s , pay a t t e n t i o n 64 t7 Think f o r s e l f / N i c e group, l o t s of say 56
BF4 pc5 Boss though you d i d a good job/You d i d 57 .51 i e l Compare to own background/to o t h e r s i n c o u n t r y 71
s p l High achievement- next 10 years/Low 54 sp2 High achievement-compared to others/Low 52
BF5 pclO Gives important a d v i c e / P a r t y fun 68 .52 t6 Show s k i l l s / N o boss, l o t s o f f r i e n d s 52
i e 3 Think of t e s t s to come/Feel good 75 pe5 P l a n s work o u t / P l a n s change 41
BF6 pc3 Job no c h a l l e n g e so q u i t / T o o hard 52
.42 t2 Do as w e l l as others/Make f r i e n d s , defend s e l f 58
p e l What happens i s own doing/No c o n t r o l 67
BF7 pc2 B e t t e r worker so q u i t / T o o much c o m p e t i t i o n 53 .30 t4 Leader/Teacher e x p e c t s , be p o p u l a r 62
pc6 Weighty opinion/Good neighbor 37
88
Table 5.19
C o r r e l a t i o n ' s of E m p i r i c a l and A P r i o r i S c a l e s w i t h R i s k - T a k i n g and P r o j e c t i v e C r i t e r i a , by Race-Sex Groups
White B l a c k White B l a c k Group Males Males Females Females C r i t e r i o n P r o j . R i s k P r o j . R i s k P r o j . R i s k P r o j . R i s k
E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s 1 - .104 .002 - .091 -.049 - .214* .045 - .080 - .059 2 .081 .218 .085 .008 .114 .375** .135 .046 3 .262* .017 -.242* -.249* .120 .244* .007 .072 4 -.109 - .087 .126 .317** .029 .038 - .006 .010 5 .170 .114 -.247* - .004 .051 - .031 .215* .197 6 -.030 - .026 -.009 .052 - .014 .151 - •„ 2-27* .023 7 .230* .085 .129 .187 .049 .195 .106 .037 8 .026 - .039 .085 .044 9 .307** .073 — —
S o c i a l Comparison - .033 - .179 - .039 - .036 .001 -.018 - .124 .068
F u t u r e O r i e n t a t i o n .158 .100 .094 -.165 - .062 .318** .142 .114
Ma s te ry .218* - .012 .103 .159 .171 .147 .152 .073
P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y .328** .054 - .184 .152 -.194 .103 - .179 .193
A n x i e t y .111 - .024 -.216* -.255* -.214* .045 - .080 - .059
*p < .05
**p < .01
89
White males. R e f e r r i n g to Table 5.19, we can see t h a t w h i l e no s c a l e
c o r r e l a t e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h the r i s k c r i t e r i o n f o r white males, three
s c a l e s c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h the p r o j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n (WM 3, WM 7,
and WM 9 ) . For convenience, the items i n these f a c t o r s w i t h l o a d i n g s over
.40 are reproduced i n Table 5.20 w i t h our suggested i d e n t i f i c a t i o n names
f o r the f a c t o r s . For white males the e m p i r i c a l s c a l e s t h a t seem to be
e f f e c t i v e ( P l a n n i n g , Power, and Mastery) o v e r l a p the a p r i o r i s c a l e s that
are e f f e c t i v e ( P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y , Autonomy-Power, and M a s t e r y ) . Thus no
new s c a l e s are suggested by the f a c t o r a n a l y s i s f o r t h i s group.
Black males. Two f a c t o r s r e l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y to the, p r o j e c t i v e
c r i t e r i o n f o r the b l a c k males (BM 3 and BM 5 ) , and two to the r i s k c r i t e r i o n
(BM 3 a g a i n , and BM 4 ) . Reproduced i n Table 5.21 are the items w i t h l o a d
ings of .40 or h i g h e r on these s c a l e s . BM 3 r e p r e s e n t s a s e l e c t i o n from
the t e s t a n x i e t y measure, which we have a l r e a d y seen i s an e f f e c t i v e
p r e d i c t o r of the c r i t e r i a i n b l a c k males. The f a c t t h a t o n l y c e r t a i n items
are e f f e c t i v e f o r the b l a c k males suggests t h a t we should c o n s i d e r s h o r t e n i n g
the a n x i e t y s c a l e to those items f o r everyone. What i s new from the c u r r e n t
a n a l y s i s i s t h a t BM 5 and BM 4 c o r r e l a t e w i t h the c r i t e r i a i n an i n t e r e s t i n g
p a t t e r n . Our i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f a c t o r 5 i s t h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s the a c h i e v e
ment moral system of the dominant American s o c i e t y , w i t h the high l o a d i n g s
on "hard work" coupled w i t h " p l a n n i n g " and " r e j e c t i o n of f a t e c o n t r o l . "
Had the item i d e n t i f y i n g "hard work" (as opposed t o "can get o t h e r s to a c t " )
not been so h i g h on t h i s f a c t o r , we would have i n t e r p r e t e d i t as a s t r a i g h t
e f f i c a c y f a c t o r . But t h a t item's l o a d i n g the way i t does f o r these men
suggests t h a t the f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t s how much they have i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the
achievement v a l u e system as a moral system. And indeed f o r these men such
an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the achievement m o t i v a t i o n
c r i t e r i o n found i n the p r o j e c t i v e i n s t r u m e n t . I t i s as i f b l a c k men who
adopt these v a l u e s as a moral system undermine t h e i r own m o t i v a t i o n s . A
b l a c k male's a g r e e i n g w i t h these items might be tantamount to a g r e e i n g
w i t h the c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e t h a t the b l a c k man has o n l y himseIf to blame
i f he does not a c h i e v e . Not a g r e e i n g w i t h these moral statements might be
1
Table 5.20
Items w i t h Loadings o f .40 or Over on E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s E f f e c t i v e f o r White Males
F a c t o r S c a l e C o r r e l a t i o n to Number P r o j e c t i v e R i s k - T a k i n g Items and Name C r i t e r i o n C r i t e r i o n P o s i t i v e A l t e r n a t i v e / O t h e r A l t e r n a t i v e
WM3 P l a n n i n g .26 .02 PC4
PE1
PE2
WM7 Power .23 .09 PC6
T4
PE5
WM9 Mastery .31 -07 PC7
PC 9
PE3
Job to p l a n and f o l l o w u p / s t a r t f r e s h
What happens i s own doing/no c o n t r o l
No l u c k i n v o l v e d i n l i f e / c o i n f l i p
Weighty opinion/good neighbor
L e a d e r / t e a c h e r e x p e c t s , be p o p u l a r
P l a n s work o u t / p l a n s change
Can do whatever he wants/others l i k e him
C h a l l e n g e meeter/good f r i e n d
L i f e w i l l work out OK/not sure
T a b l e 5.21
Items w i t h Loadings of .40 or Over on E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s E f f e c t i v e f o r B l a c k Males
F a c t o r S c a l e C o r r e l a t i o n to Number P r o j e c t i v e R i s k - T a k i n g Items and Name C r i t e r i o n C r i t e r i o n P o s i t i v e A l t e r n a t i v e / O t h e r A l t e r n a t i v e
BM3 A n x i e t y -.24 -.25 A2
A3
A5
A6
BM4 .13 .32 PC6
Instrumenal PC10
O r i e n t a t i o n IE2
IE 3
BM5 Moral -.25 .00 PC4
Achievement PC8
PE2
PE4
Upset f e e l i n g d u r i n g t e s t s / n o t upset
F a s t h e a r t b e a t d u r i n g t e s t s / n o t upset
Heavy p e r s p i r a t i o n d u r i n g t e s t s / n o p e r s p i r a t i o n
W o r r i e d about f a i l i n g t e s t s / n o worry
Weighty opinion/good neighbor
Gives important a d v i c e / p a r t y fun
Wants to know more/feels good
Think o f t e s t s t o come/feel good
Job to p l a n and f o l l o w u p / s t a r t f r e s h
Hard worker/can get o t h e r s to a c t
No l u c k i n v o l v e d / c o i n f l i p
P l a n a h e a d / l i v e day-to-day
92
more l i k e r e c o g n i z i n g Chat the system might be at f a u l t i n a c c o u n t i n g f o r
the f a i l u r e of b l a c k men. Indeed we t h i n k t h i s s c a l e i n d i r e c t l y measures
how u n w i l l i n g the person i s to blame the American s o c i a l system f o r h i s
own l a c k o f achievement. The f a c t t h a t some items from the a p r i o r i
P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y s c a l e appear on t h i s s c a l e f o r b l a c k males may account
f o r .the P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y s c a l e ' s tendency to r e l a t e n e g a t i v e l y to the
p r o j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n i n t h i s group.
The p o s i t i v e e f f e c t o f I n s t r u m e n t a l O r i e n t a t i o n (BM 4) i n p r e d i c t i n g
the r i s k c r i t e r i o n i s a l s o p r o v o c a t i v e . We l a b e l i t an I n s t r u m e n t a l
O r i e n t a t i o n because i n each o f the items the p o s i t i v e i t e m i s a r e j e c t i o n
o f an a f f e c t i v e , spontaneous type of response. The p o s i t i v e item thus
seems t o be a r e j e c t i o n of an immediate o r i e n t a t i o n to l i f e and an endorse
ment of a more i n s t r u m e n t a l , m a n i p u l a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n , sometimes s t a t e d
i n power terms (pc6 and p c l O ) , sometimes as a f u t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n ( i e 3 ) ,
and sometimes In mastery terms ( i e 2 ) . T h i s suggests t h a t the s l i g h t p o s i t i v e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the a p r i o r i s c a l e s of Future O r i e n t a t i o n , Mastery, and
Autonomy-Power f o r b l a c k males r e s t s i n the e x t e n t to which these s c a l e s
r e p r e s e n t a r e j e c t i o n of the i m p u l s i v e , the a f f e c t i v e , and the more
immediate o r i e n t a t i o n to l i f e . Such an e x p l a n a t i o n w i l l a l s o be e v i d e n t
i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of some o f the f i n d i n g s f o r b l a c k women.
White females. The s c a l e s r e s u l t i n g from the f a c t o r a n a l y s i s t h a t are
e f f e c t i v e i n p r e d i c t i n g e i t h e r of the two c r i t e r i a f o r white women are
reproduced and i d e n t i f i e d i n Table 5.22. I t i s q u i t e c l e a r from these
r e s u l t s t h a t we are g e t t i n g a complete o v e r l a p between our a p r i o r i a n a l y s i s
f o r white females and t h i s e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s . A n x i e t y , Mastery, and
Autonomy-Power are a p r i o r i s c a l e s s i m i l a r to the f a c t o r s c a l e s i d e n t i f i e d
i n Table 5.11: A n x i e t y , Autonomy-Mastery, and Power (WF 1, WF 2, and W"F 3 ) .
Thus f o r white females we l e a r n l i t t l e a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n from the
f a c t o r a n a l y s i s over our a. p r i o r i a n a l y s i s .
t
Table 5.22
Items w i t h Loadings o f .40 or Over on E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s E f f e c t i v e f o r White Females
F a c t o r S c a l e C o r r e l a t i o n t o Number P r o j e c t i v e R i s k - T a k i n g Items and Name C r i t e r i o n C r i t e r i o n P o s i t i v e A l t e r n a t i v e / O t h e r A l t e r n a t i v e
WF1 A n x i e t y -.21 .05 A l l seven a n x i e t y items
WF2 .11
Autonomy-
Mastery
33 PCS You thought you d i d a good job/boss d i d
PC7 Can do whatever he wants/other l i k e him
PC9 C h a l l e n g e meeter/good f r i e n d
T7 Think f o r s e l f / n i c e group
WF3 Power .12 24 PC5 You thought you d i d a good job/boss d i d
PC6 Weighty opinion/good n e i g h b o r
T4 L e a d e r / t e a c h e r e x p e c t s , be p o p u l a r
IE2 Want to know more/feel good
PE5 P l a n s work o u t / p l a n s change
94
Black females. Table 5.23 presents the two s c a l e s that are s i g n i f i c a n t
p r e d i c t o r s of the c r i t e r i a f o r the b l a c k females. We have c a l l e d them
I n s t r u m e n t a l O r i e n t a t i o n (BF 5) and Moral Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n (BF 6 ) ,
p a r a l l e l to s i m i l a r f a c t o r s i n the b l a c k males. The f i r s t , i n s t r u m e n t a l
o r i e n t a t i o n , seems to be a composite o f power, f u t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , and
mastery, but the one t h i n g i n common a c r o s s a l l items i s an i n s t r u m e n t a l
o r i e n t a t i o n : a r e j e c t i o n o f an a l t e r n a t i v e s u g g e s t i n g a more a f f e c t i v e ,
spontaneous, or immediate r e a c t i o n to l i f e . The I n s t r u m e n t a l O r i e n t a t i o n
s c a l e a l s o c o r r e l a t e d h i g h e s t to the r i s k - t a k i n g c r i t e r i o n (.19), p a r a l l e l i n g
the r e s u l t s f o r the b l a c k males. The second s c a l e that c o r r e l a t e s s i g n i - •
f i c a n t l y w i t h the p r o j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n f o r b l a c k females i s what we have
a g a i n c a l l e d a Moral Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n . A g a i n , we would have looked
at the s c a l e as a measure o f p e r s o n a l e f f i c a c y i f we had j u s t examined the
item w i t h the h i g h e s t l o a d i n g ( p e l : "what happens i s my own d o i n g " vs.
"have no c o n t r o l over l i f e " ) . Looking c l o s e r at the o t h e r items, however,
we r e a l i z e d t h a t i n e n d o r s i n g them a b l a c k woman r e j e c t s q u i t t i n g a job
because i t i s "too h a r d " and r e j e c t s wanting a c h i l d to defend h i m s e l f i f
a t t a c k e d . C o n s i d e r i n g the endorsement o f achievement items i n that c o n t e x t ,
we r e a p p r a i s e d the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the measure as p e r s o n a l e f f i c a c y and
c o n s i d e r e d i t a measure of the a d o p t i o n of the dominant c u l t u r a l a t t i t u d e s
toward achievement i n a moral sense. T h i s a t t i t u d e does not permit the
b l a c k woman to see s o c i a l i n e q u i t i e s (a job too hard f o r her, or a w o r l d
t h a t might a t t a c k her c h i l d r e n ) as stemming from the system, but o n l y as
re f l e e t i n g her own ach ievement inadequac i e s . As w i t h the b l a c k males, we
would see the a d o p t i o n of such a code of achievement i n b l a c k s as a hindrance
to p e r s o n a l achievement o r i e n t a t i o n , perhaps an o b s t a c l e s t a n d i n g i n the way
o f t h e i r own e f f i c a c y , as the G u r i n s have suggested (1969).
E m p i r i c a l and A P r i o r i S c a l e s Compared: A Summary
The f a c t o r a n a l y s e s i n the d i f f e r e n t groups l e d to some s c a l e s t h a t
were e f f e c t i v e i n p r e d i c t i n g the c r i t e r i a . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , they over
lapped w i t h _a p r i o r i s c a l e s we had e s t a b l i s h e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n the white
groups. However, the e m p i r i c a l s c a l e s that were e f f e c t i v e i n the b l a c k
Table 5.23
Items w i t h Loadings of .40 or Over on E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s E f f e c t i v e f o r B l a c k Females
F a c t o r Number and Name
S c a l e C o r r e l a t i o n t o P r o j e c t i v e R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i o n C r i t e r i o n
Items P o s i t i v e A l t e r n a t i v e / O t h e r A l t e r n a t i v e
I n s t r u m e n t a l
O r i e n t a t i o n
22 20 PC10 G i v e s importance a d v i c e / p a r t y fun
T6 Show s k i l l s / n o boss, l o t s of f r i e n d s
LE3 Think o f t e s t s to come/feel good
PE5 P l a n s work o u t / p l a n s change
6
Moral
Achievement
-.23 .02 PC3 Job no c h a l l e n g e so q u i t / t o o hard
T2 Do as w e l l as others/make f r i e n d s , defend s e l f
PE1 What happens i s own doing/no c o n t r o l
96
groups l e a d to some s p e c i a l i n s i g h t s about the problems we were e n c o u n t e r i n g
i n our a p r i o r i s c a l e s f o r these groups. Only c e r t a i n items from the
A n x i e t y S c a l e were e f f e c t i v e f o r b l a c k males, s u g g e s t i n g that we use o n l y
those items f o r everyone. More i m p o r t a n t l y , Autonomy-Power, Mastery, and
Future O r i e n t a t i o n seem to be working i n the b l a c k groups to the e x t e n t
t h a t they r e p r e s e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s to the immediate, a f f e c t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n
t o l i f e (what we have c a l l e d I n s t r u m e n t a l O r i e n t a t i o n ) , but not working to
the e x t e n t t h a t they r e p r e s e n t m o r a l i s t i c v a l u e s that would remove the
blame f o r b l a c k f a i l u r e from the s o c i a l system to the i n d i v i d u a l ( M o r a l i s t i c
Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n ) . These c o n c l u s i o n s suggest that the f a i l u r e of
the P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y s c a l e to be e f f e c t i v e , and i n some i n s t a n c e s , a c t u a l l y
r e l a t i n g n e g a t i v e l y to the c r i t e r i a of achievement o r i e n t a t i o n r e s t s i n the
degree to which that s c a l e can be viewed as a m o r a l i s t i c achievement
o r i e n t a t i o n i n c e r t a i n groups. T h i s was e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r b l a c k s , but
there was some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t such was the case f o r white females a l s o .
The f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t items from the P e r s o n a l E f f i c a c y s c a l e might have
d i f f e r e n t m o r a l i s t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s depending on a person's race or sex or
both would suggest t h a t i t i s not a g e n e r a l l y v i a b l e s c a l e f o r a l l groups.
These c o n c l u s i o n s suggest t h a t we s t i c k w i t h the £ p r i o r i s c a l e s but
" p u r i f y " them: f i r s t , s h o r t e n the A n x i e t y s c a l e , then examine f u r t h e r the
items i n the three a_ p r i o r i s c a l e s that g e n e r a l l y worked Autonomy-Power,
Future O r i e n t a t i o n , and Mastery -- to see i f we can p u l l out items t h a t
a v o i d the m o r a l i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n and perhaps accentuate the i n s t r u m e n t a l
o r i e n t a t i o n .
I n c r e a s i n g the E f f e c t i v e n e s s of the A P r i o r i S c a l e s
A new t e s t a n x i e t y s c a l e . S i n c e o n l y c e r t a i n items from the Test
A n x i e t y s c a l e were e f f e c t i v e f o r the b l a c k males, we used o n l y these items
f o r everyone to see whether we c o u l d i n c r e a s e the e f f e c t i v e n e s s f o r b l a c k
males and s h o r t e n the s c a l e w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s i n g the e f f e c t i v e
ness of the s c a l e i n other groups. The alpha c o e f f i c i e n t s and c o r r e l a t i o n s
of t h i s Revised A n x i e t y S c a l e to the two c r i t e r i a are presented f o r each
group i n Table 5.24. N e i t h e r the alphas nor the c o r r e l a t i o n s are reduced
s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
97
Table 5.24
Revised A n x i e t y S c a l e w i t h Alpha C o e f f i c i e n t s and C o r r e l a t i o n s to C r i t e r i a i n Four Race-Sex Groups
The Revised A n x i e t y s c a l e i n c l u d e s :
A2: When you took a f i n a l exam, d i d you have an uneasy, upset f e e l i n g ?
A3: When you were working on important t e s t s , how f a s t d i d your h e a r t beat?
A5: When you were t a k i n g an important e x a m i n a t i o n , how much d i d you p e r s p i r e ?
A6: D u r i n g t e s t s , how much d i d you worry about what i t would mean to f a i l ?
C o r r e l a t i o n to A l p h a P r o j e c t i v e R i s k - T a k i n g
Group N C o e f f i c i e n t C r i t e r i a C r i t e r i a
White Males (86) .71 -.10 -.02
B l a c k Males (92) .67 -.24* -.23*
White Females (91) .71 -.14 .09
B l a c k Females (96) .61 -.09 -.02
*p £ .05.
98
Now s c a l o f o r achievement o r i e n t a t i o n . i n Tuble 5.25 we present, the
c o r r e l a t i o n s between each o f the items found on the three a p r i o r i s c a l e s
w i t h the two c r i t e r i a . From that s e t of items we can r e j e c t those items
t h a t show any of the n e g a t i v e trends t h a t may be due to the m o r a l i s t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n we suggested i n the prev ious s e c t i o n , and accept o n l y those
items t h a t show a p o s i t i v e t r e n d a c r o s s most o f the groups. We e s t a b l i s h e d
the f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i o n f o r i n c l u d i n g an item from one of these s c a l e s f o r
a f i n a l s c a l e : among the e i g h t c o r r e l a t i o n s of an i t e m to the two c r i t e r i a
i n the f o u r groups, an item had to have a c o r r e l a t i o n g r e a t e r than .10 i n
a t l e a s t two o f the groups on a t l e a s t one c r i t e r i o n , and had to have no
n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n l e s s than -.10 i n any group. With such a c r i t e r i o n
f o u r items from the Mastery s c a l e , two from the Future O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e ,
and f o u r from the Autonomy-Power s c a l e emerged as a c c e p t a b l e . These items
w i l l h e n c e f o r t h be grouped t o g e t h e r and l a b e l e d as the Achievement
O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e ; they appear i n Table 5.26.
The i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y o f the Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e v a r i e d
from .33 to .49 i n the f o u r groups. The c o e f f i c i e n t s are r e p o r t e d i n
Table 5.27, along w i t h the c o r r e l a t i o n s o f the s c a l e w i t h the c r i t e r i a i n
each group. We s h o u l d note that the s c a l e shows g e n e r a l l y p o s i t i v e
c o r r e l a t i o n s i n each group w i t h each c r i t e r i o n , but i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y
e f f e c t i v e f o r b l a c k females.
A R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n S c a l e
G i v i n g equal weight to the new Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e and
Revised A n x i e t y s c a l e , we s u b t r a c t e d the l a t t e r from the former, and c a l l e d
t h i s s c a l e the R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e . T h i s s c a l e , i t s
a l p h a f o r the f o u r sex-race groups, and i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n p r e d i c t i n g the
two c r i t e r i a are p r e s e n t e d i n Table 5.28. T h i s i s the most e f f e c t i v e s c a l e
we have found a c r o s s a l l groups a g a i n being the l e a s t e f f e c t i v e f o r
b l a c k females, but most e f f e c t i v e f o r b l a c k males.
S i n c e t h i s i s the s c a l e to be recommended f o r g e n e r a l use i n a
heterogeneous sample, we thought i t c r i t i c a l to see how t h i s s c a l e r e l a t e s
to o t h e r s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t might bear on i s s u e s of
achievement o r i e n t a t i o n . In Table 5.29, we r e p o r t f o r each o f the sex-race
99
Table 5.25
C o r r e l a t i o n s < D£ Item-to- C r i t e r i a . f o r Items In Three A P r i o r i S c a l e s , by Race -Sex Group
White Males B l a c k Males White Females B l a c k Females S c a l e (N-86) (N«92) (N= 91) (N= =96) Item R i s k P r o j . R i s k P r o j . R i s k P r o j . R i s k P r o j .
Item P o s i t i v e A l t e r n a t i v e / O t h e r A l t e r n a t i v e
PC3 Job no c h a l l e n g e so q u i t / j o b too d i f f i c u l t
PC6 O p i n i o n s h o l d l o t s of weight/people l i k e him as neighbor
PC7 Can do whatever he wants/others l i k e him
PC10 Gives important a d v i c e / f u n at a p a r t y
T4 Be a l e a d e r / d o what teacher e x p e c t s , be p o p u l a r
T5 Want to do better/more f r i e n d s , get a t t e n t i o n
T7 Think f o r s e l f / n i c e group, l o t s of say
IE2 Want t o know more about t e s t s / f e e l good
IE3 Think of t e s t s to come/feel good
S P l High achievement response — next ten y e a r s / l o w
Table 5.27
Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n S c a l e : A l p h a C o e f f i c i e n t s and C o r r e l a t i o n s to C r i t e r i a i n Four Race-Sex Groups
C o r r e l a t i o n to A l p h a P r o j e c t i v e R i s k - T a k i n g
Group N C o e f f i c i e n t C r i t e r i a C r i t e r i a
White Males (86) .33 .16 .16
B l a c k Males (92) .42 .13 .16.'
White Females (91) .49 .10 .34**
B l a c k Females (96) .49 .10 .05
**p == .01.
101
Table 5.28
R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n S c a l e : Means, Sigmas, Alpha C o e f f i c i e n t s , and C o r r e l a t i o n s
to C r i t e r i a i n Four Race-Sex Groups
C o r r e l a t i o n to
Group N Mean Sigma
Alpha C o e f f i c i e n t
P r o j e c t i v e C r i t e r i a
R i s k - t a k i n g C r i t e r i a
White Males (86) 16.7 3.3 .48 .18 .14
B l a c k Males (92) 16.9 4.1 .54 .23* .26*
White Females (91) ' 15.8 3.4 .50 .17 .25*
B l a c k Females (96) 15.5 3.4 .54 .12 .05
p * .05
Table 5.29
C o r r e l a t i o n s of R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n to S e l e c t e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Respondents
(by Sex-Race Group)
White B l a c k White B l a c k Males Males Females Females
S o c i a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c (N-86) (N=92) (N-91) (N=96)
E d u c a t i o n .21* .38** .40** .14
Income - .06 .11 .15 .03
O c c u p a t i o n a l M o b i l i t y - .05 .11 - .02 .05
I n t e l l i g e n c e (SCT) .27** .37** .32** .12
* P < .01
** p < .05
102
groups the r e s u l t s o f the c o r r e l a t i o n s of the R e s u l t a n t Achievement
O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e to e d u c a t i o n ; income ( r e p o r t e d f a m i l y income by the
respondent); o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y (the d i f f e r e n c e between Duncan's
s t a t u s coding of the respondent's o c c u p a t i o n and- h i s f a t h e r ' s ; * ) and our
own best e s t i m a t e of what i s s t a n d a r d l y measured as i n t e l l i g e n c e (the
scores on the Sentence Completion T e s t ) . Quite apparent i n that t a b l e
i s the c o n s i s t e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p of the s c a l e to both e d u c a t i o n and the
Sentence Completion T e s t , perhaps as i t t h e o r e t i c a l l y should be. The
gnawing concern f o r us i n t h i n k i n g about-these c o r r e l a t i o n s i s the
p o s s i b i l i t y that the two c r i t e r i a on which the s c a l e depends -- the
p r o j e c t i v e and r i s k - t a k i n g c r i t e r i a -- are l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n of these
two o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , e d u c a t i o n and i n t e l 1 igence,. and nothing-'more than
t h a t . Remembering t h a t the i n t e l l i g e n c e f a c t o r was s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
removed from the r i s k - t a k i n g c r i t e r i o n , we were r e a l l y o n l y concerned
w i t h the p o s s i b l e c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f the e d u c a t i o n v a r i a b l e i n a c c o u n t i n g
f o r the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the - R e s u l t a n t A c h i e v e m e n t . O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e .
Our concern was mostly l i m i t e d t o the male groups, because o n l y i n them
was there any s u b s t a n t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n between e d u c a t i o n and the c r i t e r i a ,
as can be seen i n Table 5.30 below. T h e r e f o r e we recomputed, the c o r r e l a
t i o n s - between the• R e s u l t a n t A c h i e v e m e n t - O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e and the two
c r i t e r i a i n the f o u r groups, p a r t i a l l i n g out the e f f e c t s of e d u c a t i o n .
These r e s u l t s are r e p o r t e d i n Table 5.31 below.
Comparing Table 5.28 w i t h Table 5.31, we can see t h a t the e f f e c t o f
p a r t i a l l i n g out e d u c a t i o n i n computing the c o r r e l a t i o n of the s c a l e to the
two c r i t e r i a was n e g l i g i b l e , w i t h the l a r g e s t r e d u c t i o n i n the p r e d i c t i o n
o f the p r o j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n . We had some, f u r t h e r evidence t h a t helped
remove our concern about the p o s s i b l e c o n t a m i n a t i n g i n f l u e n c e s of e d u c a t i o n
on our r e s u l t s f o r males. We checked out the c o r r e l a t i o n s of the R e s u l t a n t
M o t i v a t i o n s c a l e to the c r i t e r i a i n the males who were l e s s educated ( l e s s
than a high s c h o o l d e g r e e ) , s i n c e t h i s i s a group that might be of g r e a t e s t
*Women who d i d not work o u t s i d e the home were not i n c l u d e d ; i f the f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a t i o n was uncodable because the f a t h e r was absent from the home, i t was a r b i t r a r i l y a s s i g n e d to' the n e x t - t o - l o w e s t s t a t u s c o d i n g .
103
Table 5.30
C o r r e l a t i o n o f E d u c a t i o n t o P r o j e c t i v e and R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i a (by Sex-Race Groups)
Group P r o j e c t i v e C r i t e r i o n
R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i o n
White Males
B l a c k Males
White Females
B l a c k Females
(85)
(90)
(90)
(94)
. 14
.19
-.04
.15
.32**
.26*
.11
.04
*p * .05.
**p £ .01.
Table 5.31
C o r r e l a t i o n s of R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n (A) to the P r o j e c t i v e and R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i a ( C ) ,
P a r t i a l l i n g out the E f f e c t s of E d u c a t i o n (E) i n D i f f e r e n t Sex-Race Groupings
Group
AC-E
P r o j e c t i v e C r i t e r i o n
AC-E
R i s k - T a k i n g C r i t e r i o n
White Males
B l a c k Males
White Females
Black Females
(86)
(92)
(91)
(96)
.13
.14
.20
.11
.12
.20
.23*
.03
*p =£ .05.
104
i n t e r e s t i n pragmatic r e s e a r c h and found that f o r t h i s group the
c o r r e l a t i o n s to c r i t e r i a were about as high as they were f o r the whole
group; f o r white males, .24 w i t h the p r o j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n , and .13 w i t h
the r i s k - t a k i n g c r i t e r i o n ; f o r b l a c k males, .16 f o r the p r o j e c t i v e
c r i t e r i o n , and .23 w i t h the r i s k - t a k i n g c r i t e r i o n . Thus, even i n a group
w i t h a r e s t r i c t e d range of e d u c a t i o n we f i n d t h a t the R e s u l t a n t A c h i e v e
ment O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e i s e f f e c t i v e .
As a f i n a l a p p r a i s a l of the R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e ,
we present i n Table 5.32 the r e s u l t s o f u s i n g t h i s s c a l e i n combination
w i t h the i n t e l l i g e n c e measure recommended f o r g e n e r a l use i n Chapter 3
to p r e d i c t our major c r i t e r i o n of a c t u a l achievement i n the s o c i e t y ,
e d u c a t i o n . As a d d i t i o n a l p r e d i c t o r s we i n c l u d e d s t a t u s background of the
respondent and age, s i n c e these f a c t o r s are i n d e p e n d e n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h
e d u c a t i o n i n a l l race-sex groups c o n s i d e r e d . Table 5.32 p r e s e n t s t h e r e f o r e
the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f our recommended m o t i v a t i o n a l and i n t e l l i g e n c e measures,
independent of each o t h e r and of the c r i t i c a l demographic v a r i a b l e s . The
r e s u l t s are v e r y encouraging about the u s e f u l n e s s of the measure of
r e s u l t a n t m o t i v a t i o n i n two groups white females and b l a c k males. We
were a l r e a d y s k e p t i c a l about i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s f o r b l a c k females; the f a c t
that i t was a l s o not e f f e c t i v e f o r white males i s very p r o v o c a t i v e , s i n c e
i t was on t h a t group t h a t most measures of achievement m o t i v a t i o n were
o r i g i n a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d . I t might be t h a t f o r w h i t e males the l e v e l of
e d u c a t i o n a t t a i n e d i s as much a f u n c t i o n of "performing as expected", and
responding t o c u l t u r a l norms as i t i s a f u n c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l achievement
o r i e n t a t i o n . For the o t h e r groups those l e s s advantaged i n terms of
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r e d u c a t i o n a l and o c c u p a t i o n a l success -- i n d i v i d u a l achievement
o r i e n t a t i o n does seem to be a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n the p r e d i c t i o n o f an
important performance v a r i a b l e , e d u c a t i o n .
Table 5.32
R e g r e s s i o n on E d u c a t i o n w i t h I n t e l l i g e n c e (SCT) and R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n as P r e d i c t o r s along w i t h S t a t u s Background and Age (By Sex x Race Groups)
P r e d i c t o r
Group
White Males (N-86)
2 Beta R I
White Females
(N»91) 2
Beta R t
B l a c k Males (N=*92)
2 Beta R I
B l a c k Females (N-96)
2 Beta R t
I n t e l l i g e n c e (SCT) .45 .22 4.77** .39 .17 4.17** .48 .26 5.55** .54 .33 6.64**
R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n
In our e f f o r t s to e v o l v e a f e a s i b l e , r e l i a b l e , v a l i d s c a l e of
mot i v a t i o n f o r ach ievement t h a t c o u l d be a p p 1 i c a b l e t o a heterogeneous
sample, we f o l l o w e d the f o l l o w i n g s t e p s :
1. We developed two c r i t e r i a f o r achievement o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t have
been s t a n d a r d l y used i n p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h and t h i n k i n g about achievement --
score of ach ievement mot i v a t i o n from p r o j e c t i v e f a n t a s y and the degree to
which the respondent s e l e c t e d a moderate r i s k i n a t e s t of h i s s k i l l s . This
process r e q u i r e d some d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n of confounding f a c t o r s i n assessment
of the c r i t e r i a .
2. We developed a s e t of a p r i o r i s c a l e s o f achievement o r i e n t a t i o n
from q u e s t i o n n a i r e m a t e r i a l , based on p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h and " t h i n k i n g about
ach ievement mot i v a t i o n .
3. We developed a s e t of e m p i r i c a l s c a l e s of these same q u e s t i o n n a i r e
items based on t h e i r c l u s t e r i n g i n f a c t o r a n a l y s e s . We d i d these analyses
s e p a r a t e l y f o r sex-race groupings (white males, b l a c k males, white females,
b l a c k f e m a l e s ) .
4. We t e s t e d the p r e d i c t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of each s e t of s c a l e s
s e p a r a t e l y f o r the f o u r d i f f e r e n t sex-race g r o u p i n g s .
5. We then " p u r i f i e d " the a p r i o r i s c a l e s f o r the f o u r d i f f e r e n t
sex-race g r o u p i n g s . While the r e s u l t s of t e s t i n g the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
the e m p i r i c a l s c a l e s g e n e r a l l y underscored the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from the
a p r i o r i a n a l y s i s , the e m p i r i c a l s c a l e s d i d p r o v i d e some i n s i g h t s i n t o why
the a p r i o r i s c a l e s might be i n some e r r o r . In p a r t i c u l a r , the e m p i r i c a l
r e s u l t s suggested t h a t the a p r i o r i s c a l e of A n x i e t y might be shortened
t o f o u r items. Furthermore, the a p r i o r i s c a l e s of Power-Autonomy, Mastery,
and Future O r i e n t a t i o n might be e f f e c t i v e to the degree t h a t they account
f o r an i n s t r u m e n t a l o r i e n t a t i o n to l i f e i n g e n e r a l as opposed to a more
a f f e c t i v e spontaneous o r i e n t a t i o n , and to the degree t h a t they a v o i d a
m o r a l i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n to achievement, one t h a t seems t o put the blame
f o r f a i l u r e on the person r a t h e r than on the s o c i a l system. To p u r i f y the
a p r i o r i s c a l e s of Power-Autonomy, Mastery, and Future O r i e n t a t i o n , we
examined how each item w i t h i n each o f these a p r i o r i s c a l e s r e l a t e d to the
107
c r i t e r i a , and then s e l e c t e d those items from the s c a l e s t h a t showed
c o n s i s t e n t p o s i t i v e t r e n d s a c r o s s the s e x - r a c t g r o u p i n g s w h i l e showing
no l a r g e n e g a t i v e t r e n d s . The ten items meeting our new c r i t e r i a were
combined i n t o a r e v i s e d Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e .
6. The f o u r items emerging from p u r i f y i n g the A n x i e t y s c a l e i n
s t e p 5, and the ten items emerging f o r p u r i f y i n g the o t h e r a_ p r i o r i s c a l e s
i n s t e p 5, were combined to form a R e s u l t a n t Achievement M o t i v a t i o n s c a l e .
I n t h i s s c a l e , the R e v i s e d A n x i e t y s c a l e , e q u a l l y weighted w i t h the
R e v i s e d Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e , i s s u b t r a c t e d from the l a t t e r .
7. The R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e was found to
c o r r e l a t e e s p e c i a l l y w e l l w i t h the c r i t e r i a i n b l a c k males, but not
v e r y e f f e c t i v e l y i n b l a c k females. The r e s u l t s seem not to be dependent
on the f a c t t h a t both the s c a l e s and the c r i t e r i a are c o r r e l a t e d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h e d u c a t i o n .
8. F i n a l l y , we used the R e s u l t a n t Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e
a l o n g w i t h the i n t e l l i g e n c e measure most e f f e c t i v e i n a p o p u l a t i o n ( t h e
Sentence Completion T e s t ) , s t a t u s background, and age i n a m u l t i p l e
p r e d i c t i o n a n a l y s i s o f e d u c a t i o n . I n these a n a l y s e s the R e s u l t a n t
Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e was found to be a s i g n i f i c a n t independent
p r e d i c t o r f o r b l a c k males and w h i t e females but not f o r b l a c k females or
w h i t e males.
From these s t e p s we f e e l we have a g e n e r a l l y e f f e c t i v e s c a l e u s a b l e
i n a heterogeneous p o p u l a t i o n ; some m i s g i v i n g s about i t s u s e f u l n e s s w i t h
b l a c k females remain. S i n c e we have some e m p i r i c a l s c a l e s found e f f e c t i v e
i n b l a c k f e m a l e s , i t may be t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h a t group
might want t o c o n s i d e r these s c a l e s i n a d d i t i o n to the R e s u l t a n t A c h i e v e
ment O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e . . ..
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A t k i n s o n , J . W. M o t i v a t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f r i s k - t a k i n g b e h a v i o r . P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review, 64, 1957, 359-372.
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