MDDE 603 Assignment 1 1 MDDE 603: FOUNDATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND LEARNING THEORY CHARITY FAKINLEDE STUDENT ID: 2918004 ASSIGNMENT 1 Topic: Applying Systems Theory to an Educational Setting
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 1
MDDE 603: FOUNDATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN:
SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND LEARNING THEORY
CHARITY FAKINLEDE
STUDENT ID: 2918004
ASSIGNMENT 1
Topic:
Applying Systems Theory to an Educational Setting
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 2
Table of Content
Page
Part I: Description of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
General Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
System Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
The Functions/Structure Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Part II: Checkland’s Approach to System Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Stage 1: The Problem Situation Unstructured. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Stage 2: Rich Pictures . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..13
Stage 3: Relevant Systems and their Root Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Stage 4: Conceptual Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Stage 5: Comparison of Conceptual Model with Rich Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Stage 6: Debate of Problem Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Stage 7: Implementation of Agreed Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 3
Part I: Systems Analysis
Introduction
The social environment is made up of different human activity systems, open
and closed to various degrees. Today’s world of complexities, need dynamic social
systems that would create knowledge, organise information and use technology in
order to respond to an ever changing and turbulent social environment.
The educational system is an example of an open system, consisting of all
educational institutions of every kind and level. This system have other systems,
peer systems and subsystems with common concepts, principles and paradigms
which interconnect, interact and interrelate within a general environment – the supra-
system. Banathy (1995), states:
“The systems view is a way of looking at ourselves, at the environments we
live in, at the systems that surround us, and at those we are part of. It is a
holistic and expansionist way of viewing the world.”
General Environment
In the last ten years, due to financial constraints, the Nigerian educational
system has witnessed very little expansion of its facilities in order to accommodate
the ever growing population of qualified candidates seeking higher education in the
country (Ogili, 1996). UNESCO’s recommendation of 26% of the national budget for
the nation’s education sector has never been met by the federal government at any
point in time. National statistics put government’s subvention to the entire
educational system at a yearly rate of 2%.
Negative attitudes and misconceptions by ministry officials have also
contributed to the slow pace of expansion of the educational facilities and
infrastructure (UNESCO, 2001). The country’s seventy-two universities provide
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180,000 spaces yearly for new intakes. In 1998, twenty-four percent of qualified
candidates obtained admission, falling to five percent in 2002 and rising to eight
percent in 2004 (Ipaye, 2007). According to government sources, 1.2 million qualified
candidates sat for the national admission examination, one in seven candidates is
expected to be offered an admission for the 2009/2010 session. This is a far cry from
meeting the higher education needs of the country.
Furthermore, the poor state of the nation’s economy has made it very difficult
for high school students to secure employment after graduation, thus, making it
necessary for many of them to acquire additional skills and better competencies to
give them the added advantage to compete successfully for the few available jobs.
As a response to the general environmental factors (socio-economic and
political), the specific needs of the educational system in particular, and the need to
fill this yawning gap, CompTek, a government approved educational advancement
centre, has provided computer vocational certificate courses to high school
graduates, for many years. It has helped in no small way, in the empowerment of
those who otherwise would have had to stay at home, waiting indefinitely for
admission into higher institutions or for non-existent jobs.
A few of us concerned individuals have decided to make our little contribution
to our society, by setting up institutions that will enhance the skills of young people
and prepare them for the stiff competition out there in the market place. In the past
fifteen years, this has been the environment we have been part of and operated in.
Vision
Providing the nation’s youth with the computer technology skills and
competencies; for online learning, the national job market and ultimately for global
competitiveness, through a highly rated computer literacy and education program.
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 5
System Description
The CompTek educational system offers admission to students who have
successfully completed high school education. The Computer Vocational Certificate
(CVC) is awarded to students who have successfully completed a minimum of six
courses in nine months of intensive, practical, hands-on computer training program.
The regular courses offered are:
Introduction to computers and the operating system
Quantitative methods
Computer programming in Basic
Word processing
Spreadsheets
Databases
Business communications
Desktop publishing
Internet and World Wide Web (www)
Graphics
The teaching and learning process of the educational system is built around
the transactional theory of learning; teacher-learner, learner-instructional materials
and learner-learner, and a commitment to the establishment of a vibrant
collaborative community of learners (Moore, 1989). It involves a face-to-face
classroom teaching method, hands-on computer practice and student group
activities and projects.
The system offers flexibility and accessibility to all students who want to
continue with learning, retraining and skills upgrade. It also offers opportunity for
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 6
those who may want to choose a study environment that is conducive and
compatible with their individual situations and life goals.
There are component elements within the CompTek educational system
which we have put in place to deliver a successful computer certificate program.
These interrelated and interconnected subsystems consist of students, student
support, courses and courseware production, computer laboratory services, Library
and administrative services. It is a fully integrated system where students are
instructed, supported by properly designed instructional materials and the efforts of a
vibrant collaborative community of learners. Over the years, the system has been
adjudged to have delivered high quality outcomes to our student population, have
met the expectations of the owners, other stakeholders and have continued to do so.
The primary stakeholders and owners of the system consist of five members
of the Board of Directors, who have invested significantly, financially and otherwise
in the organization. The Board is the highest decision-making body, which is
responsible for determining and approving company policies and strategies of
CompTek. It is headed by the Chairman with a one-term of two years, renewable for
a second and final term. The Managing Director is a member of the Board and he or
she is responsible for the day-to-day running of the organization. There are four
departments with heads of departments reporting to the Managing Director.
The next set of stakeholders is the students, a population of three hundred at
any point in time, who over the years have continued to trust and patronize the
system. Then, there is also a committed and dependable faculty and staff, consisting
of thirty members who are responsible for course design, teaching, mentoring,
supervision and administration.
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 7
Lastly, the other stakeholders of the institution are made up of suppliers,
external auditors, professional consultants, education inspectors, part-time workers
and others who interact from with the system from time to time.
With these subsystems firmly in place, the system has continued to produce
the expected quality system outcomes. Student success in national and international
examinations, students’ persistence and satisfaction, observable and verifiable on-
the-job performance of our graduating students, are some of the feedback
mechanisms that over the years have given credibility to the high ratings of the
system outcomes. These outcomes can best be viewed in terms of the qualitative
computer skills and competencies regularly injected into the supra-system, financial
returns on investment for its Directors, and income for both staff and clients.
What are the reasons for this success story? There is a regular internal
evaluation of all subsystems on an on-going basis. Regular visits to assess and
monitor teaching and learning processes, effectiveness of instructional materials and
system procedures in order to ensure the achievement of the desired outcomes are
also carried out by government ministry officials from time to time. An overall system
review is carried out every three years by the government’s supervising agencies.
It must be emphasized that to guarantee continuity, growth and quality
outcomes, assessment and monitoring have become critical elements and
procedures that cannot be overlooked in this integrated educational system (Saba,
2000).
System’s Analysis
The continuity and sustainability of any highly rated program, like the one
offered by CompTek educational system requires an efficient integration of all its
subsystems. A system’s analysis of functions, activities and vision within an
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acceptable framework or model may become necessary from time to time, towards
the attainment of its goals. Banathy’s three-lens model is a fundamental approach to
soft system’s analysis that is also compatible with Checkland’s (1981) human activity
system (HAS). Walton (2004) states,
“Banathy‟s three-lenses are best considered types of views or
categories of focus . . . . The name of each lens and its associated
focus is given below:
System-Environment. What is the system of interest?
Functions/Structure Lens. What is the system about?
Process Lens. How does the system transform inputs to outputs?”
A system’s analysis of CompTek will be undertaken using Banathy’s second
lens - the functions/structure lens.
The Function/Structure Lens
It is must be mentioned that administrative expertise, structure and functions
are necessary requirements for the efficient and successful operation of an
organization such as CompTek. The system functions and activities (Table 1) are
carried out by (a) the faculty who is responsible for the preparation of the course
materials and the teaching of students; (b) the support services, the library and the
computer centre staff who provide teaching, learning and social support services to
students; and (c) the administrative staff who coordinate and are responsible for the
integration of all the component elements needed for an efficient operation of this
educational system.
The system’s functional structure (Figure 1) is a graphical representation of
the functional hierarchical structure of the organization.
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 9
Table 1: System Functions and Activities
S/No Functions Major Activities
A Coordinating academic program
Designing courses, instructional materials, teaching, assessing and producing and publishing courseware
B Supporting Student’s teaching and learning
Taking students through orientation, providing social and emotional support for students
C Providing Computing and Library Services
Providing access to hands-on computer activities, instructional materials, academic papers and articles.
D Enrolling students, Accounting and staffing
Enrolling students, accounting for financial transactions, staffing, promotions and staff welfare
E Directing, Coordinating, Implementing
Coordinating day to day activities of the organization, implementing policies, strategies and building a company culture.
F Making decision and mobilizing resources
Deciding on company policies, strategies and mobilizing finance and other resources for the organization.
Supervising Agency
Standards, Resources
Students
___________________________________________________________________ Figure 1: System‟s functional structure
F – Making decisions on policies,
Strategies, and mobilizing
resources
E – Directing,
Coordinating,
implementing
C – Providing
Computing and
Library Services
D –Enrolling
Students, Financial
accounting and
staffing
B – Supporting
student’s teaching
and learning
A – Coordinating academic
program. Designing courses,
Teaching, Assessment and
producing courseware
Publishing
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 10
Finally, no matter how well organized or well operated a system is, it would,
inadvertently, at one point or the other face new challenges such as technology
challenges, organizational management challenges and other subsystem
challenges. With such challenges come the practical realities produced by these
problems that owners and stakeholders within the organization would have to
resolve. In order to find lasting solutions to these challenges, it may become
necessary to carry out an overall systems analysis, a process that could change the
functions, structure and to a large extent, the future of the organizational system.
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 11
Part II: Checkland’s Approach to System Analysis
Introduction:
Individuals have different understanding and perspectives of situations; they
look at the world through personal world view windows that define and determine
reality of what is and what ought to be. Soft systems approach to finding solutions to
organizational “problems” assume that problems are not independent of human
beings, they are actually human constructs influenced by perceptions of individuals
within a system. Naughton (1984) states:
The reason for its ubiquity is simply that soft systems analysts realized long
ago that insight into problem settings come from an appreciation of the
Weltanschauung-driven perceptions of the people involved in the situation (p.
11).
It is generally acceptable to soft systems protagonists that “problems” are
personal or social constructs, therefore can only be resolved also through ideas that
are rationally constructed. Problems do not exist in isolation, but are interconnected
at various levels of interactivity. In Ackoff, (1974) words:
“We have also come to realize that no problem ever exists in complete
isolation. Every problem interacts with another and is, therefore, part of a set
of interrelated problems, a system of problems . . . Furthermore, solutions to
most problems produce other problems . . . English does not contain a
suitable word for „systems of problems‟. Therefore, I have had to coin one. I
choose to call such a system a „mess‟.”
Checkland’s (1981) approach to soft systems analysis is an investigation
process that begins with an identification of the problem situation, the problem
owners and actors. The seven iterative stages of Checkland’s approach consist of:
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 12
1. The problem situation
2. The situation analyzed
3. Relevant Systems and Root Definitions
4. Conceptual Model
5. Comparison of stage 4 and 2
6. Debate on feasible and desirable changes
7. Implementation.
Stage 1: Problem situation unstructured
CompTek students are protesting their dissatisfaction with the non distribution
of instructional materials and textbooks for their courses, two weeks into a new term.
The seriousness of the issue necessitated the call by the Managing Director for an
investigation into the issues, the validity of the complaints by the students, the cause
of the delay in distribution of course materials and prevention of such situation in the
future.
The analyst who is the problem-solver has made several visits to the
company, to negotiate access, terms of reference and embark on a general
familiarization tour of the institution. After due consultation, the Managing Director as
the client has provided the analyst with a small office and the necessary working
tools to equip him for the job and also has requested the cooperation of all staff,
heads of departments and customers who have been identified as the problem-
owners in the situation.
Stage 2: The Situation Analyzed
Having done an initial exploratory study of the problem situation, and also
carried out many follow up interviews, several times with all the actors, it has
become clear that different people – students, staff, faculty, managers and the
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 13
publisher, have perceived the issues differently; and it is now time to pull together a
picture of the unbiased, factual, objective and subjective information gathered over
the past few weeks from the problem situation.
Rich Picture 1:
1. The students did not receive their instructional materials and textbooks two
weeks into the new term, no explanation was given to them and they are
very upset by the prevailing situation of having to study without textbooks.
2. The publisher failed to deliver on the agreed delivery date, because the
programs department did not get the manuscripts to him on the agreed
date, and no payment was made by the accounts department.
3. The program department is short-staffed, over-worked and could not meet
up with deadlines. The staff shortages are due to down-sizing policy of the
Board of Directors.
4. The program department accused administration of sloppiness with
contract agreements of external course designers leading to delays in the
preparation of manuscripts, and also did not make the necessary
copyrights and intellectual property rights agreements with authors.
5. The administrative/accounts department says it had difficulties with
meeting the financial obligations of the course designers and the publisher,
because some students defaulted in their financial obligations/fees
complaining about the loss of jobs or family incomes due to the global
economic down-turn.
6. The organization also lost some of its funds in the failed Banks and could
not secure a loan facility from any financial institutions because of the
global economic melt down.
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 14
Rich Picture 2:
Stage 3: Relevant Systems and their Root Definitions
The pictorial representation of the rich picture in stage two has described fully
the true problem situation, everybody blaming every other person; no one is taking
responsibility for the system break-down. A rigorous reflection has provided an
emerging insight into the system problems and has thrown up pertinent concerns
which have defined the two Issue-based and one Task-based Relevant Systems.
1. The issue of financial constraints;
2. The issue of manpower shortages;
3. The task of coordination and communication gaps between departments.
The first Relevant System is the inability to mobilize enough financial
resources for the effective running of the organization and to meet its cash flow
requirements. The second Relevant System is the need to review the human
Analyst
Global economic
down-turn
Students
Managing Director
No textbooks!
No course materials!!
No funds
Banks: its your fault.
Students: its your fault Publishers failed to deliver To Admin: you are sloppy, Its your fault; To MD: under staffing & down sizing
Bank
s
Admin
Programs
Publishers
Why were there no
students’ textbooks?
No manuscripts
No payments
Inquiry
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 15
resources requirements of the organization, review the down-sizing policies and staff
development strategies. The third Relevant System is the need to perform the task of
proper coordination, bridge the communication gaps that exist within the system,
ensure proper monitoring, control and free flow of information between all
departments.
These suggested relevant systems are the processes needed to improve the
problem situation. There is the need to provide a platform for the commencement of
debates and negotiations necessary towards consensus and the successful
achievement of the system goals. The Relevant Systems which emerged from the
Rich Picture of the organization are: Issue-based (two) and Task-based (one) from
the problem situation. The next stage will be describing in greater details the
system’s Root Definition.
The Root Definition:
A system to teach high school graduates computer technology skills for the
job market, global competitiveness and life-long learning capabilities by deploying
financial, infrastructural, human and administrative resources.
The basic structure of the Root Definition is:
A system to teach high school graduates
computer skills and competencies
By deploying resources
Financial
Infrastructure
Human
Administrative
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 16
The CATWOE criterion is providing a second line of assessment and criticism
of the Root Definition.
C – Customers High school graduates
A – Actors the whole organization – departments and staff
T – Transformation teaching, hands-on computer practice, group Projects
W – Weltanschauung providing quality computer training for high school
graduates.
O – Owner the Managing Director on behalf of the Board of
Directors.
E – Environment Education Ministry, Banks, publisher, professional
clients and suppliers.
Stage 4: Conceptual Model
The conceptual model stage is further describing what the system is and what
it does. By creating a graphical model of the human activities and logical processes,
the model is trying to outline logical sequences of the relevant system.
Front-Line Activities:
A Know - required education standards of the government.
B Obtain - operating license from government
C Mobilize - financial resources
D Provide - required physical infrastructure
E Recruit - faculty and staff
F Design - courses and course materials
G Enroll - students
H Teach - students
I Coordinate - the above activities
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 17
Graphical Conceptual Model 1:
I - Coordinate all activities
F - Design
Courses &course
materials
B - Obtain
operating
license
E - Recruit
faculty and staff
D - Provide
physical
infrastructure
G - Enroll
Students
A - Know
Govt standards &
requirements
C - Mobilize
financial
resources
H - Teach
Students
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 18
The graphical conception model 2 further identifies, describes and explains in
greater details the sub-activities of the front-line processes of the educational
system.
Graphical Conceptual Model 2:
Coordinate All
Activities
Design
Design courses
Write text
Edit text
Send to publisher
Receive textbooks
Obtain
Apply for license
Obtain approval
Pay for license fees
Recruit
Advertise
Short list
Interview
Appoint
Train
Provide
Purchase building
Purchase
computers
Purchase office
equipments
Enroll
Advertise
Screen
Admit
Register
Know
Visit govt depart
Submit proposal
Initiate discussions
Collect requirements
Mobilize
Visit the Bank
Apply for credit
Obtain funding
Obtain investor’s funds
Teach
Tutoring
Computer
practice
Assignments
Student Projects
Evaluate
Graduate students
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 19
Stage 5: Comparison of Conceptual Model with Rich Picture
The fifth stage of the Checkland’s methodology provides an opportunity for
comparing, highlighting and presenting similarities and differences between the
problem situation in the real-world and the abstract highly developed relevant
system. The purpose of this comparison is to develop an acceptable agenda for
stakeholders’ meaningful debate of the different perspectives and perceptions of the
issues identified through the system analysis process.
There are obvious similarities between the issues raised by the relevant
systems and the real-world situation: there are no problems with physical
infrastructure; there was the need to mobilize adequate funds; the need to review
staffing policies; the need for preparation and supply of course materials before
deadlines; the need for effective coordination of all activities; and the need for
efficient flow of information (communication) throughout the institution.
The table below is a summary of the comparison between the real-world
(problem situation) and the relevant system conceptual model.
Table 1: Agenda Issues
Conceptual
Model
Activity
Description
Present
in Real-
World?
Remarks Agenda
Item?
A Know required education standards of the government
NO
The activity was done before
commencement but needs to be
evaluated from time to time
YES
B Obtain operating license from government
NO
Obtained before the
commencement of activities
NO
C Provide required physical infrastructure
NO
This activity was done and the
physical infrastructure is in place
NO
D Mobilize financial resources
YES
Financial crunch, more funds
need to be injected into the
system
YES
E Recruit faculty and staff
YES
Staff shortage, down-sizing
policy needs a review
YES
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 20
Conceptual
Model
Activity
Description
Present
in Real-
World?
Remarks Agenda
Item?
A Know required education standards of the government
NO
The activity was done before
commencement but needs to be
evaluated from time to time
YES
B Obtain operating license from government
NO
Obtained before the
commencement of activities
NO
F Design course materials for publishing
YES
Done by experts in conjunction
with faculty but need review of
time-line and scheduling.
YES
G Enroll students
NO
No obvious problems with
admission and student
enrolments.
NO
H Teach students
YES
Delays, course materials and
textbooks should reach students
before courses commence.
YES
I Coordinate the above activities
YES
A possible failure of system coordination, monitoring and control.
YES
Stages sixth and seventh could not in practical terms be carried out in this
exercise; however, there is a discussion of the procedure to be undertaken in the
following paragraphs.
Stage 6: Problem situation debate by the people involved.
Stage six deals with debates, negotiations of perspectives of all stakeholders.
The issues raised by the system analysis will need to be addressed by the major
stakeholders: the client which in this case is Managing Director of CompTek on
behalf of the Board of Directors; the problem owners – faculty and staff (who are
relevant to the functioning of the system) and the problem solver – the analyst.
The analyst in full consultation with Managing Director will convene the first
meeting of the Board of Directors and the instrument for the discussions is the
Agenda prepared by the analyst which has already been highlighted in stage 5. The
meeting will agree on the areas that need changes and adjustments in the problem
situation. However, if the meeting fails to reach any consensus on the issues raised
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 21
by the model, the analysts may need to come up with an alternative conceptual
model of the relevant system in the shortest possible time.
The second meeting will be convened for all the other actors; faculty and staff
to discuss the decisions of the Board. Generally, the success of these meetings will
depend on the consensus reached by stakeholders based on the desirability and
feasibility of the actions and adjustments that must be carried out in the problem
situation.
Stage 7: Implementation of Agreed Changes
The stakeholders having negotiated and consented to the conceptual model
of the relevant system, the final stage would be that of implementation of agreed
changes.
The result of the soft systems analysis of the CompTek shows there are no
serious structural problems which may need structural changes, the problem
situation revealed by the rich picture relevant system analysis shows there are
issues of finance, staffing, communication and the task of coordination. The
management will have to take more responsibility for the efficient running of the
organization through proper coordination, monitoring and control.
Lastly, the mobilization of funds, staff recruitment and retention are
management and policy issues that should be implemented as soon as possible by
the highest decision-making body - the Board of Directors. A successful
implementation of these changes will go a long way to ensuring the survival and
indeed the success, viability and sustainability of CompTek in the long run.
Conclusion
The first part of the article addressed CompTek as an educational system,
describing its main features, components, operational processes and feedback
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 22
mechanisms and using the Banathy’s second lens to view and analyze CompTek
systems.
The second part of the article covered the selection and description of a
problem situation in CompTek Training Center. The Checkland’s soft system
analysis approach was undertaken, following meticulously the seven stages of
system analysis, which involved the depiction of the problem situation, Rich pictures,
Relevant Systems and their Root Definitions. Also included was the validated by the
CATWOE checklist, formulation of the Conceptual Model, comparison of Conceptual
Model and the Rich Picture. Finally, a discussion of the sixth and seventh stages,
which covered the debates, negotiations, decision-making and implementation
processes.
MDDE 603 Assignment 1 23
References
Ackoff, R. L. (1974). Redesigning the Future. John Wiley. Banathy, B. (1995). Developing a systems view of education. Eagle woods Cliffs, NJ:
Educational Technology Publications, June, (pp. 53-57). Checkland, P. (1981). Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, Wiley, New York. Ipaye, Babatunde (2007). Organisation of Dual Mode Distance Education Institutions in Nigeria: suggested models and contextual issues. Unpublished Workshop
paper.
Moore, M. (1989). Three Types of Transaction. In M. G. Moore, & G. C. Clark (Eds.), Readings in Principles of Distance Education (pp. 100-105). University Park, PA: The Pensyvania State University
Naughton, J. (1984). ). Soft Systems Analysis: An Introduction Guide. The Open
University Technology, pp. 11. Ogili, E.E. (1996). Factors Militating Against the Development of Distance Education in Nigeria. Journal of Nigeria Research in Social Sciences and Education. 1(1) 4-10. Saba, F. (2000). Research in Distance Education: A Status Report. Review of
Research in Open and Distance Learning 1(1). Retrieved November 29, 2002 from: http://www.irrodl.org/content/v1.1/farhad.pdf
UNESCO (2001). The Development and Future of Distance Education in 9 High- Population Countries. Paris.
Walton, D.C. (2004). Modelling organizational systems: Banathy’s three lenses
Revisited. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 17(4), 265-284.