McNair Scholars Research Journal - Laramie, Wyoming · McNair Scholars Research Journal Summer 2013, Volume 19 Table of Contents 2 The McNair Scholars Program 4 Ronald Ervin McNair

Summer 2013, Volume 19

McNair Scholars Research Journal

University of Wyoming

McNair Scholars Research JournalSummer 2013, Volume 19

Table of Contents

2 TheMcNairScholarsProgram

4 RonaldErvinMcNair 5 KristiBear

12 KalyaC.Gandy

17 AdamGrasmick

23 CharityMaeHaley

45 MistyL.Heil

63 JennaKrieschel

70 JoshuaReynolds

85 KimberlySanchez

94 MelanieA.Vigil

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McNair Scholars Research JournalSummer 2013, Volume 19

McNair Program Staff

ZackieS.Salmon:ProjectDirector SusanJ.Stoddard:AssistantDirector PilarFlores:Director,StudentEducationalOpportunity

ThisMcNairJournalistheofficialjournaloftheRonaldE.McNairPost-BaccalaureateAchievementProgramattheUniversityofWyoming.TheUniversityofWyoming’sMcNairScholarsProgramis100%federallyfundedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationat$288,000annually.

TheUWMcNairJournalispublishedannually.ManuscriptsandabstractsareacceptedfromMcNairScholarsparticipatingintheprogramattheUniversityofWyoming.

ZackieS.SalmonDirector,McNairScholarsUniversityofWyomingDept.38081000E.UniversityAve.Laramie,WY82071(307)766-6189(307)766-3073TTY(307)766-4010Fax

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The McNair Scholars Program

Background TheUniversityofWyomingMcNairScholarsProgramwasestablishedinSeptember1992andisoneoftheonly150programsinthenation.TheUniversityofWyomingandtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofEducationjointlysupporttheprogramnamedforanaccomplishedscholarofphysicsandanastronautontheChallengerspaceshuttle,RonaldE.McNair.Prospec-tivescholarsrepresentawiderangeofdisciplines.Thesestudentssharethecommondesiretopursuegraduatestudies,attainthedoctorate,andjointheranksofthenextgenerationoffacultymembers.

Program Components TheMcNairScholarsProgramprovidesexcitingopportunitiesforundergraduatestudentsatthejuniorandseniorlevelstoprepareforacceptanceintoqualitygraduateprogramsoftheirchoice.Programparticipantsareprovidedservicesinacademicskills,individualcounselingsupport,andfundedsummerresearchinternships.Duringtheacademicyearaseriesofseminarsprovidesinformationongraduateschoolfinancialaid,researchskillsandtechnicalwriting,thegraduateschooladmissionprocess,graduateschoolentranceexams,portfoliopreparation,andmore.Studentconcernsinfinancial,personal,andacademicrealmsareaddressedthroughindi-vidualcounselingsupportservices.Finally,theprogramoffersparticipantssiteandmentors,pro-videworkshopsonresearchskills,helpwithreportpreparation,andassistasotherwiseneededonanindividualbasis.Atcompletionoftheinternshipexperience,McNairScholarsmakeformalpresentationsoftheirresearchtofacultyandpeersattheMcNairScholarsConferenceandsubmitpaperssummarizingtheirwork.Opportunitiestoattendnationalresearchandgraduaterecruitmentconferencesandvisitstoothergraduatecampusesareencouragedandprovided.FundedInternships ResearchinternshipsareofferedtothoseScholarswhohaveearnedatleast60creditsbythebeginningoftheinternshipperiod.Stipendsforinternshipsareawardedforaneightweeksummersession.Duringtheeightweekinternship,studentswork40hoursperweekunderthesupervisionofafacultymentorandagraduatestudentadvisor.Studentsseekinginvolvementsubmitaninternshipapplicationtotheprogram.

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Eligibility and Selection Firstgenerationstudents(neitherparenthasreceivedabachelor’sdegree)andincomeeligibleOrBlack(non-Hispanic),Hispanic,AmericanIndian,AlaskanNative,NativeHawaiianandNativeAmericanPacificIslanderHaveatleast50credithoursMeetGPArequirementsU.S.CitizenorpermanentU.S.residentCommittedtoattainingtheirPh.D. Prospectiveparticipantsareencouragedtocontacttheprojectstaffforinformationandapplicationmaterialsatanytimeduringtheyear.ParticipantsareselectedfromundergraduateapplicationsattendingtheUniversityofWyomingontheLaramiecampus.Participationintheprogramislimitedto33students.

Forward AstheMcNairstaffhasgrowninexperienceovertheyears,sohavethefaculty,graduatestudents,andMcNairinterns.EachyearIamstruckbytheincreasedlevelofsophisticationIseeinboththeprojectsandthepresentations,oralandwritten. ThiscontinuousimprovementcanbeattributedtothehardworkanddedicationoftheMcNairScholars,andthefacultymembersandgraduatestudentswithoutwhosehelptheirsuc-cesswouldhavebeenimpossible.OneofthegreatestjoysofbeingaMcNairstaffmemberistheopportunitytoworkwithsuchterrificcolleaguesasthestudents,facultymembers,andgraduatestudentsrepresentedinthisjournal. TheMcNairScholarsfeaturedinthisjournalcanberightfullyproudofwhattheyhaveachieved.Wewishthemwellandlookforwardtothegreatthingstheywillachieve.

ZackieSalmon,DirectorUWMcNairScholarsProgram,Summer2013

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Ronald Ervin McNair: The Man with a Mission

RonaldE.McNair,thesecondAfricanAmericantoflyinspace,wasbornonOctober21,1950inLakeCity,SouthCarolina.Whileinjuniorhighschool,RonaldMcNairwasinspiredbyateacherwhorecognizedhissciencepotentialandbelievedinhim.HegraduatedasvaledictorianfromCarverHighSchoolin1967.In1971,hereceivedhisBachelor’sDegreeMag-naCumLaudeinPhysicsfromNorthCarolinaA&TStateUniversity(Greensboro).In1976,attheageof26,McNairearnedaPh.D.fromtheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT). WhileworkingwiththeHughesResearchLaboratoryasastaffphysicist,McNairsoonbecameanacknowledgedexpertinlaserphysics.NASAselectedhimforthe1978spaceshuttleprogramandin1984,McNairbecamethemissionspecialistaboardtheflightoftheshuttleChal-lenger.Inaddition,hereceivedthreehonorarydoctoratedegreesaswellasnumerousfellowshipsandcommendations. Dr.McNair’slifeendedtragicallyonJanuary28,1986whentheChallengerspaceshuttleexplodedandcrashedintotheocean,takingthelivesofsixotherastronauts.Afterhisdeath,CongressapprovedfundingfortheRonaldE.McNairPost-baccalaureateAchievementProgram,whichisdedicatedtothesupportandpromotionofthehighstandardachievementexemplifiedbyMcNair.TheUniversityofWyomingMcNairScholarsProgramisdedicatedtopreservinghislegacyofscholarshipandaccomplishments.

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Kristi Bear

Faculty Mentor: JayNorton,PhD,Ecosystem Science&Management Graduate Student Mentor: RajanGhimere

Research Topic: PerspectivesOnandEffectsof ConservationAgricultureinUgandaonSoilFertility

Problem Statement ThisstudylooksatthefeasibilityofdesigningandengineeringaprototypeNet-ZeroEnergyHome(NZEH)inLaramie,WyomingusingtheInternationalEnergyConservationCode2012(IECC2012)standardsasastartingpoint.

Introduction TheU.S.departmentofEnergyBuildingTechnologiesProgramdefinesaNZEHasahomethatproducesasmuchenergyasitusesoverthedurationofayear. Laramie,WyomingwaschosenasthelocationtoinvestigatebecausetheresearchistakingplaceinLaramie.Laramiehasafewuniquecharacteristicsthatmakeitaninterestingplacetoengineeranetzeroenergyhome(NZEH).Incoldclimates,suchasLaramie,themajorenergyuseistheheatingloads.Laramiehas8406heatingdegreedaysandonly77coolingdegreedays.Aheatingdegreedayiscomputedbytakingthedifferencebetweenthebasetemperatureof65degreesandtheaveragedailytemperature.4&5Theinfluenceofthisonthedesignisthatthecoolingneedsbecomenegligible,therefore,alleffortscanbedevotedtodecreasingtheheatingloads.Laramieisuniqueherebecauseinmostlocationsthereisagreaterneedforcooling,wherethedesignconcentratesmoreondecreasingcoolingloads.Sinceonlytheheatingloadsneedstobedecreasedthedesigncantakeadvantageofsolarheatgains.Solarheatgainsaretheheatenergythatistransferredthroughwindowsfromsun.Theseheatgainsaddheattotheinsideofahome. ThetraditionalengineeringprocessforaNZEHistofocusonpassivedesigntechniquesthatincludehighlevelsofroof,wall,andslabinsulation,aswellas,highlyefficientwindows.Thisisfollowedbyacarefuldesignofheatingandcoolingsystemsthatminimizeheatloss.Finally,onsiteenergyproduction,suchassolarphotovoltaicandsolarthermalpanelsareusedtorunthehome.

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TheIECC2012standardsareoftenusedwhenengineeringalowenergyhome.IECC2012isasetofcodesaddressenergyefficiencybylookingatcostsavings,reducedenergyusage,conservationofnaturalresources,andtheimpactofenergyuseontheenvironment.3IntheIECC2012therearesuggestionsofhowtodecreaseenergyloads.Highlevelsofinsulationandefficientwindowsareusedtodecreasetheheatloadofthehouse.Oncetheheatingloadsaredecreased,thedesignofefficientheatingsystemsdecreasethetotalenergyuse.Oneexampleofahighlyefficientheatingandcoolingsystemisagroundsourceheatpump(GSHP).Agroundsourceheatpumptakesadvantageofthedifferenceintemperaturebetweentheairandtheearth’scrust.Thegroundiswarmerthantheairinthewinter,andcoolerthantheairinthesummer.Toharnessthisdifference,heatispumpedintothehomeinthewinter,andoutofthehomeinthesummer.2ThegroundsourceheatpumpusestherenewableenergycollectedbythePVpanels. Afterheatingloadsaredecreased,solarphotovoltaicpanelsareusedtopowertheheat

Figure1:IncreasedInsulation

Figure2:GroundSourceHeatPump

Image3:SolarThermal Image4:SolarPhotovoltaic

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pumps,alongwithallotherelectricityneedsofthehome.InadditiontoPVpanels,solarthermalpanelsaremountedontheroofwhichcollectheattowarmthehotwaterneededforfaucetsandshowers.Theheatedwaterisstoredinadomestichotwaterheater. Thiselectricityisusedtoruneverythingfromheatingsystemstowallplugins.3Theexcesselectricityispumpedintothegrid.

MethodologyFloor Plan Theprimarygoalforthefloorplanistodecreasetheheatingloads.Thiswasachievedbydecreasingthevolume,increasingthesouthwalltowindowratio,andusingasimpleshape.Thedecreaseinvolumewasachievedbydecreasingthesquarefootageofthehome,whichallowsforlessspacetobeheated.Todecreasethesquarefootagetheroomsaredesignedtobeclosertogetherthanyouwouldtypicallyfind,whichminimizeshall-waysandcirculationareas.Thesouthwalltowindowratioisincreasedtotakeadvantageofthesolarheatgains.IntheNorthernHemisphere,thesunhitsthebuildingprimarilyonthesouthfacade.Byincreasingthepercentageofwindowsonthiswall,moresolarheatcomesinanddecreasestheheatload.Asimpleshape,herearectangle,isusedtodecreaseairleakageatcorner.Asecondarydesigngoalistomakeahomethatisaestheticallydesirable.Onemethodtoachievethisgoalwastocreateadouble-heightspacewithhighceilingsforthelivingroom.

Simulations DesignBuilder(DB)EnergySimulationSoftwarewasusedtopredictthehomesannualheatingandcoolingloads.Priortorunningsimulations,thefirststepwastorecreatethefloorplanwiththeappropriateconstructionmaterial Figure5:FloorPlanandSunPath

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defaults.Forthisstudy,thebasedefaultswerethoseoutlinedbyIECC2012:

Aftertheconstructionmaterialsareset,eachroomhastobedesignatedasacertainzonetype.Thesezonetypesincludebedroom,bathroom,kitchen,etc..Eachzonetypehasitsowninternalgainvalues,thermostatsettings,andschedule.Theinternalgainstakeintoaccounttheheatputoffbypeopleandappliancesinthespace.Thescheduleidentifieswhentheroomisprimarilyinuse.Someroomsareusedduringtheday,suchasthekitchen,whileothersareusedatnight,suchasthebedrooms. Afterthefloorplan,materials,andzonetypesareset,thefinalstepbeforerunningsimula-tionsistoassignthebuildingmaterialsforeachconstructiontype.ThefourvariablestestedinthisstudyarewallR-value,windowR-value,windowsolartransmission,andsouthwalltowindowratio.TheR-valueisthevaluethatidentifieshowwellthematerialisatinsulating.Thesolartransmissionistheamountofsolarradiationthatpassesthroughthewindowandintothehome. Thesouthwalltowindowratioisthepercentageofthesouthwallthatiscomposedofglazing. Foreachmaterialcreatedforthedifferentvariables,allconstraintsarethesame,exceptfortheonepropertythatisbeinganalyzed.ThewallR-valuesinvestigatedwere10through60withanintervaloften.ThewindowR-valueswere2.5through10withintervalsof.5.Thesolartransmissionvalueswere30%to70%withintervalsof10%.Finally,thesouthwalltowindowratiovaluesare10%to70%withintervalsof10%.This

Figure6:DesignBuilderFloorPlan

Figure7:SolarTransmission

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methodologyproducedatotalof35simulations:onesimulationforthedefaultvalues,followedbyasimulationforeachmodifiedvariable.

Results ThefirstvariablechangedinthesimulationswasthewallR-value.OurresultsshowanonlineardecreaseintotalheatloadasthewallR-valueisincreased. Thesecondvariablewechangedinsimulationswas(etc)thewindowR-value.TheresultsshowalineardecreaseintotalheatloadasthewindowR-valueisincreased. Thethirdvariabletochangeinsimulationsisthewindowsolartransmission.Theresultsshowalineardecreaseintotalheatloadasthewindowsolartransmissionisincreased. Thefinalvariabletochangeinsimulationsisthesouthwalltowindowratio.Theresultsshowanonlineardecreaseintotalheatloadasthewalltowindowratioisincreased.

Figure8:SouthWalltoWIndowRatio

Graph1:MonthlyHeatLoad

Graph2:AnnualHeatLoad



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Conclusion Basedoffofoursimulationdata,wecanconcludethatitiseasilyfeasibletodesignandengineeraNet-ZeroEnergyHomeinLaramie,Wyoming.Theheatloadvaluesaresmallenoughthatalloftheenergyrequiredtoheatandrunthehomecouldbegeneratedthroughamodestamountofsolarthermalandsolarphotovoltaicpanels.

Further Research ThenextquestiontoinvestigateistheeconomicfeasibilityofaNZEHinLaramie,Wyoming,withacostcomparisontoastandardhome.Ipredictthattherewillbeapointwherethecostofhighperformancematerialsoutweighsthesavingsonenergy,butthroughadditionalPVenergycollectionthedesigncouldremaineconomicallyfeasible.

References1.How Windows Work - About Solar Gain (2007).FloridaSolarEnergyCenter.

http//:www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/buildings/basics/windows/how/solar_gain.htm





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2.GeothermalTechnologiesProgram.Geothermal Heat Pumps (2012). U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/heatpumps.html.

3.NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory(2006).The Potential Impact of Zero Energy Homes. Golden,CO:NAHBResearchCenter.

4.Period of Record General Climate Summary - Cooling Degree Days (2012).WesternRegionalClimateCenter.http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliGCStC.pl?wy5410

5.Period of Record General Climate Summary- Heating Degree Days (2006). WesternRegionalClimateCenter.http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliGCStH.pl?wylarm

6.U.S.DepartmentofEnergy(2012).Overview of the Changes to the Residential Provisions of the 2012 IECC. BuildingTechnologiesProgram.

7.2012 International Energy Conservation Code (2012).InternationalCodeCouncil.http://www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages/Product.aspx?id=3800X12

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Kayla C. Gandy

Faculty Mentor: JayGatlin,PhD,MolecularBiology Graduate Student Mentor: PaulMooney

Research Topic: ShapingtheMitoticSpindle: InvestigatingtheInteractionsBetween AugminandDynein

Properspindleassemblyiscriticalfornormalcelldivision.Theformationofabipolarspindleoftherightshapeandsizeinvolvesanumberofproteins.Theexactmechanismunderly-ingthefunctionofmanyoftheseproteinshasnotbeenfullyelucidated.Thisstudyinvestigatestheinteractionsbetweenthemotorproteindyneinandtheeight-subunitproteincomplexaugmin,bothofwhichhavebeenshowntoplayanimportantroleinspindleassembly. Thenormalmitoticspindleisabipolarstructureconsistingofsetsofduplicatedchromo-somessurroundedbyanarrayofantiparallelmicrotubules.Theminusendsofthemicrotubulesclusteraroundtwopoles,givingthespindleitscharacteristicfusiformmorphology(1).Thetwopolesconsistofcentrosomesinmammaliancells,butotherstudieshaveindicatedthatpolesformevenintheabsenceofthesestructures(7).Propersegregationanddistributionofchromosomesintotwodaughtercells,andhencepropercelldivision,reliesupontheaccurateformationofthisstructure,specificallyonewithexactlytwopoles Formationofthemicrotubulearrayrequiresthatthecellfirstgeneratesthesepolymersfromtubulinsubunits.Generationofmicrotubules,commonlyreferredtoasmicrotubulenucle-ation,occursbychromosome-mediatedandchromosomeindependentpathways.Onenucleationpathwayoccursviaan8-subunitproteincomplex,augmin.Inthisprocess,microtubulesareformedbybranchingfrompreviouslyformedmicrotubules(2,6).Augminalsoplaysaroleinlocalizingproteinsinvolvedinnucleation,suchascomponentsofthegamma-tubulinringcom-plex,tothecentrosome(4,7). Achievementoftheproper,bipolarshapeisalsoaidedbythemotorproteindynein.Dyneinassociateswithacomplexofotherproteinstoregulatespindlelengthandpreventthespindlepolesfromseparating(5).Dyneinisalsoinvolvedinfocusingthemicrotubuleendsintospindlepoles. Previousstudieshavedemonstratedthatmalformedspindleshavedeleteriouseffects.Inparticular,multipolarcelldivisions,whichinvolvespindleswithmorethantwopoles,typicallyresultinaneuploidyleadingtocelldeathorinviability.However,somecellshavetheabilitytoresolvethismultipolaritybyclusteringthepolesintotwosets(9,10),whichallowsthecell

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toperformapseudo-bipolardivision.Progenyofthesedivisionsaresometimesabletosurvive,andtheyexhibitincreasedreproductivecapacity,metastaticability,andotherhallmarksofcancer(3,8).

Results and Discussion Augmin antibody does not recognize Dgt4 subunit OurpreliminaryresultsindicatedthatantibodiestoAugmin’sDgt4subunitrecognizedabandoftheexpectedmolecularweight.Toverifythisresult,weperformedacontrolexperi-mentinwhichtheco-immunoprecipitationwasperformedintheabsenceofdyneinantibody.InWesternblots,theappearanceofthesamebandsinthecontrollanepromptedustomodifytheco-immunoprecipitationprotocolsoastominimizerecognitionofnon-targetproteins.RepeatingtheWesternblotintheabsenceofaprimaryaugminantibodyyieldedthesamebandingpattern,indicatingthatthebandsresultedfromnonspecificbindingofthesecondaryantibody.Thissug-gestedtheneedforanalternativeaugminantibody. Currently,theabsenceofafunctionalaugminantibodyprecludesfurtherprogressinourinvestigation.However,onceweobtainthisantibody,wewillrepeattheco-immunoprecipitationandWesternBlotproceduresasdescribedinMethodsandMaterials.Wewillsubsequentlyperformthereciprocalprocedure,withaugminantibodyusedforco-immunoprecipitationanddyneinantibodyusedfortheWesternBlot.Wealsoplantoinvestigateco-localizationofaugminanddyneininthespindleviafluorescentmicroscopy.

Methods and Materials AliquotsofXenopuslaeviseggextractwerepreparedandfrozenforsubsequentuse.DynabeadsProteinA(LifeTechnologies)wereresuspendedinCSF-XBandrinsedthreetimes.ThefinalCSF-XBwashwasremoved,andthebeadswereresuspendedinbuffercontaininganti-dyneinheavychainantibodyandleftonarotatorovernightat4°C.Forthecontrolexperiment,anti-dyneinheavychainantibodywassubstitutedwithpre-immunerabbitserum.Thefollowingday,thesamplewasresuspendedandwashedtwicewithCSF-XB.Thesupernatantwasremoved,andextractwasaddedtothetesttube.Thesamplewasleftonarotatorforatleastonehourtoallowantigenbinding.Theimmunodepletedextractwaspulledoffandsaved.Thebeadspresum-ablycontainingdyneinanddynein-associatedproteinswerewashedfivetimesin0.5XCSF-XB,thenimmersedinLaemlisamplebuffer.Thesolutionwasthendividedevenlyintotwoaliquots.Thefirstaliquotwasleftatroomtemperaturefor30minutes,whilethesecondaliquotwasboiledforfiveminutes.Thesupernatantsweresavedforexperiments. Samplesfromtheco-immunoprecipitationwerethenrunthroughacrylamidegelusingstandardSDS-PAGEprotocol.Thegelwasdividedintotwo,witheachhalfcontainingidentical

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Figure1:Co-immunoprecipitationproteinbands.(A)Coomassiestainedgel.Lanes1through3:Molecularweightladder,Co-IPusinganti-dyneinheavychain,Co-IPusingpre-immunerabbitserum.(B)WesternBlotfromgeneratedalongsideA.Lanesareinreversedorder.(C)StainedWesternBlotmembranefollowingprotocoladjustments.(D)ChemiluminescentandBrightfieldimageoverlayfromC.

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Figure2:Secondaryantibodybandingpatterns.Left–Westernblotperformedwithanti-augminasprimaryantibody.Right–Westernblotperformedwithnoprimaryantibody.Notethebandsaround55kDa,whichwerepreviouslyinterpretedasDgt4,appearevenintheabsenceofaugminantibody.

samplelanes.ThefirstgelwasvisualizedviaCoomassiestainingandBrightfieldimaging.Thesecondgelbandsweretransferredtoanitrocellulosemembrane.StandardWesternBlotprotocolwasfollowed,withanti-augminantibodyusedfortheprimaryantibody.ABrightfieldandchemi-luminescentimageofthemembranewereobtainedanddigitallyoverlayed.

References1.Goshima,G.,F.Nédélec,andR.D.Vale.2005. Mechanismsforfocusingmitoticspindlepolesbyminusend–directedmotorproteins.J.

CellBiol.171:229-240.

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2.Goshima,G.,M.Mayer,N.Zhang,N.Stuurman,andR.D.Vale.2008.Augmin:aproteincomplexrequiredforcentrosome-independentmicrotubulegenerationwithin

thespindle.J.CellBiol.181:421-429.3.GanemN.J.,S.A.Godinho,andD.Pellman.2009.Amechanismlinkingextracentrosomesto

chromosomalinstability.Nature.460:278-283.4.Lawo,S.,M.Bashkurov,M.Mullin,M.G.Ferreria,R.Kittler,etal.2009.HAUS,the8-sub-

unithumanAugmincomplex,regulatescentrosomeandspindleintegrity.CurrentBiol-ogy.19:816-826

5.Gaetz,J.&Kapoor,T.M.Dynein/dynactinregulatemetaphasespindlelengthbytargetingdepolymerizingactivitiestospindlepoles.JCellBiol166,465-471(2004).

6.Petry,S.,Groen,A.C.,Ishihara,K.,Mitchison,T.J.&Vale,R.D.BranchingmicrotubulenucleationinXenopuseggextractsmediatedbyaugminandTPX2.Cell152,768-777,doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.12.044S0092-8674(13)00015-9[pii](2013).

7.Petry,S.,Pugieux,C.,Nedelec,F.J.&Vale,R.D.Augminpromotesmeioticspindleforma-tionandbipolarityinXenopuseggextracts.ProcNatlAcadSciUSA108,14473-14478,doi:10.1073/pnas.1110412108[pii](2011).

8.Kwon,M.etal.Mechanismstosuppressmultipolardivisionsincancercellswithextracen-trosomes.GenesDev22,2189-2203,doi:10.1101/gad.170090810.1038/nature08136

(2009).9.Leber,B.etal.Proteinsrequiredforcentrosomeclusteringincancercells.SciTranslMed2,

33ra38,doi:2/33/33ra38[pii]10.1126/scitranslmed.3000915(2010).10.Quintyne,N.J.,Reing,J.E.,Hoffelder,D.R.,Gollin,S.M.&Saunders,W.S.Spindlemul-

tipolarityispreventedbycentrosomalclustering.Science307,127-129(2005).

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Adam Grasmick

Faculty Mentor: GregoryBrown,PhD,Botany Graduate Student Mentor: MarkBrown

Research Topic: ComparativeStudyofLeaf AnatomyandMorphologyofTillandsia Complanata; SunvsShadePlacticity

Abstract ThegoalsofthisresearcharetodescribemorphologicalcharactersinthesunandshadeleavesofTillandsia complanata; alsotodescribetheplasticityintheseecologicallyimportantepiphyticmonocots.ThemajorsignificanceofthisstudyistoidentifyfuturecharacteristicsfortaxonomicdescriptionforidentifyingthespeciesTillandsia complanata.Theseplantsareconsideredtobehotspotsofbiodiversitywhereastheyprovideahabitatforover6000speciesofvertebratesandinvertebrates.OneofmyresearchgoalsistodescribethemorphologicalcharacteristicsofsunandshadeleavesinTillandsiacomplanata,awidespreadepiphyticspeciesfromthefamilyBromeliaceae.Verylittleisknownaboutleafstructuredifferencesinbromeliadsinrelationtolightexposure,andmyworkwillbesomeofthefirst.BromeliadsareecologicallyimportantepiphyticandterrestrialmonocotsintheNewWorldtropicsandsubtropics.

Introduction Tillandsiaisagenusofaround630species(M.B.Bianchietal.2013)andoneofthegenerainthesubfamilyTillandsioideae.TheyareperennialfloweringplantsinthefamilyBromeliaceaewhichisamonophyleticgroupdeterminedbyphylogenetictesting(Almeidaetal.2009)Butotherstudiesspeculatethegenustobearound610specieswithexceptionofafewhybridsandtobethelargestandmostwidespreadwithinBromeliaceae.(Versieuxetal.2013)Theyarenativetotheforestedmountains,deserts,wetandcloudforestsofthenewworld.Bromeliadsareconsideredtobehotspotsofbiodiversitywhereastheyprovideahabitatforover6000speciesofvertebratesandinvertebrates.Theyachievethisbyformingadenserosetteofoverlappingleavesthatactsasatankandcapturesasignificantamountofrainwaterandhumus;whichprovidekeyfoodsourcesforprimates,frogs,birdsandinsects.(Givnishetal.2011).Around50%ofTillandsiaspeciesareepiphyticandconsideredtobemorphologicallyunique,stresstolerantandecologicallyvaried.(Benzing,D.H2011).Thisstudyfocusesononespecies

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Tillandsia complanata,withrespectstoitscapabilityandtolerancetoshowmoreorlessplasticleafmorphologyassociatedwithsunandshadehabitatduringmaturity.ThiscomparativestudyofTillandsia C.investigatedthespeciesmorphologicalchangeswithinleavesandprovidesbaselinedataforcomparisontoshowdifferencesinleavesthatmaturedinfullsunorshadeenvironments.Thenullhypothesisisthereisnodifferencemorphologicallywithinsunandshadeleaves.ThiswaschosenbecauseitisthefirsttimethatanyonehaslookedatcharactersregardingmorphogenesisinleavesassociatedwithsunandshadeenvironmentsinTillandsia C. AllofthesamplescollectedforthisstudyweretakenfromspecimensthathaveadenserosetteandvariedinsizeandcolorfromacloudforestintheNapoProvince,Ecuador.

Methods: LeafsampleswerecollectedinthefieldfromacloudforestintheNapoProvinceEcuador.Allsampleswerecollectedinthesamehectare,100mfromeachotheratanelevationof2250m.

TherewereeightleafsamplesbroughtbackfromEcuadorconsistingoffullsun,semi-shadeandfullshadeselections.Mature,healthy,mid-rosetteleaveswereremovedfromtheplantandpreservedin70%ethanolinthefield.Notesweremadeofplanthabitatandsomemeasurementsweremadeinthefield.Sampleswereusedtomakefreehandcrosssectionsusing

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arazorblade.Stainingprotocolsconsistedofthreedifferentdyes,saffranin,toluidineblueandalcianblue,andonesectionisleftunstainedforcomparison.Threedifferentdyeswereusedtooutlinetheabaxial,axialandstructuralsurfacesformeasuring.

Dyingtimewas30seconds,poststainingrinsein70%ethanolforanadditional15secondsforde-staining.Originallypropyleneglycolwasusedformountingbutduetopoordrying,paramountandeukittwerelaterpreferredformounting.Postmountingtheleafthicknesswasmeasuredalongthewidthofthecrosssectioninincrementsofhalfamillimeterandrecorded.LeafcrosssectionsrecordedusinganOlympusBH2compoundmicroscopeatamagnificationof10xwithaocularruleronascaleof100ocularunitsequaling1mm.Dataweresubjectedtobasic,routinestatisticalanalyses.VoucherspecimensaredepositedattheRockyMountainHerbarium,UniversityofWyoming.

Results Weobtaineddatafromthecross-sectioningwhichresultedinthedatashowninfollowingtablesandfigures.Table1showstheleafsamplesthatwerecollectedinfullsunlabeled4108to4111.Themeasurementshadaminimumleafthicknessrangingfrom0.05to0.13andthemaximumhadarangeof0.4to0.56,averagesrangedfrom0.33to0.42.Thesemi-shadeandshadeleafsamplesarelabeled4112to4114andhadaminimumleafthicknessof0.04to0.14andamaximumrangeof0.42to0.5,averagesrangedfrom035to0.42.Theonlyfullshadeleafsampleislabeled4115andhasaminimumrangeof0.18andamaximumof0.49,theaveragewas0.41.n=thenumberofmeasurementsthatweretakenforeachleafsampledependingonleafsize.

Table 1

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DatawascollectedandanalyzedusingtwodifferentT-tests.Thefirstt-testanalyzedatwo-sampleassumingunequalvariancesshowninfigure1.Theonetailvalueswerebe-ing2.131847withaP-valueof0.437667andthetwotailbeing2.776445andtheP-valueof0.875333.Thedatacomparedusedthevaluesofsunandsemi-shadefromTable1.

Figure 1: t-Test:Two-SampleAssumingUnequalVariances

Thesecondt-testisdonethesamewayasabovebutthesemi-shadeandfullshadeleavesweregroupedtogetherandcomparedtothesunleavevaluesforatotalofeightsamples.Showninfigure2,theresultsfortheone-tailedT-testwere1.94318withaP-valueof0.458469,thetwo-tailedbeing2.446912andaP-valueof0.916938.

Figure 2: t-Test:Two-SampleAssumingUnequalVariances

Thethirdandfinalt-testconductedwasat-TestPairedTwoSampleforMeansshowninfigure3.Thiswasdonewithfoursunleavesandthefourgroupedshadeleaves.Andtheresultswere0.322739withaP-valueof0.322739,thetwo-tailedbeing3.182446withaP-valueof0.645478.

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Figure 3: t-Test:PairedTwoSampleforMeans

Theresultsfromleafthicknessmeasurementsinthisstudyanalyzedusingstandarddescriptivestatisticswereconsistentwiththenullhypothesis.InconclusionallthreetestresultswereabovethesetP-valuelimitformyfieldandthisexperimentof0.05.Mydatasupportsthenullhypothesisinthat,thereisnostatisticallysignificantmorphologicaldifferencebetweenleavesthatmaturedinfullsun,semi-shadeandshadehabitats.

Discussion DicotssuchastheclassicexampleofoaktreesleavesshownbelowandArabidopsisleafdevelopmentoflongitudinalvascularpattershaveshownmorphogenesisearlyintheleafdevel-opmentthatalterstheleafstructure,physiologyandshape.(Dengleretal.2001)

Thisprocessofplasticityindicotleavesduringmaturationindifferentlightenviron-mentsledtothedesignofthisexperimentandraisedthequestionifepiphyticmonocotslikeTillandsia C.showsimilareffects.Somefutureresearchanddirectionswouldbetolookattheanatomicalcharactersandtheirfunction,mediationorcontributioninrespectstomorphologyintheleavesofTillandsia C.Anatomicalanalysesinmonocotshaveshownmutualimportanceformorphologicalcharactersforleafstructureandhowitcanbebeneficialinidentifyingfuturecharacteristicsfortaxonomicdescription(Monteiroetal.2011)inthegenusTillandsia.

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Work Cited

Almeida,ValquíriaRezende,etal.“MorphologicalphylogeneticsofQuesnelia(Bromeliaceae,Bromelioideae).”Systematicbotany34.4(2009):660-672.

Benzing,DavidH.,ed.Bromeliaceae: profile of an adaptive radiation.CambridgeUniversityPress,2000.

Bianchi,MartaB.,andJoséL.Vesprini.“ContrastingbreedingsystemsinsixspeciesofTillandsiaL.(Bromeliaceae)fromwoodyareasofSantaFeProvince:Argentina.”Plant Biosystems-An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biologyahead-of-print(2013):1-9.

Dengler,Nancy,andJulieKang.“Vascularpatterningandleafshape.”Current opinion in plant biology4.1(2001):50-56.

Givnish,ThomasJ.,etal.“Phylogeny,adaptiveradiation,andhistoricalbiogeographyinBromeliaceae:insightsfromaneight-locusplastidphylogeny.”American Journal of Botany98.5(2011):872-895.

Monteiro,RaquelFernandes,RafaelaCampostriniForzza,andAndréMantovani.“LeafstructureofBromeliaanditssignificancefortheevolutionofBromelioideae(Bromeliaceae).”Plant Systematics and Evolution293.1-4(2011):53-64.

Versieux,LeonardoM.,NaraVasconcellos,andGustavoMartinelli.“Tillandsiabonita(Bromeliaceae),aNewSpeciesfromMatoGrossodoSul,Brazil,withNotesonLeafAnatomy.”Systematic Botany38.1(2013):75-81.

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Charity Mae Haley

Faculty Mentor: TracyOwensPatton,PhD, DirectorofAfricanAmericanandDiasporaStudies; Communications&Journalism Graduate Student Mentor: NerissaAksamit Research Topic: SocialPressuresandSocialRoles: TheFightfortheFateoftheAfricanAmerican SoldierinWWI

The1910swereapivotaltimeforracerelationsintheUnitedStates.TheRepublicanPartyhadalienatedAfricanAmericansandmanystakedtheirhopesfortheadvancementofcivilrightsontheDemocraticcandidateWoodrowWilsoninthe1912election.ThosehopeswerechallengedhoweverwhenPresidentWilsonapprovedthesegregationoftheUnitedStatesPostalService(Wolgemuth,1959).Then,whenwarbrokeoutinEuropein1914,itbecamecleartomanythattheUnitedStateswouldeventuallyjoin. TheWarpresentedadilemmafortheAfricanAmericancommunity.Manyinthecommunityfelttheneedtoservetheircountry.However,theUnitedStatesArmywasasegregatedorganizationand,whereasthispracticehadaffectedapproximately4,000peoplepriortotheGreatWar,itwouldbethelargesttroopdrawupsincetheCivilWaraffectmorethan300,000BlackcitizensduringWWI(Winsboro,2007).ManyAfricanAmericansfeltthattheywerelosinggroundinthestruggleforcivilrightsandtheywerebeginningtoturntomoreradicalcivilrightsorganizationsforrepresentation.AmongtheseorganizationswastheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP).ItwasduringWorldWarIthattheNAACPwouldrisetoprominenceandtestitsstrengthinthebattlebetweentheWilsonAdministrationandtheBlackcommunityoverwhatroleAfricanAmericansshouldplayinthewareffort. AlthoughmuchhasbeenwrittenaboutWorldWarI,muchlesshasbeenwrittenabouttheAfricanAmericancommunityandBlacksoldiersduringthetimeperiod.ThispaperwillfillthegapintheliteraturebytracingthedebateovertherolesofBlacksoldiersduringTheWarandaddressingtheoutcomeofthatdebate.

The Great Migration Precipitates Racial Tensions ThewarinEuropehadbeenragingsince1914and,thoughtheUnitedStatesremainedneutraluntil1917,AmericanmanufacturingcenterswereboomingasNorthernindustrialists

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producedwartimegoodsforEuropeancountries.Therewasplentyofworktobehadandthereweresevereshortagesoflabor.Manyindustrieshadreliedonlow-wageearningEuropeanimmi-grantsastheirprimarylaborforce.However,manyoftheselaborersreturnedtotheircountriesattheonsetofthewar.Additionally,immigrationfromEuropesloweddramaticallyduringWWI.In1914,1.2millionpeopleimmigratedtotheUSbutby1915,thatnumberdroppedtojust326,000immigrants(Mjagkij,2011). Tocombatlaborshortages,industriesbegantorecruitAfricanAmericans.ManyNorthernindustrieshadbeeninaccessibletoBlacklaborersbeforethewarexceptforwhenstrikebreakerswereneeded.However,thelaborshortagewassoseverethatmanycompaniesbegantouseWhitelaboragentstorecruitBlacklaborersfromSouthernstates(Barbeau,1974,Trotter,2001).TheseagentsprovidedinformationoncitiesandindustriesandoftenofferedlaborcontractsandtrainfaretofacilitatethetransitionNorth.TheirrecruitmentmethodsweresosuccessfulthatmanySouthernstatesbegantofearlosingtheBlackSouthernworkforceandbegantopasslegislationdesignedtostoprecruitmentactivities.AlabamaandVirginiaeachinstituteda$500licensingfeeforlaborrecruitersandSouthCarolinachargedrecruiterswithamisdemeanorforsolicitinglabor(Barbeau,1974).Theseeffortsfailedtostemtheflowoflabornorthwardhowever,andtheBlackpopulationsofChicago,NewYork,andPhiladelphiamorethandoubledbetweenthe19101nd1920census. ManyBlackSouthernershadviewedtheNorthasasortofPromisedLand.WagesintheNorthfaroutstrippedtheearningpotentialintheSouthanddiscriminationwasillegalinpublicschoolsandaccommodations.Fewstateshadthemeansorwilltoenforcetheselawshowever,andabusesbecamemorecommonasmigrantscontinuedtofloodtheNortherncities(Painter,2007).Thehousingsituationbecamecriticalinsomecitiesasunscrupulousreal-torssteeredBlacktenantsawayfromWhiteneighborhoodsandintoghettos.Greedylandlordstookadvantageofmanyrecentmigrantsbychargingoutrageousrentforsubstandardhousing.Overcrowdingbecamethenormforthesecommunitiesaspeopletookonboarderstomakerent.Overcrowdinginturncontributedtothespreadofcontagiousdiseasesandtheuptickincrimeratesaspeoplelookedforrecreationalopportunitiesoutsideoftheircrampedlivingspaces(Painter,2007). ThishighlyvisibleBlackpresenceincitiesbegantocreatetensionsasWhiteresidentsfearedthatthepresenceofsomanyuneducated,ruralBlackmenwouldmeanfewerjobs,lowerpropertyvalues,andrisingcrimerates.WhiteresidentsbegantofeartheirverywayoflifewasthreatenedandwhenTheBirthofaNationwasreleasedin1915,itfoundappreciativeaudiencesinmanyNorthernstatesaswellastheSouth.Thesetensionswouldsoonescalateintoviolenceand1917wouldseethebloodiestsummerofthe20thcentury.

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Racial Violence in the Summer of 1917 RacialviolencewasnotanewphenomenonintheUnitedStates,butthesummerof1917wouldseetwomajorincidentsthatwereuniquefortheirscope.TheEastSt.LouismassacreleftBlackcommunitiesacrossthenationanxiousastheywonderedwhetherornotsimilarmassviolencecouldbereenactedintheirowncities.TheHustonMutinyontheotherhandterrifiedWhitecommunitiesandconvincedmanythatBlackmenshouldnotbetrainedforcombat.Thesetwoincidents,whentakentogether,reflectthecentralfearsthatwereprevalentinthedebateoverhowtouseBlacksoldiersduringWorldWarI. East St. Louis Massacre TheEastSt.LouismassacrebeganonMay28,1917andlastedthroughthemonthofJune.ThemassacregrewoutofdirecttensionsbetweenWhiteandBlacklaborersinthecity.UnionizedwhitelaborersorganizedseveralstrikesagainstAluminumOreCompanyandtheAmericanSteelCompany.Bothcompaniesemployedscabsand,althoughthestrikebreakerswereBlackandWhite,Blacklaborersbecamethefocusofthecommunity’srage(Asher,1972).OnMay28thamobofWhitementookmattersintotheirownhandsandproceededtoroamthecitybeatinganyBlackpersontheycouldfind.LocalauthoritieswereeitherincapableoforunwillingtostopthemobandthegovernorofIllinois,FrankO.LowdenwasforcedtocallintheNationalGuardtostoptheviolence. Tensionsremainedhighhowever,andonJuly2,unidentifiedWhitemendrovethroughthecityshootingrandomlyatBlackpeopleandbusinesses.Anhourlater,anothercarappearedandBlackresidents,mistakingthiscarforthepreviousone,shotandkilledthetwomeninthecar.Thementurnedouttobepoliceofficers.ThecarwasputondisplaydowntownandanangrymobofWhitepeopleformedandwentlookingforBlackpeopletokill(Asher,1972).Membersofthemobshot,burned,beat,andlynchedmen,women,andchildrenastheytriedtoescapeordefendthemselves.Theyburnedblocksofbusinessesandhomesand,whenBlackownedbuild-ingssatbetweenWhiteownedones,themobdemolishedthemwithhammersandpickaxes.AlthoughtheNationalGuardwascalledbackintothecity,theviolenceandthefirespersisteduntilwellafterdark.Whenthesmokecleared,thirty-nineAfricanAmericanswerekilledandanunknownnumberinjured,312buildingsthathadbeenownedbyBlacksweredestroyed,andtheestimateddollaramountofpropertydamagewasplacedatroughly$1,400,000(Asher,1972,Jordan,2001).ThisassaultleftBlackcommunitiesacrossthecountryonedgeandprecipitatedtheHoustonMutinyinAugust. The Houston Mutiny OnJuly28,1917thesegregatedThirdBattalionoftheTwenty-FourthInfantryarrivedatCampLoganoutsideofHuston.Theirassignmentwastoguardthecampduringitsconstruc-tionprocess.ManyintheWhitecommunityinHoustonwerenervousaboutthepresenceof

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armedBlackmen.ToeasethefearsofthelocalWhitepopulation,thewhitecommandersoftheall-Blackbattalionorderedthatonlythoseonguarddutycouldremainarmed(Williams,2010).TroubleeruptedonAugust23rdwhenaAfricanAmericansoldierspendinghisfreetimeintowntriedtointerveneonbehalfofaBlackwomanwhowasbeingbeatbyaWhitepoliceofficer.Thesoldierwaschargedwithinterferingwiththepolice,pistolwhipped,andthrowninjail.WhenanotherBlacksoldierwenttothejailtocheckonthestateofhisfellowsoldier,hetoowascharged,beaten,andjailed(Jordan,2001).TheeventsofEastSt.LouiswerestillfreshinthemindsofmanyoftheBlacksoldiersandrumorsbegantocirculateabouttheformationofaWhitemobandaboutthedeathsofthetwojailedmen.Angryandanxious,approximately100soldiersarmedthemselvesandheadedfortown.AlthoughtherearedifferingaccountsastowhetherBlacksoldiersorWhitetownspeoplefiredfirst,theendresultwasthat16Houstonianswereleftdead(Jordan,2001). Inthelargestcourt-martialinUShistory,118menfromtheTwentyFourthInfantryweretried.Thirteensoldiersweresentencedtodeath,sevenwereacquitted,fortymenreceivedlifeinprison,andtherestwereconvictedofvariousothercrimes(Barbeau,1974).TomanyWhites,theHoustonMutinywasthelogicaloutcomeofarmingBlackmen.And,inresponseTheWarDepartmentquietlyimplementedPlan6.Plan6wasoneoftheoptionsintheWarDepartmentfordealingwithBlacksoldiers.ItmandatedminimaltrainingandtherelegationofBlacksoldierstolabordivisions.TheplanwouldnotbeimplementeduntilAugustof1917howeverand,longbeforethat,theAfricanAmericanCommunitywouldhavetodecideifitwouldevensupportthewarinlightoftheuniqueproblemitpresentedforAfricanAmericans. LiketherestofAmerica,theBlackcommunitywasdividedoverwhetherornottogotowar.However,specialquestionspresentedthemselves.ShouldBlackAmericansfightWilson’swarforDemocracywhentheycontinuedtobetreatedassecondclasscitizensintheirowncountry?WhatwasthepointofbringingdemocracytoEuropewhensomanyAmericanswererefusedtherighttoexerciseitathome?AsaneditorialintheChicagoDefenderexplainedit,“Somehowitdoesn’tseemquiteconsistenttowashsomeoneelse’sclothesandleaveyourownsoiled”(Jordan,2001:45).ButmanypeoplesawthisasachancetoexpandcivilrightsintheUnitedStates.Theyfeltthat,ifAfricanAmericanscommittedthemselvestothewareffort,thegovernmentwouldhavenochoicebuttohonorthatpledgeofdemocracyathome.However,thesequestionsbecamesecondarywhen,lessthanamonthafterthedeclarationofwar,thedraftwasinstituted.ThequestionofwhetherornottosupportthewarbecameamootoneandBlackleadersinsteadfocusedtheirenergiesonnegotiatingthetermsunderwhichAfricanAmericanswouldserve.

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Raising a Segregated Army Initially,theWilsonAdministrationreliedonvolunteerstofilltheranksoftheUSArmy.AfricanAmericanvolunteersquicklyfilledtheadministrationsquotaof4,000BlacksoldiersfortheranksoftheArmy’sfourstandingsegregatedregimentsandfurtherBlackvolunteerswereturnedaway.Onceatfullstrength,theregimentsweresentonpatrolintheAmericanSouthwest,Hawaii,thePhilippines,andtheMexico(Ferrell,2011).ManypeopleintheAfricanAmericancommunitybegantoworrythatWilson’sadministrationdidnotintendtouseBlackmenincombatrolesinEurope. However,theresponseintheWhitecommunityforthecalltomilitaryservicewassmallerthantheWarDepartmenthadhopedand,inMay1917,thedraftwasinstitutedrequiringallmalecitizensbetweentheageof21and31toregisterregardlessofrace.SouthernersespeciallywerefearfuloftheideaoftrainingBlackmenforcombat.SenatorVardamanofMississippivoicedtheconcernsofmanyofhisfellowSouthernerswhenhesaid,“UniversalmilitaryservicemeansthatmillionsofNegroswhocomeunderthislegislationwillbearmed.IknowofnogreatermenacetotheSouththanthis”(Barbeau,1974:35).ThedraftwasimplementeddespitetheSouthernDemocrats’attemptstodefeatitandanewfearbegantotakeholdintheSouth.IfdraftboardsrefusedtoadmitBlackmen,moreWhitemenwouldbeconscripted,leavingtheirwivesandchildren“unprotected”athome(Mennell,1999).TheseopposingfearswouldmanifestthemselvesinoftencontradictorywaysinSoutherntreatmentofdraftees. Discriminationwasprevalentthroughoutthedraftprocess.Draftboardsdividedregisteredmenintotwoclasses.Thefirst,ClassI,wasalistofmenwhocouldbedraftedimmediately.Everyoneelsewasdeferred.Overthecourseofthewar,19.12percentmoreBlackswereplacedintoClassIthanWhitesand,thoughBlacksonlymadeup10.19percentofregistrantsduringthewar,theywouldmakeup12.6percentofthedraftees(Barbeau,1974). Additionally,ofthe475,000menlistedasdelinquentsordesertersforfailingtoreportforinductionorregisterforthedraft,22percentwereBlack(Barbeau,1974).ThisisadisproportionatelyhighnumbergiventhatthepopulationofAfricanAmericansduringtheFirstWorldWarwasabout10percent.AlthoughthisnumberwastakenbymanyatthetimetoimplythatBlackmenwereunresponsivetotheWarefforts,militaryauthoritiesdismissedthemajorityofthecasesasunintentional.Manyoftheaccusedmenwereilliterateorhadchangedresidence.Moreover,manyBlackmenintheSouthwerevictimsofaschemeinwhichtheirlandlordswithheldtheirdaftnoticesinanefforttocollectthe$50rewardissuedbythegovernmentforreportingdraftdodgers(Mjagkij,2011). Additionally,manylandlordswithhelddraftnoticessimplytoretainBlackdrafteesasagriculturallaborers.AgriculturallaborshortageshadbeenarealproblemintheSouthasAfricanAmericansfloodedNorth.Thedraftfurtherthreatenedthedwindlingsupplylabor

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andmanySoutherndraftboardsweremorelikelytoexemptsharecroppersfromservicewhiledisproportionatelydraftingBlacklandholders. DespitetheSouthernfearsofarmedBlackmen,toomanyBlackmen,andnotenoughBlackmen,thedraftprovedeffectiveandthenextquestionfortheWarDepartmentwaswheretotraintheAfricanAmericandraftees.RepresentativesfromSouthernstates,includingSouthCarolinaGovernorRichardManningandSenatorJohnSharpWilliamsofTennessee,vehementlyobjectedtothetrainingofBlacktroopswithintheirstateborders(Williams,2010).TherecentmutinyinHoustonwasevidencetomanythatBlacktroopscouldnotbetrustedwithfirearms.Inanefforttoassuagethefearsoftheserepresentatives,theWarDepartment,headedbySecretaryofWarNewtonD.Baker,mandatedwhatitcalleda“saferatio”ofWhitetroopstoBlacktroopsinallofthetrainingcamps.WhitetroopsweremeanttooutnumberBlackTroops2:1(Barbeau,1974:39).Thisarbitraryratiocouldonlybeaccomplishedbysendingindividualregimentsfromasingledivisiontomultiplecamps.Troopsfromthe92ndColoredDivisionwereactuallysenttosevenseparatetrainingcamps.TheregimentsnevertrainedtogetherorevenassembledasacompletedivisionuntilthecloseofthewarastheywerepreparingtoreturntotheUnitedStates(Williams,2010). Moreover,trainingcampsweresegregatedeventhoughtheoriginaldesignofthecampsdidnotincludeseparatefacilities.ThisleadtoinferiorfacilitiesforBlacktroopsandmanyhadtosleepoutdoors,ofteninfloorlesstents(Williams,2010).SanitationwasanissueintheBlacksectionofmanytrainingcampsasrunningwaterforlatrinesandbathingwasscarce.Menwereoftenissuedinadequateclothingforwinterweather,madetoworksevendaysaweek,andrefusedtimeoffforsickness(Barbeau,1974).Inthefaceoftheseatrociousconditions,AfricanAmericanmenstillmanagedtocompletetheirtraining. ButwhatwastheWarDepartmenttrainingthesemenfor?ManytopmilitarypersonnelweregenuinelyprejudicedandbelievedthatBlackshad“inherentcharacterweakness,werecowards,andincreasinglyshowedatendencytowardmoralworthlessness”(Barbeau,1974:42).Assuch,militaryofficialsrecommendedthatAfricanAmericantroopsberelegatedtolabordivisionsforthedurationofthewar.ThoughthereweresixdifferentplansastohowtouseBlacktroops,onlyonewasendorsedbyChiefofStaffTaskerBliss.LabeledPlan6,itcalledfordelayingtheBlackdraft,providingminimaltraining,andthendeployingtheBlacktroopstoFrancewheretheyweretobeusedaslaborers.ThisplanwasadoptedbytheWarDepartmentinresponsetotheHoustonMutinyandkeptquiet(Barbeau,1974).However,rumorsaboundedandBlackleadersacrossthecountrybegantovoicetheirsuspicions.

Civil Rights Groups Versus the War Department TheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeoplewasarguablythemostinfluentialcivilrightsorganizationofWorldWarI.Headed,atthetime,byJoelSpingarn

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andbolsteredbyiconicscholarW.E.BDuBoisastheassociation’sdirectorofpublicityandresearchandtheeditorofTheCrisismagazine,theNAACPwasconsideredsomethingofaradicalorganization.TheNAACP’sposition,voicedbyDuBoiswasthatpersistentagitation,politicalaction,andacademiceducationwerethemeansbywhichcivilrightswouldbewon.TheorganizationestablishedofficesinBlackcommunitiesandreachedouttonewspapereditorsandcolleges.Itwas,primarily,throughtheirregionalofficesthattheNAACPwasabletolaunchletterwritingcampaignsandgetpetitionssigned.ItwasDuringWWIthattheorganizationsinfluencedsurged.In1917theNAACPboasted9,000membersbut,by1919,thatnumberhadswollentomorethan90,000members(103rdNAACPAnnualConference,2011). ThoughnoteveryfactionintheBlackcommunitywouldagreewiththeviewsadvocatedbyDuBoisinTheCrisis,theNAACP’sstrengthlayinthefactthatitwasabletoreachouttoopposingvoiceswithintheBlackcommunity.ManyofwhomwereformersupportersoftherecentlydeceasedBookerT.Washingtonandhadbecomedisillusionedwiththatleader’srefusaltodemandcivilrights.Bycontrast,theNAACPwasaprogressive,integrationistorganizationthatactivelyadvocatedforcivilrights.However,attheonsetofthewar,theorganizationwouldbefacedwithwhatDuBoistermeda“damnabledilemma”(DuBois,CloseRanks,1918)AtthestartofhostilitiesinEurope,theNAACPhadassumedthatiftheUnitedStatesenteredthewar,theUSArmywouldcontinueitssegregationistpolicy.Inresponse,onApril9,1917,theorganizationannouncedaresolutionreaffirmingitscommitmenttofightdiscriminationinthemilitary(Mjagkij,2011).However,itwasnotlongbeforetheorganizationwouldhavetobackpedalontheirstance. JoelSpingarnhadbeenpushingformilitaryintegrationasfarbackas1915whenhehadtriedtoconvinceGeneralLeonardWoodtoadmitBlackcadetstohisvolunteertrainingcampinNewYork.TheanswerGeneral’ssimpleanswerwasno.Then,in1916theNationalDefenseActbarredAfricanAmericanmenfromenrollinginthefourteenestablishedofficertrainingcamps.SpingarnreasonedthatasegregatedofficertrainingcampwasbetterthanfightingtheimpendingwarwithBlackmenbarredfromofficerpositions.SpingarnbelievedthecreationofseparateBlackofficerstrainingcamptobethelesseroftwoevilsandapproachedGeneralWoodwithanotherproposal.HeaskedtheGeneralifheifhewouldbewillingtoopenaBlackofficerstrainingcamp.GeneralWoodacquiescedontheconditionthatSpingarncouldproduce200signaturesofBlack,collegeeducatedmenwillingtoundergoofficertraining(Mjagkij,2011). ItwasthenthatSpingarnpennedanopenletterurgingcollegeeducatedBlackmentosignuptosignupforasegregatedtrainingcampforofficers.NAACPleaderswereshockedbyhisplanandinitiallytheyfeltthathewasbetrayingtheorganizations’pledgetofightdiscrimination.Initially,hewasberatedbythepressandwasforcedtostepdownasChairmanoftheBoardfortheNAACP(Barbeau,1974,Mjagkij,2011,Jordan,2001).Heremainedactive

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intheorganizationhoweverand,thoughhisplanwashighlyatfirst,itbegantogainsupportinBlackcolleges.Additionally,theCommitteeof100ColoredCitizensontheWarbeganawrite-incampaigntotryandraisesupportforthetrainingcampamongpoliticians(Mjagkij,2011). TofurtherswaytheWarDepartmentandSecretaryofWarNewtonD.Baker,theCentralCommitteeofNegroCollegeMenproducedalistof1,500collegeeducatedvolunteersforthecamp(Mjagkij,2011).TheunprecedentedsupportforthecampamongcollegesbegantoattracttheattentionoftheboardoftheNAACP.Manyremainedambivalentaboutsupportingthecamp.However,onceDuBoisvoicedhissupportforthecampintheApril1917issueoftheCrisis,manyoftheboardmemberscametobackSpingarn’splan,too.DuBoissaid“Wemustchoosethenbetweentheinsultofaseparatecampandtheirreparableinjuryofstrengtheningthepresentcustomofputtingnoblackmeninpositionsofauthority”(1917:271).AvotewastakenonMay14th,andtheboardofdirectorsfortheNAACPaffirmedsupportforablackofficers’trainingcamp. ThepopularsupportforthecamphadbeguntoswaySecretaryBakerandonMay12,hesentanunofficiallettertothepresidentofHowardUniversitystatinghisintentiontoopenaBlackofficerstrainingcamp.Whilethiswaswelcomenews,noofficialpublicannouncementwasmade.Inresponse,theNAACPcalledaconferenceatHowardUniversityforMay17ththroughthe19th.Approximately700AfricanAmericancommunityleadersandalliesfromnewspapers,churches,schools,andbusinesswereinattendance(Jordan,2001).Thoughmanywerestillunsureaboutaadvocatingforasegregatedtrainingcamp,theprospectoffightingthewarwithoutBlackofficerswasableakone.TheconferencememberswereswayedandpledgedtosupportthewareffortbutdemandedcombatrolesandofficertrainingforBlacktroops(Mjagkij,2011). TheconferencewasatriumphfortheNAACP.TheorganizationpersuadedmanyintheBlackcommunitytoadoptitsstanceononeofthemostimportantissuesfacingAfricanAmericansofthetime.Furthermore,bybringingsomanypeopletogether,theGrouppositioneditselfasaliaisonbetweenthegovernmentandtheBlackcommunity.Mostimportantlyhowever,theireffortswereofficiallyrewardedonthelastdayoftheconferencewhentheWarDepartmentformallyannouncedplansforthecreationofaBlackofficerstrainingcamp.

Fort Des Moines Officer Training Camp FortDesMoineswaschosenbytheWarDepartmentasasuitablesitefortheBlackofficertrainingcampbecauseofitprovidedampleroomformilitaryexercises,waseasilyaccessiblebyrail,andwaslocatedinastatewithagoodrecordofracerelations.Andso,onJune15,1917,1,250AfricanAmericanofficercandidatesbegantheirtraininginIowa.TheprogramwastolastthreemonthsandwassupervisedbyColonelCharlesC.Ballou(Barbeau,1974).HewasaWhiteofficerwhohadformerlybeensecondincommandoftheBlack24th

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Infantry.ColonelBallouwasastaunchsegregationistwhopubliclypraisedhismenbut,inhisreportstotheWarDepartmentinsistedthatAfricanAmericans“lackedthementalandmoralcapacitytoleadblacksoldiers”(Mjagkij,2011:60).Despitehisofficialconcerns,trainingcontinuedatthecamp.Itlastedfrom5:30amto10:45pmandconsistedofexercise,classwork,andinfantrydrills-oftenwithoutweapons.Additionally,onlyinfantryinstructionwasgivendespitethatfactthatgraduatingofficerswouldbeexpectedtohandleartillery. Theagerangeforthoseadmittedtothecampwas24to40yearsoldandtherequirementthattraineeshaveacollegedegreewasdropped.Bynotallowingcollegeagementoapplytothecamp,manyrecentgraduateswereexcluded.ManyoftheoldertraineeshadnotbeenabletotakeadvantageofthesuperiorschoolsthattheNorthwardmigrationhadoffered.Thelowerededucationalstandardandtheexclusionaryagerequirementensuredawideaptituderangeforthegraduatingofficers.ThereservationsthatmanymilitaryofficialshadexpressedaboutthefitnessofBlackofficersbecameaself-fulfillingprophecy.Theselectionprocessexcludedmanyofthebestandbrightestyoungmenfromofficertraining,andthenadequatetrainingwasdeniedthosewhowereadmitted. Despiteofallofthesedifficulties,onOctober15th,639commissionsweregrantedtothegraduatingclass.Then,inSeptember,104physiciansand12dentistsreceivedtheircommissions(Dalessandro,2009).ThegraduationshadbeendelayedamonthbecauseoftheviolenceoftheHoustonMutiny.TheMutinyhadconvincedSecretaryBakertoimplementPlan6whichdelayedtheBlackdraftandcalledforAfricanAmericanstobeputintolaborratherthancombatdivi-sions.Theplanhadbeenkeptquiet,butpersistentrumorsofitandthelackofcombattrainingbeinggiventoBlacktroops.InDecember,DuBoisandotherBlackleadersconfrontedSecretaryBakerwiththerumorsandhewasforcedtoreiteratehispledgetouseBlacktroopsascombatsoldiersandofficers(Barbeau,1974).TheroleofBlacktroopswouldbetentativethroughoutthewarhowever,andthemenofthe92ndand93rddivisionswouldbeatthecenterofthedebate.

The 92nd Division The92ndDivisionwasplaguedwithdifficultiesfromthestart.AtthecloseoftheBlackofficertrainingcampatFt.DesMoinesonNovember13,1917,GeneralBallouwasplacedincommandofthedivision(Ferrell,2011).Althoughhehadbeenconsideredanadequate,ifracist,commandingofficerbefore,helosttheremainingrespecthismenhadforhimwhenheissuedBulletinNo.35. Bulletin35wasissuedwhenthe92ndDivisionwasheadquarteredinCampFunstoninKansas.TheDivisionhadbeenmovedtherespecificallybecauseofstatelawsprohibitingracism.However,theselawswerenotuniversallyenforcedandwhenSargentL.E.MathisattemptedtobuyatheaterticketattheWarehamTheaterinManhattan,KS,hewasdeniedentrancefor

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beinganAfricanAmerican(Mjagkij,2011).SargentMathiswasjustlyoffendedandlodgedacomplaintwithGeneralBallou’soffice. TheGeneral’sresponsewastoissueBulletinNo.35inwhichhedescribedthewaysinwhichtheBlacksoldiersunderhiscommandweresupposedtobehave.HelaidtheblameofSargentMathis’situationsquarelyattheSargent’sfeetwhenhewrotethatMathiswas“guiltyofthegreaterwrongindoinganything,nomatterhowlegallycorrect,thatwillproduceraceanimosity”(Mjagkij,2011:184).Thebulletinthreatened“Whitemenmadethedivision,andtheycanbreakitjustaseasilyifitbecomesatroublemaker”(Mjagkij,2011:184)ThebulletinhadtheundesiredeffectofdestroyingthelastofGeneralBallou’scredibilitywithhismenandforeshadowedthetreatmentthatBlacktroopsunderhiscommandcouldexpecttoreceive. ThemajorityoftheBlackofficerstrainedatFt.DesMoineswereassignedtothe92ndandnonewereallowedtoholdarankhigherthanacaptain.TheyworkedunderWhiteSouthernofficers,manyofwhomwererecent,inexperiencedgraduatesthemselvesandwerealreadypredisposedtothenotionthatBlackmenshouldnotholdofficercommissions.ThesituationwasexacerbatedbythefactthatnoneoftheAfricanAmericanofficershadreceivedtraininginauxiliaryarms.TheBlackofficersoftenhadtolearntheinformationtheyweresupposedtobeteachingtheirtroopsthenightbefore(Barbeau,1974).Asaresult,trainingforthe92ndDivisionwasneverthoroughandnotcompleteduntiltheirarrivalinFranceinJuneandJulyof1918(Williams,2010). UpontheirarrivalinFrance,theconditionswerenotanybetterfortheBlackSoldiersofthe92ndDivision.TheyservedasanattachmenttotheSecondAmericanArmyunderGeneralRobertLeeBullardandweresenttothefrontlinespoorlyequippedandpoorlytrained(Dalessandro,2009).TheDivisionlackedbasicssuchasmapsandflaresandquicklyrackedup1,647casualties(Barbeau,1974).GeneralBullardsawthisperformanceasanindicatorthatAfricanAmericanservicemenwereonlyfitforlabordetail.Additionally,theWhiteofficersunderBullard’scommandbegantocirculaterumorsthattheBlacktroopswererapists(Barbeau,1974,Williams,2010).Thoroughlydemoralizedandillequipped,the92ndDivisioncontinuedtohavealacklusterrecordthroughoutthewar.

The 93rd Division (Provisional) The93rdDivision(Provisional)wascomprisedlargelyofNationalGuardUnitswithafourthunitofdraftees.ThemenoftheNationalGuardwereallvolunteersandmanyhadpreviousmilitaryexperience.Thepresenceofexperiencedsoldiersservedtooffsetsomewhatthesubstandardtrainingthatmanyofthemenofthe93rdDivisionreceived.Aswiththe92nd,uniformsandgunswerescarce.Whenthe15thNewYorkNationalGuardreportedtoCampWhitmaninNewYork,theywereexpectedtotrainalmost2,000menwith250rifles(Barbeau,1974).

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ThestationingatCampWhitmanwasshortlivedthough,andeventuallytheregimentwasorderedtoCampWadsworthoutsideofSpartanburg,SouthCarolina.Themayor,theCham-berofCommerce,andbothstatesenatorsobjectedvehementlytosomanyBlacktroopsbeingstationedinSouthCarolina(Williams,2010).Thecommanderoftheregiment,ColonelHay-warddidhisbesttosmoothrelationsbetweenhisregimentandthelocals.HeevenarrangedfreeconcertsthatwereperformedbytheregimentalbandconductedbythefamousJamesReeseEurope,andtookextrasecuritymeasuresatnight. However,theregimentcontinuedtobemetwithhostility.Blacktroopswereforcedoffofsidewalks,thrownoutofstreetcarsand,inoneincident,drummajorSergeantNobleSisslewasphysicallyassaultedbyalocalhotelmanager(Williams,2010).TheBlackandWhitesoldiersthatwerewithSergeantSissleattemptedtoretaliateagainstthehotelmanagerandhadtoberestrainedbyLieutenantJamesReeseEurope.ThisincidentstartedaboycottofsegregatedshopsbyBlackandWhitesoldierswhoresentedthetown’streatmentoftheregiment. FearingthetensionsinSpartanburgwouldescalate,theregimentwasmovedtoCampMillsonLongIsland.TheyhadonlybeeninSpartanburgfortwelvedaysandtheywouldnothavetowaitlongfortheirorderstoleaveNewYork.InDecember1917,theregimentwasshippedtoFrance.Theywerefollowedinshortorderbythe8thIllinoisNationalguard(toberenamedthe370thRegiment)whowouldcompletethe185thBrigade,andthe186thBrigade(Ferrell,2011). UpontheirarrivalinFranceonJanuary1,1918,thesoldiersofthe93rdDivisionwereimmediatelyassignedtolabordetail.Theyfeltbetrayedbythisbreachofpromiseandmoralplummeted.GeneralJohnJ.PershingwascommanderoftheAmericanExpeditionaryForceininEurope(AEF)andhewasresponsiblefordecidingwhatshouldbedonewiththesemen.GeneralPershinghadpreviouslybeenthecommanderoftheallblack10thCalvaryduringtheSpanishAmericanWarandhadareputationfordealingfairlywiththetroopsunderhiscommand(Sutherland,2004).However,therewasstillmuchresistanceamonghisWhiteofficerstousingBlacktroopsinanypositionsotherthanaslaborers.ButthetroopsandtheAfricanAmericancommunityhadbeenpromisedthatBlacktroopswouldbeusedincombat.GeneralPershingfoundawayaroundthedilemmawhentheFrenchpetitionedformorebackuptroops.Hesimplytransferredthe93rdDivisiontoFrenchCommand. Thoughthisassignmentpresentednewproblemsforthesoldiers,mostdidnotspeakthelanguageandtheFrenchAmywasorganizeddifferentlyanduseddifferentweapons,thesoldiersofthe93rdDivisionreturnedwithanunimpeachablewarrecord.The369thwasthefirstAlliedunittomakeittotheRhine.ItwassaidtheyneverlostafootofgroundandfortheirserviceandFranceawardedthedivisionwith170CroixdeGuerreMedalsforoutstandingperformance(Ferrell,2011).

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ThistreatmentcontrastedsharplywiththetreatmentreceivedfromAmericancommanders.ManywereresentfuloftheFrenchpeoples’treatmentofAfricanAmericansandtheAEFissuedacommuniquetoFrenchcommanderstitled“SecretInformationConcerningBlackAmericanTroops.”ItcontainedguidelinesfordealingwithBlacksoldiersandsuggestedthatFrenchcommanderswerebeingentirelytoonicetoAfricanAmericans.ItUrgedtheFrenchtorefrainfrom“spoilingtheNegros”(LINARD,1919)andinsinuatedthatBlackmenwerepronetorape.TheGermanswerewellawareofthetreatmentBlacksoldiersreceivedfromAmericanofficersdroppedleafletspromisingmoreegalitariantreatmentinGermanyifonlytheywoulddefect(Mjagkij,2011).Notasinglesoldiereverdid.

Conclusion ThedebateoverhowtouseAfricanAmericantroopsinWorldWarIseemslikeaninaneonefromamodernperspective.AmericansofallstripesrallytoservethecountryintimesofwarandBlacksoldierscertainlyhaveprovedthemselveswillingtosacrificeineachoftheUnitedStates’wars.Butatatimewhenracismpermeatedeventhemostbasicinstitutions,thebattletheAfricanAmericancommunityfacedtoputBlackmenintocombatroleswasanuphillone.AidedbytheNAACPandnewer,moreradicalcivilrightsorganizations,theBlackcommunitywasabletosecurecombatrolesandofficertrainingforAfricanAmericanmendespitetheobstacleslaidinitswaybyracistpoliticiansandthesegregatedtraditionsoftheUnitedStatesMilitary.AfricanAmericansoldiersreturnedfromEuropeasheroesintheircommunitiesandmanyfoughtfordemocracyfortheBlackcommunityathomewiththesamedeterminationthathadhelpedthemwindemocracyinEurope.However,completedesegregationofthemilitarywouldtakeanother20years.Whenin1948HarryTrumansignedExecutiveOrder9981desegregatingtheArmedForces,itwasinresponsetothecallsofthenewclassofcivilrightsleaderswhohadbeentrainedintheradicaltacticsemployedduringWWI.

ReferencesJimCrowTrainingCamps-No!(1917,April3).ChicagoDefender.JimCrowTrainingCamps-No!(1917,April28).ChicagoDefender.NegroesinProtestMarchinfifthAv.(1917,July29th).TheNewYorkTimes.ResolutionsoftheWashingtonConference.(1917).Crisis,59-60.HowardUniversityintheWar.(1918).HowardUniversityRecord,1-16.103rdNAACPAnnualConference.(2011,July7).PressKit.Houston,Texas:National

AssociationfortheAdvancementofColoedPeople.Asher,R.(1972).DocumentsoftheRaceRiotatEastSt.Louis.IllinoisStateHistoricalSociety

Journal,327-336.

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Barbeau,A.(1974).TheUnknownSoldiers.Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress.Dalessandro,R.J.(2009).WillingPatriots:MenofColorintheFirstWorldWar.Atglen:Schiffer

PublishingLtd.DuBois,W.(1917).Awake.Crisis,270-271.DuBois,W.(1918).CloseRanks.Crisis,111.Ferrell,R.H.(2011).UnjustlyDishonored:AnAfricanAmericanDivisioninWorldWarI.

Columbia:UniversityofMissouriPress.Fife,T.W.(2006).AFRICAN-AMERICANSINTHEGREATWAR1917-19.MilitaryImages,

4-8.Gottleib,P.(1991).RethinkingtheGreatMigration:APerspectivefromPittsburgh.InJ.W.

Trotter,TheGreatMigrationinHistoricalPerspective:NewDimensionsofRace,Class,andGender(pp.68-82).IndianaUniversityPress.

Jordan,W.C.(2001).BlackNewspapersandAmerica’sWarforDemocracy,1914-1920.TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress.

Keene,J.(2002).ACompartiveStudyofWhiteandBlackAmericanSoldiersDuringteFirstWorldWar.AnnalesdeDémographieHistorique,71-90.

Lambert,F.(2010).ReligioninAmericanPolitics:AShortHistory.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.

LINARD.(1919).SecretInformationConcerningBlackAmericanTroops.Crisis,16-17.Lovett,B.L.(1976).TheNegro’sCivilWarinTennessee,1861-1865.TheJournalofNegro

History,36-50.Mennell,J.(1999).African-AmericansandtheSelectiveServiceActof1917.TheJournalof

NegroHistory,275-286.Mjagkij,N.(2011).LoyaltyinTimeofTrial:TheAfricanAmericanExperienceDuringWorld

WarI.Plymoth:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishingGroup,Inc.Nalty,B.C.(1988).ARecordofValor:BlackSoldiersBeforeIndependence.AmericanVisions,

18-27.Painter,N.I.(2007).CreatingBlackAmericans:AfricanAmericanHistoryandItsMeanings

1619tothePresent.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Pershing,J.J.(1919).AFrenchDirective.TheCrisis,16-18.Rasmussen,D.(2011).AmericanUprising:TheUntoldStoryofAmerica’sLargestSlaveRevolt.

NewYork:HarperCollinsPublishers.Rose,A.M.(1946).ArmyPoliciesTowardNegroSoldiers.AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyof

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TradetoModernTimes.Boston:McGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Smith,G.A.(1987).WhenJimCrowMetJohnBull.NewYork:St.Martin’sPressInc.Sutherland,J.(2004).AfricanAmericansatWar:anEncyclopedia.SantaBarbara:ABC-CLIO,

Inc.Trotter,J.W.(2001).TheAfricanAmericanExperienceVollume1:ThroughReconstruction.

Boston:HoughtonMifflinCompany.Trotter,J.W.(2001).TheAfricanAmericanExperienceVolume2:FromReconstruction.Boston:

HoughtonMifflinCompany.Williams,C.L.(2010).TourchbearersofDemocracy:AfricanAmericanSoldiersintheWorld

WarIEra.ChapelHill:TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress.Winsboro,I.D.(2007).GiveThemTheirDue:AReassessmentofAfricanAmericansand

UnionMilitaryServiceinFloridaduringtheCivilWar.TheJournalofAfricanAmericanHistory,327-346.

Wolgemuth,K.L.(1959).WoodrowWilsonandFederalSegregation.TheJournalofNegroHistory,158-173.

Appendix A: Chronology6

1914August1 WorldWarIstartsinEuropeNovember12 PresidentWoodrowWilsonmeetswithWilliamMonroeTrotter,editorofthe BostonGuardianforthefirstandlasttime

1915February8 ReleaseofD.WGriffith’sTheBirthofaNationJune21 Guinnv.U.S.declaresgrandfatherclauseunconstitutionalSummer BollweevilsandfloodingdevastatecottoncropintheSouthGreat MigrationbeginsSeptember9 CarterG.WoodsonlaunchesAssociationfortheStudyofNegroLife andHistoryinChicagoNovember6 OscarDePriestelectedChicago’sfirstblackaldermanNovember14 BookerT.WashingtondiesNovember25 KuKluxKlanreestablishedonStoneMountain,Georgia

1916 MarcusGarveyarrivesintheUnitedStates

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May15 JesseWashingtonlynchedinWaco,TexasAugust24-26 AmeniaConferenceseekstoreconcilefactionsamongAfricanAmericansNovember NAACPappointsJamesWeldonJohnsonastheorganization’sfirstfield secretaryfortheSouthDecember9 NationalUrbanLeagueConferenceonGreatMigrationDecember27-30NAACPConference“TheNegroinWartime”

1917January26 NationalUrbanLeagueConferenceonNegroMigration,NewYorkCityFebruary15 JoelE.Spingarn,whitechairmanoftheNAACP’sboardofdirectors,publishes anopenlettertothe“EducatedColoredMenoftheUnitedStates,”urging blackmentosignupfortraininginasegregatedofficerstrainingcampMarch25 FirstSeparateBattalion(Colored)oftheDistrictofColumbiaNationalGuard receivesorderstoguardthenation’scapitalApril6 UnitedStatesentersWorldWarIApril26 PresidentWilsonasksYMCAtoprovideservicesforsoldiersApril27 NAACPleadersmeetwithSecretaryofWarNewtonD.BakerMay14 NAACPvotestosupportthecreationofasegregatedofficerstrainingcampMay17-19 NAACP’sWashingtonConferenceofblackleaderstodiscussroleofAfrican AmericansinthewarMay18 PresidentWilsonsignstheSelectiveServiceActinitiatingthedraftMay19 TheWarDepartmentannouncescreationofablackofficerstrainingcampJune5 Firstdraftcallregistersallmenbetweentheagesoftwenty-oneandthirtyJune15 TheColoredOfficersTrainingCampopensatFortDesMoines,IowaJuly2 RiotinEastSt.Louis,IllinoisJuly26 TheColoredMedicalOfficersTrainingCampopensatFortDesMoines,IowaJuly28 NAACPstagesSilentParadeinNewYorkCity,10,000protestEastSt.Louis raceriotJuly30 ColonelCharlesYoung,highest-rankingblackofficer,forcedtoretireJuly31 TheWarDepartment’stroopmobilizationplanprovidesforthetrainingof blackdrafteesascombatsoldiersAugust A.PhilipRandolphandChandlerOwenopposeU.S.participationinthewar andlaunchthesocialistjournalMessengerAugust23 ViolentclashesbetweenwhiteresidentsofHoustonandmembersofthe all-black Twenty-FourthInfantrysparktheHoustonMutiny

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August24 SecretaryofWar,NewtonD.BakerapprovesPlan6,limitingblacksoldiersto serviceinonecombatdivisionandminimaltraininginarmsAugust31 SecretaryofWar,NewtonD.Baker,meetswithblackleadersandconcerned whitestodiscusstheroleofblacksinthemilitarySeptember5 TheSelectiveServiceSystemannouncesseparate“colored”and“white”draft quotasSeptember11 SecretaryofWarBakersuspendsthedraftofAfricanAmericansSeptember16 104blackphysiciansand12dentistsreceivetheirofficerscommissionsatFort DesMoines,IowaSeptember22 SecretaryofWarBakerannouncesresumptionofblackdraftOctober FirstblackdrafteesarriveinU.S.trainingcamps RiotatCampMills,NewYork ArmedblacksoldiersfromCampWadsworthmarchintonearbySpartanburg, SouthCarolinaOctober5 BakerappointsEmmettJ.Scott,formersecretarytoBookerT.Washington, specialadjutanttothesecretaryofwarOctober15 639blackofficersreceivetheircommissionsatFortDesMoines,Iowa CongresspassesEspionageActNovember5 NAACPwinsvictoryagainstsegregatedhousingordinancesinBuchananv. WarleyNovember11 HoustonMutinycourt-martialtrailofsixty-threedefendantsNovember13 ColoredOfficersTrainingCampclosesatFortDesMoines,IowaNovember18 FirstblackYWCAHostessHouseopensatCampUpton,NewYorkNovember23 WarDepartmentorderscreationofNinety-thirdInfantryDivision(Provisional)November29 WarDepartmentorderscreationofNinety-secondInfantryDivisionDecember11 SecrethangingofthirteenparticipantsintheHoustonMutiny

1918January1 369thInfantryRegiment,firstblackcombatunit,arrivesinFranceJanuary29-31 NationalUrbanLeagueConferenceonNegroMigration,NewYorkCityFebruary18 HoustonMutinycourt-martialtrialoffortydefendantsMarch RiotatCampHill,VirginiaMarch28 BallouissuesBulletin#35April4 CliffordL.Miller,firstblackchaplain,arrivesatCampLee,VirginiaApril14 372ndInfantryRegimentarrivesinFranceApril20 U.S.DepartmentofLabor,DivisionofNegroEconomics,publishesNegro

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Migrationin1916-17April23-June10 370thand371stInfantryRegimentsarriveinFranceMay1 U.S.DepartmentofLaborappointsDr.GeorgeE.HaynestoheadDivisionof NegroEconomicsMay16 CongresspassesSeditionActJune5 Seconddraftcallregistersallmenbetweentheagesoftwenty-oneandthirtyJune6-22 ColonelCharlesYoungrides497milesonhorsebackfromOhiotoWashington, D.C.,todemonstratethatheisphysicallyfitforactivedutyJune18-July12 Ninety-SecondDivisionarrivesinFranceJune19-21 GovernmentsponsoredconferenceofraceleadersconvenesinWashington,D.C.June24 W.E.B.DuBoisappliesforcaptaincycommissionintheArmyJune24-29 NationalLibertyCongressmeetsinWashington,D.C.July26 W.E.B.DuBoispublishes“CloseRanks”editorial PresidentWilsoncondemnsmobviolenceAugust RiotatCampMeade,MarylandAugust4 A.PhilipRandolphandChandlerOwenarrestedinClevelandAugust7 AmericanExpeditionaryForcesheadquartersinParisdistributes“Secret InformationConcerningBlackAmericanTroops”instructingFrench officershowtodealwithAfricanAmericansAugust12 AliceDunbar-NelsonappointedaFieldRepresentativeoftheWoman’s CommitteeoftheCouncilofNationalDefenseAugust17 RiotatCampMerritt,NewJerseyAugust24 Thirddraftcallregistersallmenbetweentheagesoftwenty-oneandthirtyAugust31 PresidentWilsoncommutesthedeathsentencesoftenHoustonMutineers toprisontermsSeptember RiotatNewportNews,VirginiaSeptember3 GermanpropagandaleafletstargetAfricanAmericantroopsSeptember12 Fourthdraftcallregistersallmenbetweentheagesofeighteenandforty-fiveSeptember16 ExecutionofsixparticipantsintheHoustonMutiny CommitteeonPublicInformationaccreditsRalphWaldoTylerastheonly AfricanAtwellheadsDivisionofNegroActivitiesintheU.S.FoodAdministrationOctober RiotatCampLee,VirginiaNovember6 CharlesYoungreinstatedNovember11 WorldWarIends

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Appendix B: What follows are excerpts from various important primary documents.

W.E.B. Du Bois “Awake” Editorial7

WeNegroeseverfaceit.Wecannotescapeit.Wemustcontinuallychoosebetweeninsultandinjury;noschoolsorseparateschools;notravelor“JimCrow”travel;homeswithdisdainfulneighborsorhomesinslums. Wecontinuallysubmittosegregatedschools,“JimCrow”cars,andisolation,becauseitwouldbesuicidetogouneducated,stayathome,andliveinthe“tenderloin.” Yet,whenanewalternativeofsuchchoicefacesusitcomeswithashockandalmostwithoutthinkingwerailattheonewhoadvisesthelesseroftwoevils. ThusitwaswithmanyhastyeditorsinthecaseofthetrainingcampforNegroofficerswhichDr.J.E.Spingarnisseekingtoestablish. DoesDr.Spingarnbelieveina“JimCrow”trainingcamp?Certainlynot,andhehasdoneallhecouldtoinducethegovernmenttoadmitNegroestoalltrainingcamps. Thegovernmenthassofarcourteouslyrefused. Butwarisimminent. Ifwarcomesto-morrowNegroeswillbecompelledtoenlistunderwhiteofficersbecause(saveaveryfewcases)noNegroeshavehadtherequisitetraining. Wemustchoosethenbetweentheinsultofaseparatecampandirreparableinjuryofstrengtheningthepresentcustomofputtingnoblackmeninpositionsofauthority. Ourchoiceisasclearasnoonday. Giveusthecamp. Letnot200,but2,000,volunteer. Wedidnotmakethedamnabledilemma. Ourenemiesmadethat. Wemustmakethechoiceelseweplayintotheirveryclaws. Itisacaseofcampornoofficers. Giveustheofficers. Giveusthecamp. Awordtothosewhoobject: 1.Thearmydoesnotwishthiscamp.Itwishestheprojecttofail.GeneralWoodrefusestonamedateorplaceuntil200apply.Thereasonisobvious.UptoMarch8,sixty-ninemenhaveapplied. 2.ThecampisatemporarymeasurelastingfourweeksanddesignedtoFIGHT,notencouragediscriminationinthearmy...Wewanttrainedcoloredofficers.Thiscampwillhelpfurnishthem.

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3.TheSouthdoesnotwanttheNegrotoreceivemilitarytrainingofanysort.Forthatreason,thegeneralstaffreduceditsestimatefrom900,000to500,000soldiers-theyexpecttoEXCLUDENegroes! 4.Ifwarcomes,conscriptionwillfollow.Allprettytalkaboutnotvolunteeringwillbecomeentirelyacademic.ThisisthemistakemadebytheBaltimoreAFRO-AMERICAN,theChicagoDEFENDER,theNewYorkNEWS.AndtheClevelandGAZETTE.Theyassumeachoicebetweenvolunteeringandnotvolunteering.Thechoicewillbebetweenconscriptionandrebellion. Canthereaderconceiveofthepossibilityofchoice?TheleadersofthecoloredracewhoadvisethemtoaddtreasonandrebelliontotheothergroundsonwhichtheSouthurgesdiscrimi-nationagainstthemwouldhardlybedoingaservicetothosewhomtheyprofesstolove.No,thereisonlyonethingtodonow,andthatistoorganizethecoloredpeopleforleadershipandservice,ifwarshouldcome.Athousandcommissionedofficersofcoloredbloodissomethingtoworkfor. Giveusthecamp!Source:Crisis(April1917),270-71.

“Jim Crow” Training Camps - No!8 Thetheorythathalfaloafisbetterthannoloafatallhaslongsincebeenexploded...Wehaveputupwiththecrumbsthathavefallenfromthewhiteman’stableasourportionsolongweareconsideredungratefulifweevendaretohintitisabouttimewewereeatingatthefirsttable.Thefactthatwearepayingforcakeandicecreamandgettingskimmedmilkandhardtackshouldstriketheaveragemindasbeingatrifleunjust.Therearemanygoodpeoplewhobelieveweshouldcontinuetotakewhatishandedtouswithoutcomplaint,inthehopesofgettingmoreandbetterthingsinthefuture... Dr.Spingarnandsomeotherestimablegentlemenareadvocatingtheestablishmentofa“ColoredOfficers’TrainingCamp,”andputforthargumentsinitsfavorthatareworthyofconsiderationonlybecausethesegentlemenaresincere,friendly,andbelievetheyareaidingustotakeastepforward... Toaskforpermissiontofightwithaclassofpeoplewhoabsolutelyneedandcannotdowithoutourserviceintheeventofwar,isahugejokefromeverypointofview.WhitemenhavenoobjectiontoColoredregiments,iftheycanofficerthem...Ahalfloafisn’talwaysbetterthannoloafatall;betterthatwehavenoregimentthanhavethemofficeredbywhitemen.Prejudiceisabarrierthatcannotbebrokendowninaday,buttheeffortmustcometobreakit,andthereisnobettertimethanthepresenttobegin.Whenourcountryneedsmentodefenditshonor,theblackmanshouldershisgunwithoutamurmur,andthewhiteman,throughthekindnessofhis

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heart,giveshimaprominentplaceinthefrontrankswherethebulletsarethethickest..Thoughitmightseemtooidealistictohavemixedregiments,thatiswhatUncleSamwillbecompelledtodo,ifwearetohaveaunitedcountry. Noonedeniesthatwesorelyneedefficientmilitarytrainingforofficers,privatesandeverycitizen,butwedonotwantit,norwillwetakeitina“JimCrow”way,ifwenevergetit...Ifwearegoodenoughtofight,wearegoodenoughtoreceivethesamepreparatorytrainingourwhitebrothersreceive.

Resolutions of the Washington Conference, 19179 We...earnestlyurgeourcoloredfellowcitizenstojoinheartilyinthisfightforeventualworldliberty;weurgethemtoenlistinthearmy;tojoininthepressingworkofprovidingfoodsupplies;tolaborinallwaysbyhandandthoughtinincreasingtheefficiencyofourcountry.Weurgethisdespiteourdeepsympathywiththereasonableanddeep-seatedfeelingofrevoltamongNegroesatthepersistentinsultanddiscriminationtowhichtheyaresubjectandwillbesubjectevenwhentheydotheirpatrioticduty. Letus,however,neverforgetthatthiscountrybelongstousevenmorethantothosewholynch,disenfranchise,andsegregate.Asourcountryitrightlydemandsourwhole-hearteddefense... Absoluteloyaltyinarmsandincivildutiesneednotforamomentleadustoabateourjustcomplaintsandjustdemands...[W]edemandandofrightoughttodemand:

1.Therighttoserveourcountryonthebattlefieldandtoreceivetrainingforsuchservice; 2.Therightofourbestmentoleadtroopsoftheirownraceinbattle,andtoreceiveofficers’traininginpreparationforsuchleadership; 3.Theimmediatestoppageoflynching; 4.Therighttovoteforbothmenandwomen; 5.Universalandfreecommonschooltraining; 6.TheabolitionofJimCrowcars; 7.Therepealofsegregationordinances; 8.Equalcivilrightsinallpublicinstitutionsandmovements. Thesearenotminormatters.Theyarenotmattersthatcanwait.Theyaretheleastthatself-respecting,free,modernmencanhaveandlive.

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French Directive10 [Tothe]FrenchMilitaryMission.stationedwiththeAmericanArmy.August7,1918.SecretinformationconcerningtheBlackAmericanTroops. ItisimportantforFrenchofficerswhohavebeencalledupontoexercisecommandoverblackAmericantroops,ortoliveinclosecontactwiththem,tohaveanexactideaofthepositionoccupiedbyNegroesintheUnitedStates.Theinformationsetforthinthefollowingcommuni-cationoughttobegiventotheseofficersanditistotheirinteresttohavethesemattersknownandwidely.disseminated.ItwilldevolvelikewiseontheFrenchMilitaryAuthorities,throughthemediumoftheCivilAuthorities,togiveinformationonthissubjecttotheFrenchpopulationresidinginthecantonmentsoccupiedbyAmericancoloredtroops. 1.TheAmericanattitudeupontheNegroquestionmayseemamatterfordiscussiontomanyFrenchminds.ButweFrencharenotinourprovinceifweundertaketodiscusswhatsomecall“prejudice.”[recognizethat]Americanopinionisunanimousonthe“colorquestion,”anddoesnotadmitofanydiscussion. TheincreasingnumberofNegroesintheUnitedStates(about15,000,000)wouldcreateforthewhiteraceintheRepublicamenaceofdegeneracywereitnotthatanimpassablegulfhasbeenmadebetweenthem. AsthisdangerdoesnotexistfortheFrenchrace,theFrenchpublichasbecomeaccustomedtotreatingtheNegrowithfamiliarityandindulgence. Thisindulgenceandthisfamiliarity[These]aremattersofgrievousconcerntotheAmericans.Theyconsiderthemanaffronttotheirnationalpolicy.TheyareafraidthatcontactwiththeFrenchwillinspireinblackAmericansaspirationswhichtothem(thewhites)appearintolerable.ItisoftheutmostimportancethateveryeffortbemadetoavoidprofoundlyestrangingAmericanopinion. AlthoughacitizenoftheUnitedStates,theblackmanisregardedbythewhiteAmericanasaninferiorbeingwithwhomrelationsofbusinessorserviceonlyarepossible.Theblackisconstantlybeingcensuredforhiswantofintelligenceanddiscretion,hislackofcivicandprofessionalconscience,andforhistendencytowardunduefamiliarity. ThevicesoftheNegroareaconstantmenacetotheAmericanwhohastorepressthemsternly.Forinstance,theblackAmericantroopsinFrancehave,bythemselves,givenrisetoasmanycomplaintsforattemptedrapeasalltherestofthearmy.Andyetthe(blackAmerican)soldierssentushavebeenthechoicestwithrespecttophysiqueandmorals,forthenumberdis-qualifiedatthetimeofmobilizationwasenormous.

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Conclusion 1.WemustpreventtheriseofanypronounceddegreeofintimacybetweenFrenchofficersandblackofficers.Wemaybecourteousandamiablewiththeselast,butwecannotdealwiththemonthesameplaneaswiththewhiteAmericanofficerswithoutdeeplywoundingthelatter.Wemustnoteatwith[theblacks]them,mustnotshakehandsorseektotalkormeetwiththemoutsideoftherequirementsofmilitaryservice. 2.WemustnotcommendtoohighlytheblackAmericantroops,particularlyinthepresenceof(white)Americans.Itisallrighttorecognizetheirgoodqualitiesandtheirservices,butonlyinmoderatetermsstrictlyinkeepingwiththetruth. 3.Makeapointofkeepingthenativecantonmentpopulationfrom“spoiling”theNegroes.(White)Americansbecomegreatlyincensedatanypublicexpressionofintimacybetweenwhitewomenwithblackmen.Theyhaverecentlyutteredviolentprotestsagainstapictureinthe“VieParisienne”entitled“TheChildoftheDesert”whichshowsa(white)womanina“cabinetparticulier”withaNegro.Familiarityonthepartofwhitewomenwithblackmenisfurthermoreasourceofprofoundregrettoourexperiencedcolonialswhoseeinitanoverweeningmenacetotheprestigeofthewhiterace. Militaryauthoritycannotintervenedirectlyinthisquestion,butitcanthroughthecivilauthoritiesexercisesomeinfluenceonthepopulation.

Notes1.Theterms“AfricanAmerican”and“Black”willbeusedinterchangeablythroughoutthispaper.2.SeeAppendixB,“Awake”forthecompletetextofhiseditorial.3.SeeAppendixB,”ResolutionsoftheWashingtonConference,1917”foracompletelistofthe

demandsmadeattheconference.4.Theregimentwouldlaterbenamedthe369thInfantryRegiment.Theyaremorepopularly

knownasthe“HarlemHellfighters.”5.SeeAppendixB,“FrenchDirective”forthecompletetext.6.Mjagkij,N.(2011).LoyaltyinTimeofTrial:TheAfricanAmericanExperienceDuringWorld

WarI.Plymoth:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishingGroup,Inc.7.DuBois,W.(1917).Awake.Crisis,270-271.8.JimCrowTrainingCamps-No!(1917,April3).ChicagoDefender.9.ResolutionsoftheWashingtonConference.(1917).Crisis,59-60.10.LINARD.(1919).SecretInformationConcerningBlackAmericanTroops.Crisis,16-17.

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Misty L. Heil

Faculty Mentors: SusanDewey,PhD,Gender andWomen’sStudies

Research Topic: “There’sNoShelterforHookers”: SocialServicesGapsandAccessBarriersAmong Street-InvolvedWomen

Abstract Baseduponthreeyearsofethnographicresearchwithapproximatelyonehundredwomenengagedinstreet-basedsexworkandproblematicsubstanceuse,thisarticleexploreswomen’sperceptionsofandexperienceswithsocialservicesgapsandaccessbarriers.Womenidentifiedserviceprovisiongapswithrespecttohousing,safety,mentalhealth,employment-relatedskillstraining,andharmreduction.Yetwomenalsodescribedbarrierstoaccessingavailableservicesaspartofatotalizinganditerativeprocesswherebyrestrictiveserviceprovisionterms,previ-ousnegativeexperienceswithserviceproviders,criminalization,stigma,andlackofknowledgeaboutavailableservicesactivelydiscouragedthemfromhelp-seeking,evenwhentheyfeltthattheywantedorneededassistance.Findingssuggestaneedforfurthercriticalexplorationofthecomplexmeansbywhichthestate,andsocietymorebroadly,continuestoabsolveitselfofre-sponsibilityforstreet-involvedwomenwhoviolateitslawsandmoralpractices,therebyholdingthemresponsiblefortheirownvictimization.

Key words:Street-involvedwomen;sexwork;socialservices;homelessness;addiction IknowwhatIwannado.It’sjustthething,Idon’thavethesupportsystem… wejustdon’thavealottaoptions.There’snoshelter.There’snoshelterforhookers! (Brandy,personalcommunication)

Brandy’sdecade-longstrugglewithhomelessness,drugaddiction,alengthycriminalrecordofprostitutionarrests,andtwochildreninfostercare,leftherwithnoshortageofnegativeexperienceswithsocialservicesprovision.Hersimpleassertionthat“there’snoshelterforhookers”speaksvolumesaboutthelackofresourcesavailabletostreet-involvedwomen,definedasadultfemaleswhoexchangesexforcashordrugsaspartoftheirstruggleswithprecarioushousingorhomelessness,addiction,compromisedmentalandphysicalhealth,andcriminaljusticesysteminvolvement.Socialservicesproviders,definedasthosewhosepaid

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workinvolvesproviding(orassistancewithlocating)governmentorcharitablebenefits,faceindisputablydifficultchoiceswhenworkingwithstreet-involvedwomen,whoseparticipationinillegalactivitiesoftendirectlyresultsfromtheirsocialexclusion.Yetstreet-involvedwomenalmostuniversallyreportthatsocialservicesprovidersoftenfailtoadequatelyaddressthesechallenges.

Introduction Analysispresentedinthisarticlederivesfromdatacollectedthroughthreeyearsofethnographicresearchwithapproximatelyonehundredstreet-involvedwomen,andexplorestheirperceptionsofandexperienceswithsocialservicesgapsandbarrierstoaccessingavailableservices.Womenidentifiedsignificantserviceprovisiongapsintheareasofhousing,safety,mentalhealth,employment-relatedskillstraining,andharmreduction.Theirdescriptionsofthesegapsaspartofaninterconnectedandtotalizingsystemresembleswhat(Author2)haselsewheredescribedasanexclusionaryregime,adensecoalescenceofpunitiveforceswhichinvolvesbothgovernanceintheformofthecriminaljusticesystemandengagementwiththecourtsandotherstateagents,andregularpatternsofaction,includingmyriadformsofstigma(Author2citation).Giventheserealities,itisunsurprisingthatwomenreportedthatbarrierstoavailableservicescomprisetheirunacceptableorunrealisticterms,disillusionmentresultingfrompreviousnegativeexperiences,criminalizationandstigma,and,lessfrequently,lackofknowledgeaboutavailableservices.

Literature Review Thisarticlemakesaninterdisciplinarycontributiontothreemainbodiesofliterature,onsocialdeterminantsofhealth,socialandhealthcareservicesforcriminalizedwomen,andtherapeuticgovernance,allofwhichhavedirectimplicationsforbothfeministandmedical-anthropologyspecifically,andpublichealthmoregenerally.Thesocialdeterminantsofhealthliteratureemphasizesthatstreet-basedsexwork,problematicsubstanceuse,andviolenceworkintandemasmutuallyreinforcingagentsofgenderedandracializedharms(Romero-Daza2003;Cusick&Hickman2005;Singer2006).Relatedsocialepidemiologicalperspectivesontheimpactofsocial,structural,andinterpersonalviolenceonstreet-involvedwomen’swell-beinglikewiseexamineshowtheseintersectingforcesfunctiontocreatea“riskenvironment”(Rhodes2002)inwhichindirectviolencecompoundswomen’srisksofphysicalviolenceanddrug-relatedharms(Romero-Daza,Weeks&Singer2005;Rhodesetal.2012). Street-involvedwomenfaceanadditionalsetofrisksthatstemdirectlyfromtheirengagementinillegalsexworkanddrugusebehaviors.Researchstronglyindicatesthatcriminalizationdecreaseswomen’sabilitiestouse(ortonegotiatetheuseof)harmreduction

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materialssuchassteriledrugparaphernaliaandcondoms,increasestheirriskofincarcerationandassociatednegativelifeoutcomes,andfurtherreinforcesthestigmaandsocialexclusiontheyalreadyexperience(Blankenship&Koester2002;Shannonetal.2008a;Shannonetal.2008b).Studiesalsodemonstratethatwomenofcolorfacefurtherheightenedrisksasaconsequenceoftheirstreetinvolvement(Clarkeetal.2012;Craibetal.2003). Literatureonsocialandhealthcareservicesforcriminalizedwomendemonstratesthataccessbarriersoftenstemfromthesameproblemsthatservicesaimtoameliorate,includinghomelessness,addictions,andpoverty(Kurtzetal.2005).Additionalaccessbarriersincludemisinformationormisconceptions(Shannonetal.2005),thepsychologicalimpactsoftrauma(Stebbins2010),andthelackofinvolvementinprogramorservicesdesignbystreet-involvedwomenthemselves(Rabinovitch&Strega2004).Yet,asexemplifiedbyliteraturethatadoptsatherapeuticgovernanceperspective,thesocialservicesandcriminaljusticesectorshavebeguntoexplicitlyintersectoverthecourseofthepastdecadeintheformofcourt-mandatedprostitutiondiversionprogramsandtransitionalhousingfacilitiesspecificallytargetedtowardwomenseekingtoendtheirsexworkinvolvement(Oselin2009;McNaughton&Sanders2007). Giventhatatleastsomestudieshavefoundthatengagementincommunity-basedsubstanceabusetreatmentprogramsreducedthefrequencywithwhichwomenengagedinstreet-basedsexwork,itisnotsurprisingthatalongstandingpushonthepartoffeministcriminologiststofocusonwomen’suniquecircumstancesnowenjoysoperationalizationintheformofsuchcourt-mandatedprograms(Arnoldetal.2000;Burnetteetal.2009).Criticsofthediversionapproach,however,notethattheirtherapeuticfocusfunctionstopathologizeparticipantsasproblemsinneedoffixing(Lerum1998;Wahab2004).Suchcritiquesareevenmoremeaningfulinlightofevidencethatstreet-involvedwomensometimeshavelengthyhistoriesofinvolvementwithstate-sponsoredinstitutionalsettings,includingfostercareandincarceration(Cohan&Lutnick2009;Dodsworth2012). Thetherapeuticgovernanceliteraturefurtherobservesthatstreet-involvedwomenmayhavegoodreasontodistrustasocialservicessystemalignedwithcriminaljusticeinterests,particularlyasitpositionsthemasbothvictimsoftraumaticlifeeventsthatledtotheirsexworkanddrugusebehaviors,andcriminalswhomustparticipateinstate-sponsoredinterventionsandrehabilitationprogramstoimprovethemselves.Byprioritizingstate-mandatedvaluesoverwomen’sowngoalsandlivedrealities,suchprogrammaticinitiativesunderminethelikelihoodofwomen’sself-actualizationwithinorasaresultofthem(McKim2008;Sered&Norton-Hawk2011).Ourresearchidentifiedagapinthesethreebodiesofliterature,whichfocusalmostexclusivelyoneithertheconsiderablehealthandsafetyrisksfacedbyactivelystreet-involvedwomen,orontheexperiencesofwomenwhoarefullycompliantwithserviceprovisionprograms.By

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presentingtheperspectivesofwomenwhohaveexperienceswithservicesbutwhoremainstreet-involved,thisarticleunitesandbuildsupontheseliteraturesinwaysthatmayoffersignificantrecommendationsforsocialservicesproviders.

Methods Theongoingmulti-yearstudythatinformsthisarticleemploysagroundedtheoryandparticipatoryapproachthathaditsinceptionthroughparticipantobservation,inwhichoneoftheresearcherslivedforaminimumofthreedaysaweek(asherteachingschedulepermitted)overthecourseofayearinatransitionalhousingfacilityforwomenleavingthesexindustry.Shesleptinafutoninabackofficesoastoavoidtakingspacefromanotherwoman,anarrange-mentalsoservedanethicalresearchfunctioninthatitdifferentiatedherfromotherresidentsinawaythatmadethemawarethatshewasnotinthesamedirestraitsastheywere;likewise,hersleepingatthefacilityratherthangoinghomelikemanagerialstaffcommunicatedtoresidentsthatshedidnothavedirectauthorityoverthem.Fromthatliminallocationbetweenstaffandresident,shealsoactivelyinformedresidentsofherdesiretolearnandwriteaboutthelivesofstreet-basedsexworkers,whichthemajorityofwomenenthusiasticallysupported. Next,theresearchersemployedtheculturalknowledgeandembodiedpracticeslearnedinthetransitionalhousingfacilitytocarryout50semi-structuredinterviewswithwomeninthestreetenvironment.Theresearchers,includingaformerneighborhoodresidentwhoworksataserviceprovisionprogramforsexworkers,recruitedinterviewparticipantsbywalkingslowlydownthestreet.Aftermakingeyecontactwithapotentialinterviewparticipant,theyintroducedthemselvesasresearcherandoutreachworker,andofferedarapport-buildingcigarettetothepotentialrespondentastheyexplainedpurposeofthestudy.Noneofthewomenapproachedrefusedtoparticipate,andallreceivedinformationabouttheserviceprovisionprogramaswellasasmallplasticbagfromtheprogramcontainingthreecondoms,deodorant,andinexpensivecosmetics,and,sodaandsnacksduringtheinterview.Manyintervieweessaidthattheyfeltthestudywasimportantandbroughttheirfriendsandco-workerstoparticipate,facilitatingasnow-ballsampleapproach. Theresearchersaskedgeneralquestionsaboutthestreetincomegenerationandsurvivalstrategiesasarespectfulmeanstoallowwomenthemselvestomakethedecisionaboutwhattodiscloseregardingtheirinvolvementinillegalandstigmatizedactivitiesaswellastheirlivesmoregenerally.Allwomenpermittedaudio-recordingoftheinterview,whichtheresearchersjointlytranscribedandthencodedusingapproximately35keyemergentthemes.Thismethodologicalapproachresultedinanalysisofserviceprovisiongapsandaccessbarrierspresentedbelow.

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Service Provision Gaps Interviewrespondentsrarelyhesitatedinresponsetotheresearchers’questionaboutwhatthewomenregardedascurrentlyunavailable,butnecessary,services.Housing,safety,mentalhealth,employment-relatedskillstraining,andharmreductionemergedassignificantlyunderservedorunaddressedissues.Whileitisanalyticallyexpedienttoseparatetheseservicepro-visiongapsbycategory,womendidnotnecessarilyexperiencetheseissuesascompletelydiscreteduetotheirmutuallyreinforcinganditerativenature.Awomanexperiencinghomelessness,forinstance,mayfindthathercriminalrecordbarsherfromparticulartypesofjobsortransitionalhousingprograms,creatingasituationthatfurthercompromisesherhealthandsafety.

Housing Allofthewomenwereexperiencinghomelessnessorwereprecariouslyhousedinamotelroom,shelter,orwithfriends,atthetimeoftheinterview.Whilenoneofthewomenreportedactuallysleepingoutdoorsduetothecoldweatherconditions,affordable,long-termhousingwasthemostprevalentconcernforallparticipants,andonethattheyfelthadatotalizingnegativeimpactupontheirabilitiestofindworkorfeelsecureintheworld.Respondentsrepeatedlyexpressedconfidenceintheirabilitiestohandletheirotherlifeissuesoncetheyhadobtainedhousing,whichtheysawasaprimaryconcernanddrainontheirincomeandtimeduetothecostofthearea’snightlyrentalmotels.Asonewomanconciselynoted:

Firstofall,that’sthemostimportantfuckin’thing,that’swhatwe’reouthereworkin’for! Weneedaplacetolive.Wedon’tcareaboutfoodstamps,wedon’tcareaboutsome motherfuckerhandin’outsomebenefits,whatwecareaboutishavingaplacetogo. Somewheretolayyourfuckin’headdown,thatisours,thatisours.Period.Imean,at theendofthefuckin’night,everythingelsecanbetakencareof.

Likethisrespondent,womenfrequentlymentionedtheneedtopayformotelhousingasakeyreasonforengaginginstreet-basedsexwork.Onewomanobservedthatamajorconcernwithinthetransactionalsexualactinvolvedthehopethattheclientwouldhelpawoman“topayforaroom,tojustgetsomewheretosleep”whetherthroughallowinghertoremainovernightinthemotelroomherentedfortheirsexualencounterorbyprovidingherwithextramoneytopayforaroomofherown.Womenfrequentlymentionedthisasadesirableoutcome,particularlygiventheirconcernsthatstayinginasheltermightexposethosewithactivewarrantstothethreatofarrest.Onerespondentdescribedanidealsituationasoneinwhichtherewere“noquestionsaskedwhenyoucomein,andyoucansleepforaminute,shower…withoutfearofthelaw.” Manyofthewomeninthisstudydescribedtheabsenceoffamilysupport,which,inmanyofthewomen’swords,atleastpartiallyresultedintheirprecarioushousingsituation.A

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majorityofrespondentswhochosetosharepersonalinformationabouttheirownlifetrajectoriesreportedachainofeventsthatinvolveddisputeswithafamilymemberorintimatepartnerthatpushedtherespondentfromasituationinwhichpovertyandprecarioushousingwerealreadyprevailingconcernstooneinwhichhomelessnessbecametherespondent’sbiggestproblem.Thisshift,inturn,oftenprecipitatedtherespondent’sentryintothesheltersystemandwhatalmostallwomenregardedasasystemofsurveillanceinwhichtheydidnotwanttoinvolvethemselves:

Theygetmoreinvolvedinyourlife,theyonlyshutyourassdown,theydon’thelpyou. It’slikebein’inprison.Theydon’twannahelpyou.Theydon’thelpyou.Anymoneyyou makeoveradollartheyshutyourfuckin’insuranceoff,they’llshutyourfoodstamps off,they’llshutyourfuckin’everythingoff.Evenifyoumake$400amonthregular money,theydon’tcare.IknowIhadapart-timejobthoughbecauseaslongasImake under$999whenIwasapplyingforsocialsecurity,Icanmakethat.Butitwastobe underthat.ButlikeIsaid,theydon’tcare.It’sallabouttheprofittheymakefrom prosecutingus.

Indepictingshelter,andthebroadersocialservicessystemofwhichitisapart,asaprofit-generatingmachine,thisrespondentunderstandablyexperiencesstreetinvolvementasamoredesirablechoice.Yetawoman’ssubscriptiontothisworldviewcanalsocomeatconsider-ablecoststoherwellbeing.

Safety Womenallreportedanalmostcompletelackofservicestoprotectormaintaintheirhealthandwellbeing,whichtheydescribedasthreatenedbyviolence,inadequatementalhealthtreatmentormedications,andlimitedaccesstocondoms.Respondentsdescribedviolenceasanalmostinevitableoccurrence,leadingawomantoobservethatimprovedaccesstomedicalserviceswouldbe“good,youknow,causetherapeshappen,thebeatingshappen.”Thisperva-sivebeliefpromptedanotherparticipanttosimplystate,“weneedbodyguards.”Themajorityofwomenwhoparticipatedintheresearchreportedworkingaloneandinareaswithhighlevelsofdrugtraffickingandstreetviolence,factorsthatmadewomenmorevulnerablewhenworkingonthestreetlateatnight. Despitehighreportedlevelsofviolence,womenfeltthatpoliceofficerswouldnothelpthemasaresultoftheirparticipationinillegal,stigmatizedactivities.Themostcommonsuggestionforservicestodealwithviolenceinvolvedinformationaboutself-defenseforwomen,suchthattheycouldbebetterpreparedtoprotectthemselves.Onewomandescribedthecontentofsuchaninitiativeasinvolving“littleprogramsthat’llteachyou,likeintimeofanykindof

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distress,youknow,likewearawhistle,mace.”Manywomenspokeabouttheneedforasafe,re-cuperativelocationforwomentogo,followinganincidenceofviolentvictimization.Onewomandescribedthepotentialforsuchaplaceas“somewheretocomeifyoujustgotbeatupanddon’twannadeal,youknow,withthelaw.”Manywomancomplainedthatoneexistingdrop-incenterforstreet-involvedwomenwassofarawaythat,unlessaclientdrovethemthere,“yougottabesuperdesperate”toeitherwalkseveralmilesorfindpoorlyconnectedpublictransportationnec-essarytoreachit.

Mental Health Mentalhealthissues,includingthosestemmingfromviolenttrauma,emergedasaseriousconcernamongwomeninterviewed.Oneparticipantconciselysummarizedthisissuebysimplynotingthat“mentalhealthservicesshouldbemoreaccessible.”Respondentsnotedthatconsistentaccesstorequiredmedicationspresentedchallenges,ashavingnopermanentaddress,regularphoneservice,ortransportationmadekeepingappointmentschallenginginwaysthatsocialservicesprovidersdidnotfullygrasp:

[mimicscondescendingvoice]“goovertothisbuildingatthistime”,really? They’renotgoingtomakethatappointment.Iwouldn’tknowifmaybe,it’snotlike [asocialserviceprovider]cangotoahotelandsay“hey,here’syourmedication” becauseI’minthishotelforthenight,Idon’tknowwhereI’mgoingtobeintwoweeks.

Theaddeddynamicofsubstanceabusefurthercomplicatesthesituationformanywomen;asonerespondentobserved,“ninetimesoutoftenyou’renotgoingtoremembertogotoyourappointmentscauseyou’reoutgettinghigh.Imean,mostpeoplewhoareoutgettinghigharen’tgoingtoremembertotaketheirmedication.” Respondentsalsodescribedmentalhealthcounselingandtalktherapyasnecessary,butmissing,elements,suchthatwomencouldhavemore“beentheredoneanddidit,themkindoftalks”withotherswhohadthemselvesexperiencedorhadempathyforthestreet-involved.Manyparticipantsexpressedasenseofbeingontheirowninthestreetenvironment,leavingthemfeelingisolatedandunabletoaskforhelpevenwhentheyneededorwantedassistance. Womenalsoexpressedaneedforcondomstobemadeavailable,astheywereespeciallycognizantoftherisksassociatedwithhavingunprotectedsex.Accesstocondomsissurprisinglylimited,asmanystoresintheareadonotcarrycondomsbecausetheyareanitemthatisfrequentlyshoplifted.Womenclaimthatservicesthatdoprovidecondomslimithowmanycanbegivenouttoeachwomenbecausecarryingmorethanthreecondoms,considered“prostitutionparaphernalia”bypolice,putswomenatriskofarrest.

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Employment-Related Skills Training Noneofthewomenwhoparticipatedinthisstudyworkedforwagesatthetimeoftheinterviewandallgeneratedtheirincomethroughstreet-basedsexwork,theft,ordrug-relatedtransactions.Yetalmostallwomenhadpreviouslyengagedinlegalformsofwork,andmany-expressedthehopethattheywouldeventuallydosuchworkagainatsomepointintheirlives.Mostexpectedthistransitionbackintothelegalworkforcetoinvolveparticularrestrictionsandexpectationsthattheyworriedtheywouldnotbeabletomeet.Someparticipantswereskepticalthattheywouldeverbeableto,asonewomanputit,“worksomejobinaregularbusiness,likeadepartmentstore”iftheydidnothavethesupportneededtoputtogetheraresumé,completejobapplications,andprepareforthetypeofinteractionsandself-presentationexpectedduringinterviews. Anumberofwomenfeltthattheyrequiredtrainingandassistanceinordertoengageinlegalincomegenerationstrategies.Inadditiontolackofapermanentaddress,criminalrecords,andassociatedchallengesinobtainingsuchemployment,womenwhohavebeenstreet-involvedforlengthierperiodsoftimefacethedualproblemofextensiveresumégapsthattheymustexplaintoprospectiveemployers.Transitioningfromtheculturalenvironmentofthestreet,wheretheabilitytocleverlysubvertthelawisbothlaudedandhighlyprized,tothesubserviencerequiredbythelowwageservicesectoreconomy,presentsadditionalchallenges.Onewomannotedthatthistransitionrequiredsupport,whichshedescribedas,

…morejobsearchplaces,placesthatcouldactuallyhelpyoufilloutaresumé,learn howtodoallthatstuffsoyoucouldtrytogetajob.Eventemporaryinternshipswould behelpful.Ithinktheyshouldmakeaprogramforwomen,somekindofspecialprogram tohelpladiesoutandteachthemaboutthings,just,youknow,tohelpthembein’out there,helptheminanotherway.

Womenexpressedfrustrationthatleavinganadmittedlydifficultlifestylecharacterizedbyprecarioushousingsituation,multiplesocioeconomicvulnerabilities,activitiesthatrequirevigilancetowardspoliceofficers,andstigma,presentedsomanychallenges.Yetsheltersandothersocialservicesthatwomenwereawareofrarelyofferedassistanceinsuchtransformativeendeavors,leavingmanyrespondentswiththeimpressionthatsuchfacilitiesarelittlemorethanholdingcentersofferingaplacetosleep.Asonewomanobserved,“therearenoclassesthere,there’snorealhelpthere,it’sjustaplacetolayyourass,thengetupandleavethenextmorning,you’rebackoutthereuntilyougettocomebackinatfiveorsixo’clock.”

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Harm Reduction Allrespondentsdescribedexperiencingstigmaasaresultoftheirstreetinvolvementandstronglyfeltthattheirhelp-seekingendeavorswereinfluencedbysocialservicesproviders’nega-tiveperceptionsofthem.Withoutactuallyusingthephrase“harmreduction”,womenadvocatedfornonjudgmentalservicesthataccountedfortheeverydayrealitiesinherentinstreetinvolve-ment.Oneparticipantputsitthisway:

Don’tevenoffertohelpmeifyoucannotevengothroughthesameprocess,orhave beenthroughthesameprocessIhavebeenthrough.Totrytocometoyou,toswallowmy pride,togetoffthestreet,andfuckin’cometoyouandsay,“Ineedhelp,canyouplease fuckin’helpme?”Andthenbeturnedaway![mimicscondescendingtone]“You’rea hooker,yougotnoincome,yougotnothin’,we’rejustgonnatakeyourkidsandtherest ofwhateveryougot.”

Thisspeakerpaintsavividportraitofmarginalizationinwhichasystemunwillingtoacceptherinvolvementinsexworknotonlyrefusesherassistancebutalsoactivelyworkstofurtherdestabilizeheralreadydifficultlife. Thevastmajorityofwomeninterviewedunderstandablyexpressedadesiretofeelthatserviceproviders“giveadamn”,asmanyrespondentsputit.Manyexpressedafeelingofisola-tionbroughtonbytheiralmostcompletionoccupationandexhaustionbysurvivalactivities,in-cludingsolicitingclients,avoidingarrest,andprocuringdrugs,food,andotherbasicdailyneeds.Womendescribedaneedforinteractionandconversationwithotherwomenwhohaveeitherpreviouslybeenstreet-involvedorremainapartofstreetlife,essentiallyadvocatingforapeersupportnetwork.Onewomandescribethepotentialforsuchanetworkas“likeawomen’sgrouporagroup,sowhentheyfeelliketheywannagetout,theycangotothisplace.” Severalwomenalsosuggestedtheestablishmentofahotlinethatwomencouldcallinor-dertoreceiveemotionalsupportfromanunderstandingandempathicperson.Arespondentsaidthisserviceisnecessary“causewegetstressedoutoutthere,andourmen,ourkids,peopledon’tknowwhatwegothroughonthemstreets.”Thisideawasreiteratedbyseveralparticipants,whosuggestedthatwomenwithhistoriesofstreet-involvementshouldstaffsuchanendeavor:“ex-hookersandstuff,theycoulddoahotline,because,weneedsomebodytotalkto,andit’shard.” Participantsrepeatedlystressedthebeliefthattheirintimatepartnersandothersintheirlivesarenotsympathetictothetroublesthattheyencounteronadailybasis.Thiswomanclearlyexplainedboththepreferredlanguageforandthedirectbenefitsofabrochuredirectingwomentoahotlinenumbertocall:

Andhavethatinthebrochure,say,“ifyouneedsomeonetotalkto,oryourpimpdone beatyouupandyoujustwannatalktosomebody”,that’dbecool.Thatwouldreallybe

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coolbecausesometimesthesepimpsdon’tunderstandthatsometimesyoubeengonetwo hoursandyouain’tmadenomoney.

Thedesireforsuchharmreductionsupport,whichdoesnotrequirewomentomakeimmediateandsubstantialchangestotheirbehaviors,alsoextendedtorespondents’recom-mendationsforimprovedsubstanceabuseservices.Onewomannotedthatthemostpotentiallybeneficialchangetoexistingservicescouldcomefromembracingaharmreductionmodelthatincludesanempathicapproachtoaddiction:

Givin’emsecurity,andshowin’emthattheycanchangeand,Imean,that’swhatIwould want,somebodytoshowthattheycare,andit’sabigstepbecause,thedrugsissomethin’ that’shardtoovercome.That’sthebiggestproblem.It’sallbecauseofdrugsouthere. They’renotjustdoin’ittosurvive,it’sbecauseit’sadrugproblem.

Womenalsoexpressedfrustrationaboutalackofinformationdisseminatedinaccessibleways.Participantsinthisstudyreportedminimalinteractionswithserviceprovidersthroughoutreachendeavors;asonewomanputit,“westreetpeople,they[serviceproviders]don’tcomeouthere.”Theabsenceofregularoutreachonlyperpetuatesthelackofknowledgethatstreet-involvedwomenhaveregardingservicesavailabletothemandthusfunctionstocompoundtheirfeelingsofisolation.

Barriers to Accessing Services Participantsintheresearchemphasizedthatevenwhenserviceswereavailableandeasytoreachonpoorlyconnectedpublictransportation,otherfactorsinhibitedthemfromseekingtheseout.Aswiththeirdescriptionsofserviceprovisiongaps,womendescribedservicebarriersasoverlappingsuchthateachnegativeexperiencewithserviceprovidersinformedsubsequentinteractionsorthedesiretoseekassistanceatall.Womennotedfourbroadbarriersthatrestrictedorcompletelypreventedthemfromengaginginhelp-seekingbehaviors,includingrestrictiveserviceprovisionterms,previousnegativeexperiences,criminalizationandstigma,andlackofknowledgeaboutavailableservices.

Restrictive Service Provision Terms Womenspokeatlengthaboutserviceproviders’restrictiveorevenunrealisticrequire-ments,includingmandatorydrugtesting,strictrulesaboutadmittancetimesandkeepingappointments,threatsposedbymixedgendershelters,andmandatorydisclosureofemotionalinnerstatesandpasttrauma.Respondentsgenerallypositionedstreet-involvementasprovidingmoreautonomyanddignitythanexistingalternatives,particularlyasitallowedthemtocontinueusingdrugsandlivingindependentlywithmoneytheyearnedthemselves.

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Accordingtomanywomen,themostproblematicaspectofexistingservicesinvolvedtheirrestrictionsonwomen’sbodilyautonomyinwaysthatpositionedthemastroubleddeviantsinneedofcontrol.Respondentswerehighlysensitizedtothisreality;asonewomanexplainedherreasonsforavoidingsheltersorothersocialservicestargetedatthepoor,“it’sapridethingforme…Iain’tabouttobefittin’inwiththemderelictsinshelter.”Thisrathercommonlyex-pressedsentimentallowedwomentopositionthemselvesasdistinctfromthoseinseeminglymoredesperatecircumstances. Mandatorydrugtestingpresentedasignificantobstacletoseekingservices,aswomenreportedthatmanyprogramsorovernightsheltersrefusedadmittancetoindividualswhoseurinetestedpostedforcontrolledsubstances.Thisrequirementseemedcounterintuitivetowomen,allofwhomusedillegaldrugs,leadingonewomantonote,“you’recomingoffthestreet,ofcourseyou’renotgoingtobecleanandsober,hello!”Anotherexpressedfrustrationatrequirementsthatseemedtoexcludethoseitostensiblyaimedtohelp:

…youhavetodoadrugandalcoholscreenwhenyoufirstgoinandifyouhaveany drugsinyoursystemthentheytellyou,youknow,well,wecan’tacceptyou,andcome backin30days.Well,wheredoesthatputawoman?Imean,ifyou’recomin’fromthe street,youhavetofigurethatthey’vebeendoin’somethin’totrytosurvive.

Strictrulesaboutadmittancetimestoshelterlikewiseposedaproblemtowomen,whoexpressedfrustrationthat“yougottabethereatacertaintimeandtheykickyououtatfivep.m.” Almostallrespondentsnotedthattheindependentqualityofstreetinvolvement,whereinmanywomenfeelthattheychoosewhen,where,andwithwhomtheyengagetoearnmoney,didnotinvolvethesametimeandbehavioralrestrictionsnecessitatedbysocialservicesproviders.“Evenjustaphonecallishardforwomen,orkeepin’anappointment”,onewomanexplained.Anotherechoedmanyotherrespondentswhenfurtherelaboratingonhowsuchtimelimitationsandotherrequirements,oftendescribedasinculcatingasenseofresponsibility,justfurtheralien-atedwomen.“We’realreadybrokedown”sheexplained,“Wedon’tneedtobetoreallthewaydowntotheground.We’realreadythere.” Fromthisperspective,streetinvolvementcertainlyappearstooffermoredignity,andwithfarfewerrestraintsonpersonalautonomyanddecision-making.Manywomenaccord-inglyobservedthattheyhadlittleincentivetochangetheirwayoflife,whichprovidedbothanincomeandalevelofindependencethattheyregardedasunachievablebyanyothermeans.“Idon’twannagoaskforpublicassistanceforsomethin’thatIcangosellmyasstomakemoneyfor,”onewomanobserved,whileanotherdescribedincomeearnedfromstreet-basedsexworkas“quickandeasy,alotmorethanaweek’spaycheckataregularjob.”

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Respondentsalsonotedthattheirstreetinvolvementprovidedthemwithalevelofconfidenceandflexibilitythat,liketheincomegeneratedfromit,wasdifficulttomatch.Awomanobservedthat,“it’shardtoconvinceawomantogetoffthestreetsandgiveupthatmoney…there’salotofexcitementtoit,alotofpower.Itkindoffeedsyourego,too.”Whiletheserewardsfunctionedtoneutralizeorrationalizerisksincurred,thiswasnotthecasewiththemixedgendersheltersthatwomenregardedasdangerousandtobeavoidedatallcosts.Asonewomanputit,suchfacilitiesare“likeawarehousefullamen,andyouwantmetosleeprightthere?Oh,no!No,man,I’dratherjustwalkthestreets.”PreviousNegativeExperiences Forthesewomen,onenegativeexperiencewithserviceproviderscanhaveextremelydamagingandpermanenteffects.Asonewomancharacterizedherexperience,“theyarelookin’forareasontofuckin’kickyourassout.Assoonastheyletyouin,assoonastheyletyouknow,Imeantheyareonyourass.”Somewomenhavehadtheirchildrentakenfromthem,chargespressedagainstthem,spenttimeininstitutionalsettingsincludingfostercareandvariousformsofincarceration,orhavebeenexcludedfromservicesbecauseoftheirsexworkinvolvement.Onewomanconciselysummarizedherdisillusionmentwithsocialservicesprovidersastheproductofherownnegativeexperiences:

Theydon’thelpyoudoshit.Theydon’thelpyoudoanything!Ihadajob,okay,Ican getajob,Igotskills,Igotexperience.Butwillanybodyfuckin’helpme?CanIgetinto shelter,canIdoanything?No!No,youcan’tevendoanything!Instead,Ilosteverything thatIloved.Mylife,mykids,mybelongings,myvalues,mymorals,everythingwentout thefuckin’windowwhenIgotinthesefuckin’shelters.Becausetheywon’thelpyou: theironlyaimistotakemothersawayfromtheirchildren,andkeepcriminalsoffthe streetforthenight,thatisit.

Suchaccountscontributetoacorpusofknowledgesharedamongstreet-involvedwomen,whosometimesseekoneanotherouttoinquireabouthowparticularprogramsandservicestreatthosewhohavebeenengagedinsexwork.Forinstance,womenfrequentlydiscussedacourt-mandateddiversionprogramthatthecitycourtprovidedasasentencingalternativeforwomenchargedwithprostitution.Theprogramrequiresasix-monthresidentialstayinatransitionalhousingfacilitywithmanyotherwomen,allofwhomhavereceivedthissentencingalternativeandmanyofwhomhave,atsomepoint,workedtogetherinthestreetenvironment.Womenwholeavetheprogrampriortocompletionmustgotojailtoservetheirsentenceandreceiveacriminalrecordthatincludesaprostitutionconviction. Nonetheless,somewomenpreferjailtosharinglivingspacewithotherwomentheyhavepreviouslyworkedwithonthestreet,andparticipatinginthemandatoryself-disclosure

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oftherapeuticgroups.Onewomandescribedgoingtojailafterleavingthehousebecausetherewere“toomanywomen,Idon’tlikethetoomanywomenenvironment.”Somewomendescribednegativeexperienceswithresidentsinthisprogramcontinuingtheirdruguseandassociatedactivities,which,intheiropinions,preventedrealchangesfromtakingplaceintheirlivesiftheydesiredthem. Otherspreferredjailtoarestrictivetransitionalhousingenvironmentthatrequiredsometimesemotionaldiscussionsaboutthepasttraumaandabusethathad,intheviewoftheprogram,ledtowomen’sengagementinsexwork.Yetsuchdisclosurepresentsveryrealriskstostreet-involvedwomen,asdisclosinginformationabouttheir(orothers’)involvementincriminalactivitiesorhealthstatus,particularlywithrespecttosexuallytransmittedinfections,couldleadtoviolentrepercussionsinthestreetenvironment,where“snitches”donotfarewell.Asonewomannotedabouttheneedforawomanintheprogramtobeguardedinherstatements,“it’sconfidential,soyoucansaysomethingbutdon’tgocrazy.” Therapeuticgroupscandemanddisclosureofveryintimateinformationaboutsubstanceabuse,sexualandphysicalabuse,self-harm,andotherpotentiallyshame-inducingpersonaldetailsthatindividualparticipantsmaynotkeepconfidential.Awomanrecountedhowapub-licbreachoftrust,byawomanwithwhomshehadparticipatedinagrouptherapyprogram,resultedinherdecisiontoneveragainparticipateinagrouptherapeuticendeavor,noting,“she’ssittingattheotherbusstopwithhermanandshe’ssaying,‘she’scrazy,shecutsherself”and…Ijuststoppedgoingback.”

Criminalization and Stigma Street-involvedwomenarekeenlyawareofthesocialconsequencestheyfaceasaresultoftheirparticipationinmultiplesociallydevaluedandillegalactivities.Womenfrequentlyexpressedtheviewthattheillegalityoftheirworkprecludedthemfromreceivinghelp,oftenusingsomevariationofthephrase“it’sillegal,youcan’ttellnobody.”Theparticipantsalsocommentedonhowthecriminalizationoftheirbehaviornotonlyrestrictswhatkindofhelptheycanrequest,butalsolimitstheassistancethatserviceprovidersareabletooffer:

…withthelawsofthegovernmentthewayitis,Imeantheyhavetofollowbyacertain kindofguidelineyouknow,andthat,sometimesitcangetmisconstruedintoyour personalopinionofaperson.Whatcanyoudoaboutit?

Thisspeakerexplicitlylinkscriminalizationandstigmaasintersectingforcesthatinhibitwomen’sabilitiestoseekassistance,evenwhentheyhavebeenviolentlyvictimizedorother-wiseillegallyharmed.Womenclearlynotedthatcriminalrecordsandespeciallyactivewarrantsforarrestprecludeshelp-seeking;onewomansuccinctlynotedthat,nomatterwhathappened,

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“ifyougotanywarrantsyoubettersuckitin,okay,moveon.”Women’sbeliefintheincreasedlikelihoodoffacingarrestasaconsequenceofreportingassaultorothercrimeagainstthemconstitutedasignificantinhibitingfactorformanyrespondents. Apowerfulandprevalentbarrierthatallthewomeninthisstudyattestedtowasthepresenceofstigmawhenattemptingtoobtainservices.Manywomenfirmlybelievethatwhattheyoftenglossas“thesystem”,atermtheyusetorefertothecomplexintersectionsbetweenthesocialservicesandcriminaljusticeinstitutionsandmechanismsthatframetheirlivesinsuchpowerfulways,onlyaidsthosewhofitanarrowmodelofdeservinghelp.Intheirview,thistypi-callyinvolvesbeingdrugfree,law-abiding,andobedient,threecriteriathatruleoutthestreetinvolvementthatleadswomentoseekouthelpinthefirstplace.Arespondentdescribedsocialservicesprovidersasgroupinghelp-seekersintoartificiallyneatcategoriesof“good”and“bad”:

Buttheylookatitlike,“well,we’rejustgonnatryandweedoutthebadones.”Well,you knowwhat?Youcan’tweedoutthebadonesbecauseeventhebadonesneedhelp,and that’snotgivin’anyhelptoem.

Manyofthewomeninthisstudygenerallyexpressedtheirsensethatservicesprovidersdisrespectedandjudgedthem.Womenattributedthistothestigmaassociatedwithstreetlifegenerallyandstreet-basedsexworkspecifically,whichonewomansummarizedas“thegirlsthatwork,wehavesuchabadrap.Youknow,we’renotthedisgustingpeoplethatpeoplethinkweare,alotofushavegoodhearts.”Manywomendescribedstigmaasjustonemoreheavyweighttheyhadtocarryinthecourseoftheireverydaysurvivalstrategies,andmanyexpressedafeelingofbeingoverwhelmedbytheirproblems.Foranumberofrespondents,itcombinedwithanumberofconstraininglifefactorsthatresignedthemtoavoidingsocialservicesalltogether.Asonewomanputit,“whohastimeforallthatwhenyou’reouttherelivingonthestreets?Lackofknowledgeaboutavailableservices Whilemanyofthewomeninterviewedcouldreadilylistthelimitedservicesavailabletothemasaconsequenceoftheirhomelessness,addictions,andothermarginalizinglifefactors,othersfeltthattherewerefewplacesthatcouldofferthemwhattheyregardedassubstantialormeaningfulhelp.Womengenerallyknewaboutcourt-mandatedprogramsandserviceprovisiongroupsthatdirectlycontactedthemthroughoutreachactivities,andhadaclearsenseofwhattheseoffered.However,innumerousinstances,womenlocatedtheprobleminthemselvesratherthaninthesystemicculturalforcesthatcreatedatleastsomeaspectsoftheirsituation.Inthewordsofonerespondent,“Idon’tknowhow,Ijustknowthatthingsneedtochange,somehow,oneday.Theycan’tstaythesameforever.”

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Discussion and Concluding Thoughts Findingspresentedhereindicatethreepotentialareasforimprovedsocialservicesprovisionamongthosewhoworkdirectlywithstreet-involvedwomen,apopulationwithmultipleandoverlappingneedsthatpresentuniquechallenges.Yetsocialservicesprovidersmustconsiderthesechallengesintandemwiththeconsiderableresourcesthatwomenmustmobilizeastheyformulatetheireverydaysurvivalstrategieswhilesimultaneouslyfacingstruggleswithhomelessness,addiction,criminalrecords,aswellasotherlifeconstraints.Theissue,assuch,isnotthatstreet-involvedwomeneschewavailablehelp,butratherthatsuchassistancecomesatfartoohighacost. First,socialservicesprovidersmustcriticallyinspectthemodusoperanditheyemploywithstreet-involvedwomeninconjunctionwithitsunderlyingassumptions.Allofthewomenwhoseinsightsformthebasisforthisarticlewereactivelystreet-involvedatthetimeoftheinterview,andmanyofferedaratherdamningindictmentofsocialservicesproviders,whotheycharacterizeasjudgmentalanduncaringbureaucrats.Surelythesearetraitsthatmostsocialworkers,harmreductionpractitioners,andotherswhoworkwithstreet-involvedwomen,activelyeschew.Withaviewtowardcreatingandengaginginevidence-basedserviceprovisionprograms,suchcriticalinspectionmustnecessarilyentailathorough(andperhapspainful)explorationofwhetherserviceprovisiongoalsactuallyreflectwomen’sself-reportedneeds,ratherthanaprogram’smoralorpoliticalstance. Second,socialservicesprovidersmustcriticallyinterrogatetheassumptionsandbeliefsunderlyingprogramsthatfocusuponindividualwomen’s“readinesstochange”fromalifeofstreetinvolvementanditsaccompanyingrollercoasterofexcitement,toalifethat,moreoftenthatnot,demandssubserviencethroughemploymentinthelowwageservicesector.Studyfindingspresentedhereclearlyindicatethatalthoughnoneofthewomeninterviewedforthisarticleregardedtheirstreetinvolvementasdesirable,theytookenormous(andoftenwell-deserved)prideinthesurvivalskillstheydevelopedasaresultofit.Likewise,providersmustaskthequestionofhow,why,andwhatkindofchangeisabeneficialoutcomeforindividualwomen. Inordertoadvancetheseaimsandprovideevidence-basedknowledgeinsupportoftheirimplementationbysocialservicesproviders,academicresearchersmustfurtherexplorethecomplexmeansbywhichthestatecontinuestoabsolveitselfofresponsibilityforthosewhoviolateitsrules,therebyholdingthemresponsiblefortheirownvictimization.Avoluminousinterdisciplinaryliterature,concentratedprimarilyinpublichealthandthesocialsciences,hasalreadyclearlydocumentedthehealthandsafetyrisksthatstreet-involvedwomenroutinelyface,aswellastheadditionalharmscausedbycriminalizationandalackofrelevantsocialservices.Thetaskaheadinvolvesathoroughexplorationofthesocialandinstitutionalfactorsthatdirectlyenablethecontinuanceofsuchanexclusionaryregime.

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Blankenship,KimandStephenKoester2002CriminalLaw,PolicingPolicy,andHIVRisksinStreetWorkersandInjectionDrugUsers.JournalofLaw,MedicineandEthics30(4):548-559.

Burnette,Mandi,ReneeSchneider,ChristineTimko,andMarkIlgen2009ImpactofSubstance-UseDisorderTreatmentonWomenInvolvedinProstitution:SubstanceUse,MentalHealth,andProstitutionOneYearAfterTreatment.JournalOfStudiesOnAlcohol&Drugs70(1):32-40.

Cohan,DeborahandAlexandraLutnick2009Criminalization,LegalizationorDecriminalizationofSexWork:WhatFemaleSexWork-ersSayinSanFrancisco.ReproductiveHealthMatters17(33):38-46.

Clarke,Ross,ElizabethClarke,DominiqueRoe-SepowitzandRichardFey2012AgeatEntryintoProstitution:RelationshiptoDrugUse,Race,Suicide,EducationLevel,ChildhoodAbuse,andFamilyExperiences.JournalOfHumanBehaviorInTheSocialEnviron-ment,22(3):270-289.

Craib,Kevin,PatriciaSpittal,EvanWood,NancyLaliberte,RobertHogg,KathyLi,KaterineHeath,MarkTyndall,MichaelO’Shaugnessy,andMartinSchechter2003RiskFactorsForElevatedHIVIncidenceAmongAboriginalInjectionDrugUsersinVan-couver.CanadianMedicalAssociationJournal168(1):19-24.

CusickLindaandMatthewHickman2005“Trapping”inDrugUseandSexWorkCareers.Drugs:Education,PreventionandPolicy12:369-379.

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Dodsworth,Jane2012.PathwaysThroughSexWork:ChildhoodExperiencesandAdultIdentities.BritishJournalofSocialWork42(3):519-536.

Kurtz,Steven,HilarySurratt,MaronKileyandJamesInciardi2005BarrierstoHealthandSocialServicesforStreet-BasedSexWorkers.JournalofHealthCareforthePoorandUnderserved16(2):345-61.

Lerum,Kari1999Twelve-StepFeminismMakesSexWorkersSick:HowTheStateandTheRecoveryMove-mentTurnRadicalWomeninto“UselessCitizens.”Sexuality&Culture2:7-36.

McNaughton,CarolandTeelaSanders2007HousingandTransitionalPhasesOutof“Disordered”Lives:TheCaseofLeavingHome-lessnessandStreetSexWork.HousingStudies22(6):885-900.

Oselin,Sharon2009LeavingtheStreets:TransformationofProstituteIdentitywithintheProstitutionRehabili-tationProgram.DeviantBehavior30:379-406.

Rabinovitch,JannitandSusanStrega2004ThePEERSStory:EffectiveServicesSidesteptheControversies.ViolenceAgainstWomen10(2):140-59.

Rhodes,Tim2002The“RiskEnvironment”:AFrameworkforUnderstandingandReducingDrug-RelatedHarm.InternationalJournalofDrugPolicy20:193-201.

Rhodes,Tim,KarlaWagner,SteffaneeStrathdee,KateShannon,PeterDavidson,PhilippeBourgois2012StructuralViolenceandStructuralVulnerabilityWithintheRiskEnvironment:TheoreticalandMethodologicalPerspectivesForaSocialEpidemiologyofHIVRiskAmongInjectionDrugUsersandSexWorkers.InRethinkingSocialEpidemiology:TowardsaScienceofChange.PatriciaO’CampoandJamesDunn,eds.Pp.205-230.NewYork:Springer.

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Romero-Daza,Nancy2003“NobodyGivesaDamnifILiveorDie”:Violence,DrugsandStreet-LevelProstitutioninInnerCityHartford,Connecticut.MedicalAnthropology22:233-59.Romero-Daza,Nancy,MargaretWeeksandMerrillSinger2005ConceptualizingtheImpactofIndirectViolenceonHIVRiskAmongWomenInvolvedinStreetProstitution.AggressionandViolentBehavior10:153-70.

ShannonKate,ThomasKerr,ShariAllinott,JillChettiar,JeanShovellerandMarkTyndall2008aSocialandStructuralViolenceandPowerRelationsinMitigatingHIVRiskofDrug-UsingWomeninSurvivalSexWork.SocialScience&Medicine66(4):911-921.

Shannon,Kate,MelanieRusch,JeanShoveller,D.Alexson,K.Gibson,andMarkTyndall2008bMappingViolenceandPolicingasanEnvironmental-StructuralBarriertoHealthServiceandSyringeAvailabilityAmongSubstance-UsingWomeninStreet-LevelSexWork.Internation-alJournalofDrugPolicy19:140-157.

Shannon,Kate,VickiBright,JDuddy,andMarkTyndall2005AccessandUtilizationofHIVTreatmentandServicesAmongWomenSexWorkersinVancouver’sDowntownEastside.JournalofUrbanHealth82(3):488-97.

Singer,Merrill2006ADoseofDrugs,ATouchofViolence,ACaseofAIDS,Part2:FurtherConceptualizingtheSAVASyndemic.FreeInquiryinCreativeSociology34(1):39-51.

Stebbins,Jessica2010ImplicationsofSexualityCounselingWithWomenWhoHaveaHistoryofProstitution.FamilyJournal18(1):79-83.

Wahab,Stephanie2004TricksoftheTrade:WhatSocialWorkersCanLearnAboutFemaleSexWorkersThroughDialogue.QualitativeSocialWork3(2):139-160.

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Jenna Krieschel

Faculty Mentor: JeffSelden,PhD,Mathematics Graduate Student Mentor: RachelFarris

Research Topic: TimbreversusPitch intheViolinMiddleB

Abstract ThisstudywillexaminethedifferencesbetweenthetimbreandpitchofthemiddleBasplayedonboththeDandAstringsoftheviolin.Intermsofthisstudypitchwillberegardedasthefundamentalfrequencywithassociatedharmonicsorthe‘note’onthetreblecleft,andtimbrewillberegardedastheclarityofthesound.Itishypothesizedthattherewillbeadis-tinctobservabledifferencebetweenthetimbreandthepitchofthemiddleBwhenplayedondifferentstrings.ThepowerfunctionofthemiddleBwillbeestimatedfromboththeDandAstringsusingaviolinandbasicsoundrecordingsoftware,outliningphysicaldifferences.Thesemodelswillbeanalyzedfortheparametersthataccountforthephysicaldifferencesasheardbythehumanear.Thisresearchwillhelpdefinethecauseofdifferencesintimbreoftheviolinandprovideamathematicalinsightintothesoundoftheviolin.

Introduction Therearemanynotesontheviolinthatcanbeplayedonmorethanonestring.Whenbowingtheviolin,itisacommonpracticetousethefourthfingerpositioninplayingthenoteonthepreviousstringinsteadofplayingthatsamenoteontheopenstringitself.Thereisacommonbeliefamongplayersthatthesoundoftheopenstringnotesomehowsoundsdifferentifitisplayedusingthefourthfinger.Musicallythedifferenceisregardedasthetimbreoftheinstrument. Muchoftheworkdoneonthesoundoftheviolinwasdonenearlyseventy-fiveyearsagowithHermannVonHelmholtz.Hefoundthatthepartialtonesoftheviolaweredifferentfromtheviolin,andthat“...thisseemstobeconnectedwiththealteredqualityoftheinstrument.Unfortunatelythisinfluencecannotbeexpressednumerically.”(88)Sincethen,therehavebeenmanyadvancesintheabilitytolookatthesoundofaninstrument(BissingerandOliver10-15,Schmacher,GaroffandWoodhouse723-750).Thereisamuchbetterunderstandingoftimbre,buttherestillisn’tadirectquantifierforit.

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Itisalsolikelythattherearemanyfactorsinthesoundoftheviolin.Thesoundcanbeaffectedbytheamountofcontactithaswithotherobjects(BissingerandOliver12),theconsistencyofthebowingoftheinstrument(Helmholtz83)andeventhetemperatureoftheenvironmentitisbowedin(Schmacher,GaroffandWoodhouse749).Ifanaccuratequantifiabledifferenceintimbreistobefound,theseerrorsmustbeaccountedfor.

1. Material and Methods Tobeginthisstudy,soundsamplesofthemiddleBontheDandAstringwerecollected.ThemiddleBwaschosenforthepropertyofitbeingplayedusingafinger,orsoftstop,onboththeAandtheDstringbutmaintainstheabilitytobeaccuratelyintunewithrelativeeasiness.ThesampleswererecordedinonelargesoundfileusingasoundprogramcalledAudacity.In

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ordertomaintainconsistency,atunerwasplacedateyelevelwhileplayingandtheareasthatwerewellintuneweremarkedforsamples.ThesoundfilewasthensplitforsamplesofabouttwosecondslongthroughAudacity.OveralltherewerefivesamplesofmiddleBontheAstring,andsevensamplesofmiddleBontheDstring.TheseamountswerechosenbecausethemiddleBishardertokeepaccuratelyintuneontheDstringandextrasamplesweretakentopreventunnecessaryerrorinsound.Finally,thesoundsamplesweresavedasepsfiles. Thecollectedsoundfileswerethenanalyzedtogetdatafromthefrequencyvs.powerofthesamples.ProfessorMarkR.PetersonatCUBoulder,ColoradocreatedaMatLabscripttogivetheWaveformandFrequencyvs.Powergraphsofepssoundfiles.Usingthisfileasastartingbase,thesamplefileswererunthroughandanalyzedtoconfirmconsistencyofthe

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sound.Thisfiledidnotgiveanydataofthegraphsandwaveformgraphwasnotsomethingneededfortheanalysisofthesound.Withthisinmind,theAnalyzefilewasrevisedintotheRevisedanalyzefilethatprovidedamatrixofdatafromtheFrequencyvs.Powergraph,andgraphedtheFrequencyvs.Powerofthesoundfile.Thisprocesswasusedonallthesamplesgivingmathematicaldatatouseinfuturecalculations. Nowthatdatahasbeenobtainedfromthesoundfiles,yetanotherMatLabscriptwascreatedtoaveragethedataandgraphtheaverageddata.ThiswasdoneindividuallyforeachstringbysimplyaveragingthedataoftheFrequencyvs.Powermatricesfromthesoundfilesamplestakenfromthatstringoncellbycellbasis.Eachmatrixoftheaveragewasthengraphed.TheAstringaveragewasgraphedinblueandtheDstringaveragewasgraphedinredtokeep

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themdistinct.InordertoseethechangesinthedataathirdaveragegraphwascreatedoverlayingtheaveragegraphsoftheAandDstringaverages.

2. Results and Discussion ThisoverlaidgraphofAveragesisshowingsomethingmorethanthebasicwaveequa-tionwouldsaythereshouldbe.Themostintriguingoftheseistheappearanceofdoublepeaksatagivenfrequencyintheonethousandtotenthousandhertzrange,whichistherangeatwhichhumanhearingisbest.Thisimpliesthatthereissomethingotherthanthesimplewaveequationactingonthestringwhenitisbowed. Toensuretheseresults,thenextstepinthisresearchistonormalizeandapplyanaudioweighttotheoverlayoftheaveragesgraph.Thiswillensurethatthereisnotvariationduetopowerinputandwillemphasizethemaindifferencesthatwouldcauseachangeinthesound.Themostlikelycauseofadifferencewouldbefoundinthemotionofthestringitself.Duetothebowingofthestringratherthanplucking,itislikelythatthisresultistheresultofatorsionwavefromthebowtwistingthestringwhilealsoformingthebasicwaveform.

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Josh Reynolds

Faculty Mentor: StevenPrager,PhD,Geography Graduate Student Mentor: RameshSivanpillai

Research Topic: ObservingLaramieBasinGrassland PhenologyUsingMODIS

Table of Contents1.Introduction2.DataandMethods 2.1StudyArea 2.2MODISData 2.3NDVICalculation 2.4OutlierRemoval 2.5CurveFittingandAnalysis3.Results 3.1DifferencesbetweenLow,Medium,andHighPrecipitationYears 3.2ExaminationofEmpiricallySelectedLocations 3.3DifferenceinLatitude4.AnalysisandConclusions 4.1MODISAbilitytoDetectPhenologicalChanges 4.2UsageofReGapDataset 4.3Limitations 4.4FutureStudies 4.5ConclusionAcknowledgementsWorksCitedAppendix1. Introduction AccordingtotheUSGeologicalSurvey,phenologyisthestudyoftheinfluenceofcli-mateonthetimingofbiologicaleventssuchasplantflowering(NASA,n.d.).Anintegralpart

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ofphenologicalstudiesistheidentificationofachronologyofdevelopmentphases.Examplesofthesephasesforaplantare:budburst,flowering,fructification,leafsenescence,andleaffall(Soudanietal.,2012).Thesephasesaregeneticallypredeterminedbutthetimingofthemisstronglyinfluencedbyenvironmentalfactorssuchastemperature,daylength,andwateravailability(Soudanietal.,2012).Knowledgeofphenologyisthususefulinunderstandingtheinteractionbetweenclimateandvegetationandtheirimpactsatlocal,regional,andglobalscales(Hmiminaetal.,2013).Asaresult,phenologyisstudiedinordertocharacterizefactorsthatinfluencechangeinanenvironment.Theresultinginformationcanhelptopredicthowthatenvironmentmightreactinfutureconditions. Fewvegetationphenologystudieshavebeenperformedinsemiaridenvironmentsusingremotesensing.Intheseenvironments,wateravailabilityistheprimarylimitationfactorinsteadoftemperature(Crimmins,Crimmins,&DavidBertelsen,2010).Ranchingandpasturingarecommonagriculturalactivitiesinsemiaridenvironmentsheavilyinfluencedbymoistureavailability.RanchersinSoutheasternWyomingareconcernedthatthesoilwillnotbesuitableenoughtoobtainthedesiredoutputofforagefortheirlivestock,duetoalackofprecipitation(Adams,2013).Analysisofphenologicalinformationmayhelptoprepareranchersbyidentifyingareasofvegetationthathavehigherplantvigor.Semiaridareasarealsovulnerabletofirebecauseofdryness.WyominghashadahistoryofdroughtconditionsandaccordingtotheU.S.DroughtMonitor,themajorityofSoutheasternWyomingisexpectedtocontinuetoexperiencesevereorextremedrynessin2013(Pollreisz,2013).Analysisofphenologicalinformationcouldhelpfirefighterslocatevegetationwithlowplantvigorthataresusceptibletofire. Inrecentyears,remotesensinghasprovedtobeapreferredmethodofstudyingvegetationphenology.Remotesensingisthetechniqueofobtaininginformationaboutobjectsthroughtheanalysisofdatacollectedbyinstrumentsnotinphysicalcontactwiththeobjects.Invegetationphenology,fieldobservationsinvolvearigorousamountoflaborandareinconvenienttoperformatlargescalessoremote-sensinghasbecomeapreferredmethod(Crimminsetal.,2010;Hmiminaetal.,2013).Evenso,thesetwomethodsshouldbeusedinconjunctionwitheachotherratherthanseparately.Theuseofremotesensinginvegetationphenologyispos-siblebecause,chlorophyllinhealthyleavesreflectalargeramountoflightinthenear-infraredportionoftheelectromagneticspectrumandalowamountintheredportionoftheelectromag-neticspectrum.Instressedorunhealthyleaves,lesschlorophyllresultsinlessspectralreflec-tance.Thereflectancevaluesinaselectedstudyareaarecollectedbythebandsoftheremotesensingplatform.ThesevaluesarethenusedtoderivetheNormalizedDifferenceVegetationIndex(NDVI),ameasureofplantvigorthatcanbeusedtoquantifyconcentrationsofgreen-leafvegetationinthedesiredstudyarea.

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Tworemotesensingplatformshavehistoricallybeenusedinphenologicalstudies.Oneplatform,theAdvancedVeryHighResolutionRadiometer(AVHRR)hasrecordeddatafromvariousNOAAweathersatellitessince1981.Itsprimaryfunctionismonitoringcloudsthroughthedetectionofelectromagneticradiation.Asaresult,itacquiresdatathroughitstwobandsataspatialresolutionof1kmandispronetospatialdistortion(Tarnavsky,Garrigues,&Brown,2008).Anotherremotesensingplatform,SystèmePourl’ObservationdelaTerre(SPOT)isaseriesofFrenchsatellitesthatcarryvegetationsensors.TheSPOTVEGETATIONsensorisabletoacquiredatainthevisibleandnear-infraredportionofthespectrumwithlessspatialdistortionthanAVHRR(Tarnavskyetal.,2008).TheModerateResolutionImagingSpectroradiometer(MODIS)isnowincreasinglybeingusedasaremotesensinginstrumentforstudyingphenology(Hmiminaetal.,2013).ThisplatformaboardNASAsatellitesTerraandAquaacquiresdataintheredandinfraredbandsoftheelectromagneticspectrumat250meterspatialresolution(NASA,n.d.).ThisresultsinimageswithahigherspatialresolutionthanitspredecessorsAVHRRandSPOT.MODISalsohasmorespectralbandsfordetectingsubtledifferencesinelectromagneticradiation,lessspatialdistortionformoreaccurateanalyses,andimprovednoisereductioncapabilities(Hmiminaetal.,2013;Tarnavskyetal.,2008). Becauseofthestatedadvantagesoveritspredecessors,MODIShasbeenusedinvariousstudiesofvegetationphenology,spanningmultiplescalesandecosystems.InoneexampleofaphenologicalstudyusingMODISbyXiaoetal.,researchersexaminedevergreenforestsintheAmazonRainforest(Xiao,Hagen,Zhang,Keller,&MooreIII,2006).TheauthorsobtainedNDVIderivedfromMODISdatafortheyears2000-09andplotteditagainstprecipitationbymonth.Usingthesemethods,theywereabletoobservethatpeakgreennessintherainforestcoincideswiththedryseasonsratherthanthewetseasons.Onepossibleexplanationmentionedforthisisthattreespurposelyflushtheirvulnerablenewleavesoutduringdryingperiodstoachievemaximumsolarradiationintakeandtoavoidherbivoresthatfeedontheleaves(Xiaoetal.,2006).ResearchershavealsoexaminedthephenologyofconiferousevergreenforestsinSwedenusingremotesensingtechniques(Jönssonetal.,2010).TheycreatedNDVIcurvesfrombyplottingdataderivedfromMODISagainsttime,whileapplyingamathematicaltransformation.Thereweresignificantdifferencesinthecurvesofthedifferentstudyareas.Thenorthernstudyareashadmoresnowfallleadingtomorepronouncedoscillationsintheirvegetationindexcurves.Theyfoundthatcommonlyusedvegetationindexthresholdvaluesusedformonitoringspringphenologywerenotapplicabletotheseareasbecauseoftheamountofsnow.Thecurvesofsouthernareashadlesssnowfallandwerelesspronounced.Despitetheunexpectedresults,itwasconcludedthatthismethodwouldhaveuseformonitoringfutureclimateimpactsforthearea(Jönssonetal.,2010).

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WhileobservationsofphenologyusingMODIShavebeenperformedinmanydifferentstudyareas,asimilarstudyhasyettobeperformedintheLaramieBasin.AstudylikethismayuncovervaluableinformationabouttheuseofMODIStoobtainphenologicalinformationinsemiaridareas.Thisinvestigationalsohasthepotentialtoyieldinformationaboutthefactorsthatinfluencephenologicalchangeinthisstudyarea.

2. Data and Methods2.1 Study Area TheLaramieBasinliesbetweentheMedicineBowRangeandtheLaramieMountainRange.Thetotalareaofthebasinisabout3,400squaremiles.Thebasin’sverticalextentisroughlybetween42.00°Nand40.84°N.Itshorizontalextentisroughlybetween-106.32°Sand-105.43°S.BigHollow,thesecondlargestwinderodeddepressionintheworld,islocatednearthecenterofthebasin.Theareaisalsoacloseddrainagebasinmeaningnowaterintheareaflowtoexternalbodiesofwatersuchasriversoroceans.Thepredominantvegetationtypeaccordingtothe2007ReGapanalysisisNorthwesternGreatPlainsmixed-grassprairie.

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ThestudyareastobeanalyzedweredeterminedusingconsiderationsoftheMODISimageryandthedistributionofthemixed-grasses.First,thestudyareawasclassifiedbyNDVIusingtheJune2007MeanAnnualNDVIdatadownloadedfromMODIS;areasofhighandlowvigorwerelocatedusingprocessesfromESRI’sArcGIS.Next,750x750meterareas(9MODISpixels),situatedcom-pletelywithinmixed-grassclassificationaccordingtothe2007ReGapanalysis,werelocatedalsousingArcGISprocesses.Lastly,threeofthe750x750meterareasthatwerewithinlowvigorclassifica-tionandthreeofthe750x750meterareasthatwerewithinhighvigorclassificationwereselected.Thereasoningbehindthiswastocaptureanyphenologicaldifferencesbetweenthegrassesofvaryingamountsofvigor.Theareaswerealsochosenalongalatitudinalgradient(seeFig.2)toobserveanypossiblechangesmovingupwardthroughoutthebasin.

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Fouradditionalareas(denotedNHG,GMS,GFS,andGLRinFig.2)locatedbyfieldobservationusingaGPSunitwerealsoanalyzedforphenologicalchanges.Alloftheareasvisitedwerewithinthemixed-grassclassificationaccordingtotheReGapanalysis.Thesesiteswerevalidatedempiricallybyvisitingthesitesinpersonandmakingfieldobservations.Thecomposition,intermsofvegetationcommunitystructure,oftheseareasvaried.2.2 MODIS Data ThedatausedinthisstudywasdownloadedfromtheNASAMODISserverandpreprocessedattheWyomingGeographicInformationScienceCenter(WyGISC).Thedatacontainsimageryintheformof8-daycompositesataresolutionof250metersthroughouttheentireselectedyear.Compositesareimagerywithinadefinedperiodoftimethatareaveragedtogethertominimizetheinfluenceofcloudcoverinimagery.UsingPRISMdata(Table1)fromtheOregonStateClimateGroup,theaverageannualprecipitationintheLaramiebasinforyears2002-2010(yearsinwhichdatawasavailable)wasascertained.Ayearwithrelativelylowprecipitation(2002),mediumprecipitation(2006),andhighprecipitation(2010)wereselectedforanalysis.Forthepurposesofthisstudy,imageryfortheseyearswasobtainedinordertoanalyzetheeffectofwateravailabilityonlocalphenology.

2.3 NDVI Calculation Avegetationindexisessentialtophenologicalanalysesbecauseitallowsdatafromtheremotesensingplatformtobeinterpretableinthecontextofplantvigor.NDVIwasselectedasthevegetationindexforexaminingvigorinmixed-grassesbecauseitisonethemostcommonlyusedindicesintheliterature(Hmiminaetal.,2013;Jönssonetal.,2010;Zhangetal.,2003).NDVIiscalculatedusingthefollowingdifferenceformula:

NDVI=(NIR-Red)/(NIR+Red) EachpixelinaMODISimagecontainsavalueofreflectivityintheredportionofthespectrum(Band1)andavalueofreflectivityinthenear-infraredportionofthespectrum(Band2).AverageNDVIwasderivedusingtheaboveformulaforeachstudyareausingcodeinthe

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pythonprogramminglanguage.ThecodehelpedtoautomatetheprocessofcalculationofNDVIforeachstudysiteandyear.Italsohelpedminimizeerrorindatamanipulation.

2.4 Outlier Removal OneofthechallengesofusingMODISisthatcloudcoverandpresenceofsnowovervegetationleadstounintentionalcalculationofNDVIofthoseobjects.MODISuses8-daycom-positesinordertomitigatetheeffectofcloudsandsnowbutoutliersareunavoidablebecauseoflocalclimatecharacteristics.NDVIoutlierswereidentifiedbyplottingNDVIagainsttimeandsearchingforabruptdecreasesinamountofNDVI.Whetherthedecreasewasabruptornotwasbasedoffthediscretionofthepersonmanipulatingthedata;nostatisticaltechniquewasapplied.ThecorrespondingMODISimagerywastheninspectedforinstancesofcloudcoveroverthestudyarea.Ifthedisturbancewasconfirmedontheimagery,theoutlierwasreplacedbytheaver-ageof1)theNDVIvalueofthepreviouscompositeand2)theNDVIvalueofthesubsequentcomposite.TheaveragingwasperformedinorderreplacetheoutlyingNDVIvaluewithavaluethatislikelytobemoreaccurate.2.5 Curve Fitting and Analysis Thephenologymetricsknownas1)startofseason(SOS),2)timeofmaximum(TOM)and2)endofseason(EOS)inthecurveweretheprimaryaspectsoftheannualcurvesdevelopedthatwereanalyzed.ThestartofseasonaccordingtotheUSGSisthedayoftheyearidentifiedashavingaconsistentupwardtrendinanannualtimeseriesNDVI.TimeofmaximumisthedayoftheyearcorrespondingtomaximumNDVIinanannualtimeseries.TheendofseasonisthedayoftheyearidentifiedashavingaconsistentdownwardtrendinanannualtimeseriesNDVI(U.S.GeologicalSurvey,2011).Beforethesemetricsarestudied,amathematicaltechniqueiscommonlyimplementedontherawNDVIdatainordertocompareNDVIwithtime(Bolton&Friedl,2013;Hmiminaetal.,2013).LinearregressionwasselectedtofitanannualcurvetotheNDVIdata.Thisallowedforasmootherlookingcurve,withoutabruptfluctuations.Theprocesswasperformedforeachstudyarea.ThecurveswerethenanalyzedtoobserveanychangesinSOS,TOM,orEOSthatcorrespondedwithamountofprecipitationinayear.ThecurveswerealsocomparedbygeographiclocationinordertoexaminepossiblechangesinNDVIbylatitude.AnnualNDVIcurvesforthefourempiricallyvalidatedlocationswithintheReGapmixed-grassclassificationwerealsocapturedandanalyzedfordifferencesinphenology.Thelocationswerecategorizedintogeneralcategories:nearlyhomogeneousgrasses(NHG),grassesmanyshrubs(GMS),grassesfewshrubs(GFS),grass,lichen,rocks(GLR).Analysisontheselocationswasperformedinordertoobserveanyphenologicalchangesintypeoflandcoverobservedontheground.Theimportanceinthisanalysisisthatweobservedthecharacteristicsoftheseareas

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first-handandcanusethosecharacteristicsforanalysis.Theexactvegetationcompositionofthesixstudyareasmentionedpreviouslywasnotobservedandthuscannotbeusedforanalysis.

3. Results AnnualNDVIcurvesforthelow,medium,andhighprecipitationyearsforeachstudyareawereobtainedandcanbeviewedinFig.3.TablescontainingSOS,TOM,andEOSdaysarelocatedintheAppendix.AnnualNDVIcurvesfortheempiricallydeterminedlocationswereob-tainedandcanbeviewedinFig.4.Thedifferencesbylatitudewerealsoexamined.Theresultsanddiscussionofeacharereportedintheforthcomingsub-sections.

3.1 Differences between Low, Medium, and High Precipitation Years TheannualNDVIcurvesforeachyeardifferedmuchintermsofshapeandtimingofphenologicalmetrics.Theshapeofthecurvesin2002appearedflatwithslightfluctuationsthroughouttheyearin4ofthe6studyareas.SOSinthisyeargenerallyoccurredbetweenday65andday89.TOMvariedgreatlywithsomesitesreportingitshighestvalueofNDVIearlierintheseasonandsomesitesmuchlaterintheseason.EOSgenerallyoccurredbetweenday257andday273.Theshapeofthecurvesinthe2006appearedmorepronouncedthanthoseof2002.SOSinthisyeargenerallyoccurredbetweenday73andday81,occurringsoonerinthehighNDVIstudyareas.TOMagainvariedwithmostsitesreportingitshighestvalueofNDVIbetweendays137and153andothersitesaroundday265.EOSgenerallyoccurredbetweendays281and323,laterthanthelowprecipitationyear.Theshapeofthecurvesin2010consistentlyappearedtohavemuchmoredefinedpeaksthanthepreviousyears.SOSinthisyeargenerallyoccurredbetweenday73andday81,generallyoccurringsoonerthaninotheryears.TOMoccurredbetweendays153and161.EOSoccurredbetweendays289and321,againlaterthanthe2002. TherewereafewconsistentobservationsoftheannualNDVIcurves.2010hadthehighestaverageNDVIandmaxNDVIvalueineverystudyarea.2002generallyhadthelowestaverageNDVIineachstudyarea.SecondarypeakswhereNDVIbrieflyincreasedanddecreasedaroundday250arevisibleinmanyofthecurves,alikelyresultofmid-summershowers.Aver-ageNDVIwasgenerallyhigherintheselectedhighNDVIstudyareasthanthelowareas.3.2ExaminationofEmpiricallySelectedLocations BasedontheannualNDVIcurvesofthefourempiricallyselectedlocations(seeFig.4),therewereapparentphenologicaldifferencesbetweentheobservedvegetationcategories.Inallthreeyearsinwhichdatawerecollected,thelocationGMSdisplayedthehighestaverageNDVIandthelocationGLRwasaconsistentsecond.NHGandGFSconsistentlydisplayedthelowestamountofNDVI.

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3.3 Difference in Latitude Theredidnotappeartobeanyimmediate,discernibledifferencesintheannualNDVIcurvesinrespecttolatitude.TimingofSOS,TOM,andEOSallappearedtooccuraroundsimilardays.Also,NDVIbetweenareasdidnotappeartovarymovingfromnorthtosouth.

4. Analysis and Conclusions 4.1 MODIS Ability to Detect Phenological Changes MODISprovedtobeaneffectiveplatformfordetectingintra-annualchangesinLaramieBasingrasslandphenology.BycomparingtheannualNDVIcurveswewereabletoobservevariancesinthetimingofSOS,TOM,andEOSbetweenyearswiththreedifferentamountsofprecipitation(low,medium,high).Asonemightexpect,thecurvesfor2010hadthehighestaverageNDVIandthecurvesfor2002hadthelowestaverageNDVI.GenerallytheaverageamountofNDVIdecreasedwithamountofprecipitationforayear.SOSgenerallyoccurredearlierin2010thanintheotheryears.Thisislikelyduetothegrassesinthestudyareasfloweringearlierbecauseoftheextrawateravailable. UsingdatafromMODISwewerealsoabletoeffectivelycapturethedifferencesinamountofNDVIfortheempiricallyselectedlocations.GMSandGFShadhigheraverageannualNDVIbecausethoseareascontainedmoreshrubs.Shrubshaveahigherleafareain-dexthanthemixedgrassessomoreNIRlightisreflected,resultinginhigherNDVI.GLRlikelyhadhighaverageannualNDVIbecauseaverysmallamountofsoilwasexposedinthatareaincomparisontotheotherareas.SoiltendstoabsorbNIRlightresultinginlowerNDVIcalculations. WewerenotabletoidentifyanydifferencesinphenologyinrespecttolatitudinallocationusingMODIS.ThisisprobablyaresultofthesizeofthestudyarearatherthanMODIS’capabilities.ProfessorWilliamReiners,anexpertoftheLaramieBasinstudyarea,expressedthatlatitudinallocationhasaminisculeroleonphenologyintheLaramieBasinduetoitsrelativelysmallsize.Thedistancefromtheupperextenttolowerextentisamere81milesandthelocalgeographydoesnotvarymuchacrossthatextent(personalcommunication,June,2013).Asaresultthispossiblefactorwasnotasthoroughlyresearched.

4.2 Usage of ReGap Dataset Otherinterestingobservationscamefromtheuseofthe2007ReGaplandcoverdata.Priortovisitingthestudylocations,thegeneralassumptionwasthatareasclassifiedasmixed-grassprairiewouldgenerallyappearasareasofmostlyhomogeneousgrassesthatmayormaynotincludesomeshrubslikesagebrush.Uponmakingobservationsinthefield,itbe-cameapparentthatthecommunityassemblyoflocationsclassifiedasmixed-grassescanvary.

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Threegeneralsub-categories(seeFig.4)wereobserved:near-homogeneousmixed-grasses(ofwhichcanbefurtherdividedbaseduponrecencyofgrazing),mixed-grasseswithvaryingamountsofshrubbery,andgravellyareaswithshortgrasses,lichenandshrubs.ThedifferencesincharacteristicsoftheannualNDVIcurvesforeachtypeofareawereapparent.ItappearsthathigherNDVIarearesultoftheadditionalvegetationtypescoveringmoreoftheexposedsoil.Generally,themoreshrubsthatanareahad,thehigherNDVIwasforthatarea.TheNDVIcurvesforthestonyareawithgrass,lichen,andshrubswereinteresting.Onemightbelieve,becauseofthearea’sbarrenappearancethatNDVIwouldappearlowerthantheotherareas.Contrarytothatbelief,thatlocationconsistentlyhadthesecondhighestaverageamountofannualNDVI.

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4.3 Limitations AlthoughtheresultsfromtheMODISdatawerevaluableinunderstandingLaramieBa-sinphenology,thereweresomelimitationswithinthemethods.Onelimitationwasthattheonlytheamountoftotalprecipitationinayearwasconsiderednotwhattimeofyeartheprecipitationactuallyoccurred.Forexample:AyearinwhichmuchprecipitationoccursintheearliermonthsmightseeSOSbeginsooner.Theinfluenceoftimingofprecipitationcouldhavebeenexploredinmoredetail.AnotherlimitationwastheamountofuncertaintywiththeMODISdata.BecauseoftheclimateofLaramieBasin,therewasusuallymuchcloudcoverandsnowthatcontaminatedsomeoftheearlierMODIScompositesforeachyear.ThismadecalculationofNDVIforthosetimesdifficultandpossiblyinaccurate.ItalsomadedeterminingwhenSOSoccurreddifficult.Acurvefittingtechniquethatismorespecifictothisstudyareamightproducemoreaccuratean-nualNDVIcurvesandmetrics.Furtherstudiescouldhelptoaddresstheselimitations.

4.4 Future Studies FurtherknowledgeofvariationsinLaramieBasinphenologymaybeobtainedthroughtheimplementationoffuturestudies.Vegetationphenologycanbeinfluencedbysurfacegeol-ogy,bedrockgeologyandsoiltype(Dr.WilliamReiners,personalcommunication,June,2013).Itmaybeinterestingtostratifysampleareasacrossthesedifferentattributestoobserveanypossiblechanges.Anotherwaytoexplorethesevariationsmaybetointerviewlandownersandresourcemanagerswhomightbemorefamiliarwithchangesoccurringintheirareaofinterest.4.5 Conclusion MODISisaneffectiveplatformforobservingchangesLaramieBasinPhenology.Basedonthedata,weknowwhenSOS,TOM,andEOSusuallyoccurinthisstudyarea.Thisinforma-tioncouldbeusefulfordetermininggrazingschedulesoranalyzingfirevulnerabilityduringayear.WealsoknowthatNDVIcalculationsformixed-grassestendtoincreasewithhigherpre-cipitationforayear.Fromtheempiricallylocatedareasanalysis,ithasbeenrealizedthatamountofNDVIinanareamaybeadirecttothelocalcommunitystructurewithinmixed-grassareas.AreaswiththehighestamountofNDVImightnotbethemostsuitableforgrazingbecauseofthechancetheyarefilledwithshrubs.LookingforareaswithaloweramountofNDVImayrevealmoresuitablelocationsforgrazing.FurtherstudiesrelatingtogeologycouldpossiblyhelprefineourknowledgeofthephenologyoftheLaramieBasin.

Acknowledgements ThisstudywasfinanciallysupportedbytheMcNairScholarsProgram,Trio,andtheUni-versityofWyoming.

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Crimmins,T.M.,Crimmins,M.A.,&DavidBertelsen,C.(2010).Complexresponsestoclimatedriversinonsetofspringfloweringacrossasemi-aridelevationgradient.JournalofEcol-ogy,98(5),1042–1051.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2010.01696.x

Hmimina,G.,Dufrêne,E.,Pontailler,J.-Y.,Delpierre,N.,Aubinet,M.,Caquet,B.,…Soudani,K.(2013).EvaluationofthepotentialofMODISsatellitedatatopredictvegetationphe-nologyindifferentbiomes:Aninvestigationusingground-basedNDVImeasurements.RemoteSensingofEnvironment,132,145–158.doi:10.1016/j.rse.2013.01.010

Jönsson,A.M.,Eklundh,L.,Hellström,M.,Bärring,L.,&Jönsson,P.(2010).AnnualchangesinMODISvegetationindicesofSwedishconiferousforestsinrelationtosnowdynamicsandtreephenology.RemoteSensingofEnvironment,114(11),2719–2730.doi:10.1016/j.rse.2010.06.005

NACSE.(n.d.).PRISMClimateGroup,OregonStateU.RetrievedNovember10,2013,fromhttp://prism.oregonstate.edu/

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Pollreisz,A.(2013,March21).EmergencyManagersExpectAnotherBusyWyomingFireSea-son.K2Radio.RetrievedMay17,2013,fromhttp://k2radio.com/emergency-managers-expect-another-busy-wyoming-fire-season/

Soudani,K.,Hmimina,G.,Delpierre,N.,Pontailler,J.-Y.,Aubinet,M.,Bonal,D.,…Dufrêne,E.(2012).Ground-basedNetworkofNDVImeasurementsfortrackingtemporaldynam-icsofcanopystructureandvegetationphenologyindifferentbiomes.RemoteSensingofEnvironment,123,234–245.doi:10.1016/j.rse.2012.03.012

Tarnavsky,E.,Garrigues,S.,&Brown,M.E.(2008).MultiscalegeostatisticalanalysisofAVHRR,SPOT-VGT,andMODISglobalNDVIproducts.RemoteSensingofEnviron-ment,112(2),535–549.doi:10.1016/j.rse.2007.05.008

U.S.GeologicalSurvey.(2011,January6).RemoteSensingPhenology.RetrievedSeptember14,2013,fromhttp://phenology.cr.usgs.gov/methods_metrics.php

Xiao,X.,Hagen,S.,Zhang,Q.,Keller,M.,&MooreIII,B.(2006).DetectingleafphenologyofseasonallymoisttropicalforestsinSouthAmericawithmulti-temporalMODISimages.RemoteSensingofEnvironment,103(4),465–473.doi:10.1016/j.rse.2006.04.013

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Zhang,X.,Friedl,M.A.,Schaaf,C.B.,Strahler,A.H.,Hodges,J.C.F.,Gao,F.,…Huete,A.(2003).MonitoringvegetationphenologyusingMODIS.RemoteSensingofEnviron-ment,84(3),471–475.doi:10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00135-9

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Kimberly Sanchez

Faculty Mentor: ToddSurovell,PhD,Anthropology Graduate Student Mentor: StacySewell,MS

Research Topic: WorkingHardorHardlyWorking? TheDivisionofLaboramongtheDukhaPastoralists inMongolia

Introduction Thesexualdivisionoflaborhaslongbeenatopicofstudywithinanthropology.Manyhaveclaimedordisplayedevidencethatthereisadifferenceinmaleandfemalelaboractivitiesandthatthisdifferenceisanearuniversaltraitamongsmallscalesocieties(MurdochandPro-vost1973,White,BurtonandBrunder1977,Kelly1995,Hodgson2000,Crate2006,Homewood2008).Oneofthemostarguedcausesofthesexualdivisionoflaborrelatestophysicalcon-straints.Somehavearguedthatwomen’sactivitiesaregreatlyinfluencedbypregnancy,nurs-ing,andchildcare(Brown1970andGoodmanetal.1985)whileothershaveputforwardthat,becauseoftheirrelativelygreaterphysicalstrength,menpartakeinmorephysicallydemandingkindsofwork(MurdochandProvost1973). Regardingthedivisionoflaborwithage,adultsareusuallyportrayedasdoingmuch,ifnotall,oftheworkwithinasociety.Theverywords“men”and“women”,whichhavetheideaofadultageembeddedintheirmeaning,haveoftenbeensaidinplaceof“males”and“females”,whenbeingusedtodiscusslaboractivitiesandworkloads.Althoughitisignoranttoproposethatonlyadultsperformworkortheyperformthemostamountoflabor,thereissomebiologi-caltruthpresentintheideas.Theabilitytoperformmanuallabororotherworktasksgenerallyincreasewithagethendecreaselaterinlife. Withinpastoralsocietiesspecifically,theallocationoflaborbyageandsexhascommonthemessuchastheseparationofmen’sandwomen’sworkareas,wherespecificstructuresorareaswithinoroutsidethecampareused,maintained,and/orascribedtoeithermenorwomen(JarvempaandBrumbach2006)andtheuseofchildlabor(Fratkin1989).However,thedivisionoflaborpracticedbysomepastoralsocietiesisnotalwaysclearlydefinednoralwaysenforced(JarvenpaandBrumbach2006)andmaybeinfluencedbypolitical,economic,andsocioculturaltrade-offs(ThompsonandHomewood2002). ThisstudyexaminesDukhalaboractivitiestotestthetraditionallyheldbeliefsthatthere

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isauniversaldivisionoflaboramongmenandwomenandvaryingagegroups,aswellaswheth-erthesedivisionsorlackthereofarepracticedbytheentiregroup.

Background IntheconiferousforestsandsprawlingmountainsofthenorthernmostprovinceofMongolialivetheDukha,agroupofreindeerherders,ortsaatan,whoforcenturieshaveroamedtheareathatnowmakesuptheRussianRepublicsofTuvaandBuryatiaandtheKhövsgölprovinceofMongolia(Wheeler2000).TheDukha,astheycallthemselves,haveonlyrecentlybecome,injustamatterofdecades,Mongolia’sonlynomadicpastoralistswhoherdreindeerandarecurrentlythesouthernmostherdersofreindeerintheworld(Wheeler1999).Currently,alongwithmilkandmeatfromdomesticatedanimalslikegoat,reindeer,andyak,theDukhasurviveoffofhuntingsmall,large,andaquaticanimals,gatheringnativefloraincludingwildonionsandpinenuts,sellinggoodssuchasantlersandhides,andincomeprovidedbyaccommodatingtourists.Whilecurrentdataisunavailable,pastresearchhasindicatedthataround30householdswerelivinginKhövsgölprovincein1999(Wheeler1999andInamura2005).Typically,anuclearfamilylivesinaconicallodgeknownasanortzandusuallyresideinacampcomprisingmanyfamilies. Itshouldalsobenotedthatinthepast,theDukhaconstitutedapartofalargerethnicgroupthatencompassedtheneighboringTuvans,Tofalar,andOkaSoyots.However,sincetheannexationofTuvatowhatwastheSovietUnionin1921andavirtuallyclosedborder,thefourgroupshavebecomedistinctculturalentities(Wheeler2000).Theclosedbordernotonlyseparatedthefourgroups,ithasseverelyimpactedthereindeeruponwhichtheDukhadepend.Withoutnewgenes,reindeerconstantlysufferfrominbreedingandpoorhealth.Additionalfactorsthathaveplayedintothedeclineofreindeerherdsinthelasthalfofthe20thcenturyincludealackofveterinaryservices,thesellingofreindeerbyyoungerherdersforincome,increasedpredationfromwolvesanddeathresultingfrominexperiencedherders(Wheeler2000andInamura2005).

Methods DataforthisresearchwereadaptedfromanongoingethnoarchaeologicalstudyexaminingthespatialbehaviorwithinaDukhasummercamp.Tostudythespatialpatterning,acamerawasmountedonamastsome13feetintotheairinfrontofahouseholdandsettotakeaphotographevery2or3minutes,oftheareadirectlysurroundingthedwelling,fromearlymorninguntillateevening.Althoughninehouseholdsmadeupthecamp,onlyfourhouseholds,Houses1,3,6,and7,werephotographedinthesystematicwaydescribedpreviously.Variousaspectsofeachphotowerethenanalyzedandrecorded,includingidentifyinganyindividuals

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presentwithinthephoto,digitallymappingthelocationofindividualsandanyactivitiesthatwerebeingperformedbythem.Directobservationsofactivitiesthatoccurredinsidethedwell-ingswerealsorecorded. Forthepurposeofthisstudy,onlyidentifiableresidentsofthecampwereincludedintheexteriordataanalysis.Interioractivities,whichweredirectlyobservedandrecordedeveryminuteovera20orsominutetimeframe,wereincludedintheanalysis.CategoriesregardinglaboractivitiesweretakenfromMurdochandProvost’s1973cross-culturalanalysisofthedivisionoflaborandseparatedintodomestic(cooking)andnon-domestic(animaltending,productionofgoods,andother)activities.AstheywerenotfoundamongthetasksexaminedbyMurdochandProvost,theadditionalcategoriesofcleaningandchildcarewereaddedtothedomesticworkactivities.Alongwithcollectingdataregardingworkbeingperformed,leisuretimeoccurrenceswerealsosortedintocategories,including“Moving”,“StationaryActivities”,“SustenanceActivities”,“PersonalActivities”,“SensoryActivities”and“Other”,andanalyzed,soastogiveamoreholisticpictureofDukhaactivities. AsseveralhouseholdscouldbeseeninthebackgroundsoftheimagesgatheredatHouses1and3,duetothecampset-upandplacementofthecameraduringfieldwork,extrameasureshadtobetakeninordertoexaminetheworkbeingcarriedoutatthoselocations(althoughthesemeasureswereestablishedspecificallyforthosehouses,theywerelaterappliedtoHouses6and7toensureconformityinthedataanalysis).Aunique30by30metersquareboundarywasdefinedforeachlocaleinexcelthen,usingtheseartificialperimeters,aprogramwaswrittentosortthroughallthecampdataandtakeoutdatapointsthatdidnotliewithintheborders.Theresultingdatapointswereusedtoinvestigatehouseholdlaborbehaviors.

Results Achi-squaretestwasperformedtoexaminethehypothesisthatthereisasignifi-cantdifferenceinmen’sandwomen’slaboractivities.AsdemonstratedinFigure1.,thecampexhibitedasignificantdifferenceintheamountofworkperformedbymenandwomen(x²=368.58,df=1,p<<.001). Adjustedresidualswerecalculatedand,asnotedinTable1.,demonstratedthatwomenspentnoticeablymoretimeinlaboractivitiesthenmen. Thesecondhypothesis,alsotestedusingchi-square,statedtherewasdifferenceinwork-loadbyageamongthecampresidents.Therewasastatisticallysignificantdifferenceintheperformanceofworkbyagewithinthecamp(x²=1136.99,df=2,p<<.001). Adjustedstandardizedresiduals,showninTable2,displayedthatadultswereworkingmorethanexpectedandchildrenlessthanexpected.

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Althoughnotapartoftheoriginalhypotheses,aseriesoftestswereperformedtoex-aminethesexualdivisionoflaborwithinindividualagesets.Asseeninfigures3aand3b,thereisasignificantdifferenceintheamountoflaborperformedbybothmaleandfemalechildren(x²=121.63,df=1,p<<.001)andmaleandfemaleadolescents(x²=72.85,df=1,p<<.001).

However,thisrelationship,inwhichfemalesandseenworkingmorethanmales,wasnotseenwithintheadultageset.Onthecontrary,adultmenandwomenworkloadsweren’tsignifi-cantlydifferent(x²=.60,df=1,p=.436),asseeninFigure3c.

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Thethirdhypothesis,whichstatesthatthereisadifferenceinthetypesofworktasksper-formedbymenandwomen,wastestedusingchi-square.Thecampprovidesdatathatsupportsthehypothesisthatmenandwomenperformdifferenttypesoflabor(x²=242.24,df=5,p<.001),asseeninFigure4.

Adjustedstandardizedresiduals,asshowninTable3.,showedthatcertaintasksareperformedmorebyeithermalesorfemales,suchasfemalesinanimaltendingandmenintheproductionofgoods.

DiscussionThisstudydemonstratesthatthereisaclear,butfluiddivisionoflaboramongtheDukhapasto-ralists..Asshown,thereweresignificantdifferencesbetweenmaleandfemaleworkloads.Inthecamp,womenwereobservedperforminglaboractivitiesmoreoftenthanmen.Thisobservationdoesn’tnecessarilymeanthatmenworklesshardorlessoften;itsimplymeansthatmenwork

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lessoftenthanwomenincamp.TheplacementofthecameralimitstheextenttowhichthedatacanbeconsideredaholisticpictureofDukhasocietybecausewedon’tseewhatishappeningoutsidethesettlement.Thismightbiasthedatatowardswomenduetothefairlycommonpracticeamongpastoralistsofmaleherders,whoseworkregularlyoccursoutsidetheconfinesofcamp. However,thissignificantdifferenceisnotdrivenbyadults,butratherchildrenandadolescents.Itisnon-adultswhohaveasexualdivisionoflaborwheninregardstoworkload.Thehighamountofworkperformedbyyoungerfemales,comparedtoyoungermales,couldbeattributedtopreparingformarriage.Itisawidelydocumentedphenomenonthat,insmallerscalesocieties,womenmarryoldermen(Kelly1995)andtheymarryatanearlierage,aroundthetimeofmenarche(Lee2003,Nyamongo2000,Hern1992).Men’saverageageatfirstmarriageisinthelate20’stoearly30’samongtheMaasai(Gray,Ellison,andCampbell2007andCoast2006)andabout32amongtheTurkana(Dyson-HudsonandMeekers1996).Women,however,areseenmarryingatanearlierage:15-20amongtheGabbra(Mace1996),lateteensamongtheDatoga(BorgerhoffMulder1992),earlytomid-teensamongtheBorana(Nyamongo2000).Aswomenmarryearlier,theyconsequentlyneedtostartpreparingformarriedlife,andtheworkthatcomeswithit,earlierinlife.Sincementypicallymarryatalaterage,theydonotneedtobeginpreparinguntilalaterage,perhapslateteenstoearly20’s. Thetaskdifferentiationofmenandwomenrevealedthatwomenweremoreoftenseentakingcareofgoats,yaks,andmostofallreindeer;about50%oftheirworkingtimetobespecific.Thefemale’sworkwiththereindeerincampcouldbeattributedtothedesiretocontroltheflowofmilk.Thosethatgatherthemilkmayhavemoresayinwhereitgoesandwhatitismadeinto,justlikeahunterhassomeleewayoverwhereandtowhomaportionoftheirkillmightgo.Anotherpossibleexplanationofthisphenomenaissimplythatmalesandfemalesareactingcooperativelybytakingturnscaringfortheanimals;menawayfromcampandwomeninsidecamp.Atthesametime,menwereobservedintheproductionofgoods(e.g.woodworking)morethananyothertask.Thispreoccupationwithwoodworkingmightbebecausethislaboractivitydoublesasasocialeventformen.Itwasn’toftenthatonewouldseealonewoodworker.Usuallythereweregroupsofmenandadolescentboyssittinginaroughcircle;someloungingwhileothersworked.However,itseemshighlylikelythat,likemilking,woodworkingcouldbeundertakeninordertocontrolwherethefinishedproductgoes.Thisideaissupportedbythefactthattheindividualwhohadbyfarthehighestnumberofobservations(around250)was,asanewgroom,makingfurnituretobeusedinhisnewhouse. Withthedivisionoflaborbyage,thepatternattheDukhacampfollowsthepatternfoundinmany,ifnotthemajority,ofsocietiessmallandlarge;wherechildrenbegindoingsmallamountsofworkwhentheyareyoungandcontinuetowork,withworkloadsincreasing,asthey

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growolder.WhatmakestheDukhadivisionoflaborbyageinterestingisthehowthesexualdivisionoflaborplaysintoeachagesetsworkbehaviors.Whenthesexualdivisionoflaborwasexaminedwithineachageset,childandadolescentgenderrelationsmirroredtheoverallpat-tern,wheretherewassignificantlylessmaleworkthanfemalework.However,withintheadultageset,therewasnosignificantdifferencebetweentheworkloadsofmenandwomen.Thesephenomenacouldbetheresultofculturalorsocietalpressuresthatpushfemalechildrenandadolescentstoworkmoreandallowmalesmoreleisuretime.Thesedifferencescouldalsobeduetochildcarebyotherchildrenorteens,acommontaskperformedinsmallscalesocieties,especiallybygirls. Theresultsofthisstudyanditsstatisticalanalysisdemonstratethesexualandagerelateddifferencesinlaborperformanceaswellasthesignificanceofspatial,temporal,andsocialvariablesinDukhaworkbehaviors.Takenasawhole,theseresultsdemonstratetheimpactthatnon-adultshaveongroupworkbehaviorsandtheimportanceofincorporatingchildrenandadolescentsintoresearchonthedivisionoflabor.

ReferencesBorgerhoffMulder,M.1992.Demographyofpastoralists:PreliminarydataontheDatogaof

Tanzania.HumanEcology20:383-405.Brown,J.K.1970.Anoteonthedivisionoflaborbysex.AmericanAnthropologist72:1073-

1078.Coast,E.2006.Maasaimarriage:acomparativestudyofKenyaandTanzania.Journalofcom-

parativefamilystudies37:399-419.Crate,S.2006.Cows,kin,andglobalization:Anethnographyofsustainability.Lanham:Altamira.Dyson-Hudson,R.andMeekers,D.1996.TheUniversalityofAfricanMarriageReconsidered:

EvidencefromTurkanaMales.Ethnology35:301-320.Fratkin,E.1989.HouseholdVariationandGenderInequalityinAriaalPastoralProduction:

ResultsofaStratifiedTime-AllocationSurvey.AmericanAnthropologist91:430-440.Goodman,M.P.,Griffin,P.,Estioko-Griffin,A.,andGrove,J.1985.Thecompatibilityof

huntingandmotheringamongtheagtahunter-gatherersofthePhilippines.SexRoles12:1199-1209.

Gray,P.,Ellison,P.,andCampbell,C.2007.TestosteroneandMarriageamongAriaalMenofNorthernKenya.CurrentAnthropology48:750-755.

Hern,W.1992.PolygynyandfertilityamongtheShipiboofthePeruvianAmazon.PopulationStudies46:53-64

Hodgson,D.L.2000.RethinkingpastoralisminAfrica:Gender,culture&themythofthepatri-archalpastoralist.Oxford:JamesCurry.

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Homewood,K.2008.EcologyofAfricanpastoralistsocieties.Oxford:JamesCurreyInamura,T.2005.ThetransformationofthecommunityofTsaatanreindeerherdersinMongolia

andtheirrelationshipswiththeoutsideworld.SenriEthnologicalStudies69:123-152.Jarvenpa,R.andBrumbach,H.J.(eds).2006.Circumpolarlivesandlivelihood:acomparative

ethnoarchaeologyofgenderandsubsistence.Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress.Kelly,R.L.1995.Theforagingspectrum:Diversityinhunter-gathererlifeways.Washington:

SmithsonianInstitutionPress.Lee,R.B.2003.TheDobeJu/’hoansi.Belmont:WadsworthThomsonLearning.Mace,R.1996.BiasedparentalinvestmentandreproductivesuccessinGabbrapastoralists.

BehavioralEcologyandSociobiology38:75-81.Murdoch,G.P.andProvost,C.1973.Factorsinthedivisionoflaborbysex:Across-cultural

analysis.Ethnology12:203-225.Nyamongo,I.K.2000.Factorsinfluencingeducationandageatfirstmarriageinanaridregion:

ThecaseoftheBoranaofMarsabitDistrict,Kenya.AfricanStudyMonographs21:55-65.Thompson,M.andHomewood,K.2002.Entrepreneurs,Elites,andExclusioninMaasailand:

TrendsinWildlifeConservationandPastoralistDevelopment.HumanEcology30:107-138.Wheeler,A.1999.TheDukha:Mongolia’sreindeerherders.MongoliaSurvey6:58-66.Wheeler,A.2000.Lordsofthemongoliantaiga:AnethnohistoryoftheDukhareindeerherders.

UnpublishedMAthesis.IndianaUniversityWhite,D.R.,Burton,M.L.,andBrunder,L.A.1977.Entailmenttheoryandmethod:A

cross-culturalanalysisofthesexualdivisionoflabor.Cross-CulturalResearch12:1-24.

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Melanie A. Vigil

Faculty Mentor: CathyConnolly,PhD,Gender andWomen’sStudies Graduate Student Mentor: AcaciaRamirez

Research Topic: IntersectionalitiesofSexual OrientationandRaceinRuralCommunities

Overthepasttwodecades,anewformoftheoreticalframeworkhascometolightintheareaofresearchwithinthesocialsciences.Intersectionality,whichisthestudyofhowmultipleidentitiesworkfororagainstthepersonorgroupwhohousesthem,isthemainfoundationforthisresearch.Examiningthelivesoflesbian,gay,bisexual,andtransgenderpeopleinruralWyo-mingisthepremiseofthisstudy,whereidentifyinghowtheynavigateintersectionalityintheirownlivesisthemainoutcome.

Previous Literature WhilepreviousresearchfocusedonwhiteLBQwomenhasdrawnonsuchaspectssuchasrecognizingtheimportanceofthecomingoutprocess(Petzen2012),Dr.KatieAcosta’sbook,AmigasyAmantes(friendsandlovers)highlightspreviouslyunrecordedaspectsofLBQLatinalifeinthehopeofbetterunderstandingtheintersectionsofrace,gender,andsexualityinthecontextofthefamily.AcostaaccomplishesthisbyfocusingonthethemeoffemininityintheLatina/ocommunity,theroleofreligion,theissuessurroundinginterracialorinterethnicsame-sexrelationships,strainsimposedontheserelationshipsduetoimmigrationstatus,andhowtheseLatinasnotonlyaccomplishfamilylife,butnavigatethesplitbetweenfamiliesofchoiceandfamiliesoforigin. Dr.Acosta’sstudywaslaidinthefoundationsoffeministscholarshipandintersectionalanalysisintheattempttoidentifyaLatinafeministstandpoint.Thestudycomprisedofforty-twoin-depthinterviewspairedwithfourteenmonthsofparticipantobservation.ParticipantswereacquiredprimarilythroughNewYork’sLesbian,Gay,BisexualandTransgenderCenter,wordofmouth,andqueeronlinecommunities.Oftheseparticipants,eighteenwerewomenwhoimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesasadultswhiletheremainingtwenty-fourwereeitherbornintheUnitedStatesorhadbeenraisedinthecountryformostoftheirlives(7). Themajorityoffirst-generationLatinasinthisstudywerecollege-educatedwomenwho

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enjoyedarelativelycomfortablestandardofliving,whilemostsecond-generationparticipantswereraisedinpoor,working-classcommunitiesofcolor.Itisnoted,however,thatmanyofthesewomenhadachievedsocialmobilitythroughobtainingvariousformsofcollege,andinsomecases,professionaldegrees.Mostparticipantswereinvolvedinaromanticrelationshipwithapartnerofadifferentethnicity,andonlyeightoftheintervieweeswereinvolvedwithsomeoneofthesamenationality.Thisprovedtobeasignificantaspectinemotionworkinregardstobodyimageandculturalclasheswithintherelationshipandfamilyspaces(8-10). AnimportantaspectinAcosta’sresearchinvolvesthelanguageinwhichsheusestodescribetheindividualssheworkedwith.ForthepurposeofobtainingavarietyofLatinethnicities,theterm‘Latina’wasusedasavehicletocreateaspacewhereallethnicitieswouldberecognizedonanequalplatform.Similarly,theuseoftheterm‘sexuallynonconforming’createdanumbrellaforLatinastomovefreelyintheirsexualidentitieswithoutterminologicalconstraints(4-5).Previousresearchdictatesthatlanguageusedtodescribethesexualityofwomenofcolorcanaffectwhoparticipatesandmayormaynotcreateanunsafespaceforwhichparticipatesareabletospeaktotheseidentities(Asencio2009;Acosta2010;Moore2011). Notionsofpositionalityhaveprovenessentialinregardstoresearchinvolvingsexuallynonconformingwomenofcolor.Dr.MignonMoorespeakscontinuouslytotheimportanceofhaving“insiderstatus”(Moore2011),whichAcostanotesanddefendsthroughoutthetext.Insiderstatuscanbeassimpleasknowingthepersonbeinginterviewed,orascomplexashavingspecificidentificationmarkersthatsendamessageofeasetothepopulationbeingresearched.OneaspectofAcosta’sresearchthataddstothisideaofpositionalityistheantithesisofin-siderstatus.Duringparticipantobservation,Acostaspecificallynotesthewayshewasreceivedwhenshebroughtherwomanpartnertosocialgatheringsasopposedtoherlatermalepartner.Thiscausedasenseofcognitivedissonanceamongtheparticipantswhichresultedinalayerofdistrust(11).Thiseventspeakstothebearingsandlegitimacyofaqueernotionoffamily,wherecertainintersectionsholdgreatimportancetohowLatinasperceiveeachotheraswellasoutsiders. Thatbeingsaid,amajorfindinginthestudyalsorevealedthatLBQidentifiedLatinasgobackandforthatholdingcertainintersectionsofidentityaboveothers.Thestudyfoundthatthesewomenstraddledtheborderlands(orthegrayareabetweenoneidentityandwayoflifetoanother),wheremanyfoundthemselveschoosingtobesurroundedbyunsupportivefamilyoforiginratherthanassociatingwithinalreadyestablishedgaycommunities(12).WhileitmayseemcontradictorytofindthatLBQLatinasexhibitfeelingsofdistrustinAcosta’spart-nerswitchingandthenthemselvesrejectintegrationintoagaycommunity,GloriaAnzaldúa(2002)justifiesthisanomalywiththeterm“nepantla”,aplacewhereonelivesinaconstantstateofdisplacement.Acostausesnepantlainherresearchtodescribethespacethatsexually

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nonconformingLatinasnegotiatewiththeirfamiliesoforiginandchoice:thespacewheretheynegotiatethevisibilityandinvisibilityoftheirsexualitiesindifferentcontexts.Inthisway,womeninthistextarenepantleras;theyarealwaysinbetweenspaces,alwaysintransition. AcostasucceedsincreatingaLatinafeministspace,assheidentifiesmodesofresistancebywayofemotionwork.ThetextcontributestothequeeringofthissubfieldbyexploringthelengthsthatsexuallynonconformingLatinasgotoincaringforfamiliesofchoiceandorigin.Weston(1991)defineschosenfamiliesasthosethatgayandlesbianindividualscreatetoincorporatetheirfriends,lovers,andchildrenaskin.ExistingscholarshipontheLGBTQcommunityandfamilyhasfrequentlylookedatfamiliesofchoiceandorigininseparateisolation(Moore,Stambolis-Ruhstorfer2013;Rincon,TrungLam2011),whereasitisagoalofthisstudytodeterminehowcreatingfamiliesofchoiceaideinexpandingone’ssupportnetworkandpromoteresiliencyfortheindividualorcoupleinquestion.Increatingfamiliesofchoice,LatinasresisttraditionallyheldnotionsofthenuclearfamilyandtheimportanceofsuchastructureintraditionalLatinhouseholds(13).Perhapsoneofthegreatestcontributionsthistextprovidesistheexaminationofnotonlyhowthesewomennegotiateoriginalfamily,buthoworiginalfamilynegotiatesthemandhowthataffectsthesewomen’soverallidentity.Thestudydescribedhowattimes,thewoman’ssexualvariancehadsmallbearingcomparedtoraceinthefamily’seyes.Previousliteratureoninterethnicandinterracialrelationshipsisplentifulonheterosexualrelationships,butlacksinthedepartmentofsexuallynonconformingrelationships.Withinaheterosexualcontext,menaremorelikelytodateinterraciallythanarewomen,andwomeninparticularreportfamilialdisapprovalasadeterrentfromtransgressingracialboundaries(Clark-Ibañez,Felmlee2004).Priortothistext,thequestionbegged:Howmuchdoesfamilialdisapprovalinfluencesame-sexinterracial/interethniccouplesinparticular?AsfamilyoforiginhasproventobeacentralcomponenttothefoundationofanLBQLatina’sidentity,thestudyparticipantsweretaskedwithnegotiatingfamilialsupportfortheirunions(78-79).Theresearchpointedtoaverystructuredracialhierarchy,wheremorefamilialstresswasexpressedbyrespondentswhoengagedinarelationshipwithawomanofalowerracialstanding.Itwaslearnedfromthisstudythatracialminoritiesdonotalwaysfindsolidaritywithineachother,asoneparticipantclearlyindicatedherfamily’sracisttendenciestowardsherblackpartner(77).Thisfindingcontrastswithexistingliteraturewhichindicatesthatsame-sexcoupleshaveexperiencedmorefamilystressinregardstotheirsexualityratherthanrace(Rostoskyetal2008). AccordingtotheWilliamsInstitute,Wyoming(andspecificallyFremontCounty)holdsoneofthelargestpopulationsofLGBTfamiliesintheentirenation(WilliamsInstitute2012).Whilethevastmajorityofthestateispredominantlyheterosexualandwhite,theWindRiver

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IndianReservationisanoasisofdiversity,whichmanygayandlesbianfamiliescallhome.TheStateofWyomingiswidelyknownforvastopenspacesandmeasuringdistancefromPointAtoPointBinhoursratherthanmiles.Townsandcountiesfostertheirownindividualflavor,asdotheroadsthattakeitsdriverstotheirdestinations.Oneofthemajorinterstates,I-80,leadsitsdriverstoseveraltownswithracialdiversity.Forexample,therearesubstantialHispanicpopulationsinLaramie,Rawlins,RockSprings,andJacksonHole.AccordingtoU.S.Censusdata,themajorityofWyoming’sethnicdiversitycomesfromthesetownsalongtheinterstate(U.S.Census2010). Whiletherehasbeenresearchconductedonpeopleofcolorinruralareas,whatislargelyleftoutoftheliteratureistheexperiencesofLGBTindividualsinthoseethnicgroups.InordertoobtainabetterunderstandingoftheLGBTethnicexperienceinaruralarea,Iconductedseveralinterviewsofindividualswhoidentifiedwithanon-whiteethnicgroupaswellasLGBT.BecausetheLGBTcommunityisatraditionallydisenfranchisedgroup,Iwascarefulwhenchoosingmyparticipants.Havingan“in”inthecommunity(asDr.KatieAcostadoesinherbook,AmigasyAmantes)isimportantwhenhandlingthesegroups,asitcreatesasenseoftrustandconfidence.Thisleadstosubstantiallybetterresults,soIwasfortunatetohavemanyLGBTfriendsbothinLaramieandontheWindRiverIndianReservation(whereIamfrom).Throughmypersonalconnectionswiththem,Iwasabletospreadwordaboutmyintendedresearch,andhadthosewhowereinterestedcontactmebyphoneorsocialmedia. WhileIhadmanyvolunteeringtointerviewwithme,Inarrowedmyselectionsbyseveralfactors.Myrespondentsneededtobe18-30,asthatistheagegroupthatIgrewupwithandthereforehaveastrongersenseofrelation.Thisalsogainstrustandconfidencewithinmyrelationshipstotherespondents.AnotherrequirementformyrespondentswasnumberofyearslivedinWyoming.Wyominghasaverydistinctculture,andIwantedtobesureIwascaptur-ingtheheartofWyominginmyrespondents.Theseindividualshadtohavelivedinthestateforfiveormoreyears.UnderstandingtheWyomingLGBTexperiencewasfulfilledinsettingthisrequirementinplace.AnothertwostrictrequirementsofmyrespondentsweretoidentifyasLGBTandapersonofcolor.Asthisisthebasisofmystudy,furtherexplanationisnotrequired.Intermsofdatacollection,Irecordedmyinterviewswithavoicerecorderandthenstoredtheinformationonmypersonallaptop.Eachofmyrespondentssignedanagreementthatgavemypermissiontodoso,andeachinterviewlastedanywherefrom45minutestotwohours.Eachindividualremainsanonymousandagreedtofollowupquestionsandinterviews.BeingthatIwantedtohaveanopenendeddiscussionratherthanaquestionandanswerstyleinterview,Iaskedbasicquestionsandthenfollowupquestionstopromoteelaboration.

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Results:Uneven Experiences Oneofthemostcompellingaspectsofmyresearchwastheunevendistributionofdiscriminationovertheintersectionsbetweenraceandsexualorientation.ThreeofmyrespondentswereNativeAmerican(EasternShoshoneorNorthernArapahoe),andallthreeemphasizedtheirexperiencesasNativeAmericanslivinginWyoming.Tothem,experiencesofracismandclassismdidmoretoformtheiridentitiesasaminorityinalargelyhomogeneousstate.Whiletheirfamiliesoftenstruggledwiththeirsexualorientation,theydidnotcitesexualorientationasamajorfactorinhowtheyidentifiedasindividualswiththeirsurroundings.Thiswasnotthecase,however,foroneofmyNativeAmericanparticipants.IdentifyingasTwoSpirit,whichmeanspossessingbothamaleandfemaleinonebody,notonlyexperienceddiscriminationfromracism,butharassmentinhisowncommunityforbeingTwoSpirit.HeblamesthisprimarilyonWesterninfluence,asNativeAmericantribesandcommunitiestraditionallyregardedTwoSpiritindividualsasmorespiritualandgiftedthanthegeneralpopulation.MyloneHispanicparticipantfoundthathissexualitywasoneofhismostelevatedaspectsofidentity,duetotheCatholicnatureofhisfamily.Allfiverespondentsplacedhighvalueonfamilyandtheirfamily’sperceptionsonsexualityandgender.Ontheoutside,however,racewasgenerallyatopicallrespondentshadtonavigateonaregularbasis.

Rural Experiences WhenaskedabouttheirexperiencesasLGBTpeopleofcolorinaruralenvironment,themajorityofmyrespondentsnotedthe“liveandletlive”natureofWyomingculture.Whileracismwasprevalentacrosstheboard,myparticipantswerenoticeablyateasediscussingsexualityduetowhatlittleimpactithadonhowtheywereperceivedbytheoutside.Eventhoughthemajorityconfessedtheywerenervoustoholdapartner’shandinpublic,theytooksolaceinthefactthattheywereconfidenttheywouldn’tfaceanyoutwardhomophobia.Onerespondentwentsofarastosay:“Ithinksincemorestatesarelegalizingsame-sexmarriage,thepeopleinWyomingarecatchingontotheideathatwedon’tneedthatMatthewSheparddarkcloudoverus.”TherespondentthenwentontosaythatWyoming’shistorywithLGBTpeopleisnotthebrightest,andpublicconsciousnessseemstoerronthesideofcautionwhenregardingtheseissues.Thiscreatesauniqueenvironmentforaruralarea:sensitivityisdisplayedamongstthepublicinrecognitionofLGBTissues,whiletheWyomingLegislaturecontinuestovoteagainstLGBTlegislationsuchasmarriageequalityandemploymentnondiscrimination.

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Conclusion Overall,myfiveparticipantsinthisintroductorystudyexpressedtheireverydaystrugglesnavigatinganenvironmentwheretheyarenotthemajority.Ontheinsideoftheircommunities,factorssuchasreligionandfamilyaffectedtheirstatusasLGBTindividuals,andontheout-sidetheyspentmostoftheirtimedealingwithrace.FurtherresearchontheintersectionalitiesofLGBTpeopleofcolorinrurallocaleswouldbenefitfromastrongersamplingpool,wheremorevoicesmaybeheardandmoreareainWyomingcouldbecovered.Theresearchpaintsapromisingpicture;onewherethereishopeforagrowingLGBTpresenceandacceptancefortheLGBTcommunity.Thereareseveralthingsthatcouldhavebeenchangedordonedifferentlyinthisstudy,onemajoraspectbeingtimeallowedforfollowupinterviews.Ididnotanticipatethatmyparticipantswouldnotonlyhaveotherthingstosay,butwanttosetupanothertimetospeaktomeaftertheinitialinterview.Asthesummerprogressed,Ifoundmyselfpressedfortimeanddidnotgettoeachofthefiverespondentsthatwantedtospeak.Ialsofoundmyselfwantingtoaskfurtherquestions,andwasonlypartiallyabletowiththosethatlivedinLaramie,Wyo-ming(whereIcurrentlylive).However,forthepurposeofthisresearch,LGBTlivesofracialminoritieshavenotonlybeenrecognized,butgainedlegitimacythroughpersonalstoriesandexperiences.

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