Mckayworld9ch11 nativeamericansocieties

A History of World Societies Ninth Edition

CHAPTER 11The Americas,

2500 B.C.E.–1500 C.E.Modified by J. Usher

Copyright © 2011 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

John P. McKay Bennett D. Hill John Buckler● ●Patricia Buckley Ebrey Roger B. Beck●

Clare Haru Crowston Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks●

Review Questions• 1. The early societies in the Americas were

quite diverse. What are some of the key physical, social, and intellectual features you can use to differentiate between cultures and civilizations?

• 2. How did Mesoamerican and North American peoples develop prosperous and stable societies?

• 3. What were the geographic locations and some of the key cultural features of the Olmec, Mayan, Aztec, and Incan civilizations?

I. The First Peoples of the Americas

A. Describing the Americas and Their Peoples• 1. A letter sent to the Medici rulers in Italy by Amerigo

Vespucci described a “new world.” After the letter was published in numerous languages, the land took on the identity of Vespucci and was called America.

• 2. Columbus had actually reached the New World first but thought he was in the East Indies. Thus, Columbus identified the native population as “Indians.”

I. The First Peoples of the Americas

B. Settling the Americas• 1. During the Ice Age, a natural land bridge joined Russia to North

America. The emergence of this formation across the Bering Strait allowed people to migrate eastward onto the continent.

• 2. Early populations followed migrating herds for survival. Eventually, the populations began to migrate southward to warmer climates.

I. The First Peoples of the Americas

C. The Development of Agriculture• 1. Although a variety of crops were produced by native

peoples, maize was the most important. Different types of maize were bred for a variety of purposes. The plant was considered to be the source of human life and had a religious and symbolic meaning, being associated with the corn god.

• 2. Corn was cultivated. Potatoes were raised on terraced slopes retained by stone walls. Some cultures freeze-dried potatoes.

• 3. Dogs were domesticated to assist in hunting. In the Andes, llamas and alpacas were used as pack animals carrying goods through the mountains. There were no native species of animals that could be used as draft power.

II. Early SocietiesA. Mounds, Towns, and Trade in North and South America• 1. Some North American tribes, mainly those along the Ohio and Mississippi

Rivers, constructed earthworks for a variety of reasons. Many of the earthworks were in a serpentine form or in a pyramid shape.

• 2. In a region of Peru called Norte Chico, stepped pyramids more than ten stories high were built. The region benefited from agricultural irrigation technology, which helped to provide squash, beans, and many other types of crops. Caral, the largest city in Norte Chico, became a major center for production and trade.

B. Olmec Agriculture, Technology, and Religion• 1. Olmec people cultivated maize, squash, and other types of produce. They

traded rubber, cacao, and various crafted products such as pottery or figurines. Evidence shows that Olmec trade reached as far away as Mexico.

• 2. Olmec society was not based on class distinction. Most Olmecs lived in small villages. Cities contained large water reservoirs and stone drains.

• 3. The Great Pyramid was the center of their religion. Huge stone slabs were used to construct the pyramid, which may have been an attempt to gain closeness with the gods.

Questions for Incan Khipu (Quipu) • Inca Khipu, ca. 1400 CE (p. 305)

• 1. The caption identifies a number of ways these strings and the knots in them could have encoded information

– form and position of knots, color and spin of the strings. Examining the photograph, can you find any characteristics that might have been used to encode information?

• (Answer: The strings are of different lengths and thicknesses. Both of the characteristics could have encoded messages or information. They are also arranged around a central, semicircular string. Position around the string could also have been used as a code. )

• 2. Why might cotton string have been a particularly good material for communicating data and messages in pre-

Colombian Peru?• (Answer: Cotton was an exceedingly common cultivated plant in the area, and had been so perhaps as far back

as 2500 BCE. Using it was economical, and the medium was more durable than some alternatives (leaves, bark).

• 3. Why were such complex methods of transmitting information necessary in the Andes at this time?• (Answer: The Inca Empire was huge, 350,000 square miles at its height, with a population of 16 million (see the

section on the Incas at the end of this chapter). Although the Incas constructed an excellent network of roads for foot traffic, travel across the empire by messengers could take weeks. Moreover Inca administration was complex. The Inca emperors extracted forced labor duties from the population which required a census; they collected taxes throughout their lands; they had to keep records of the properties of the emperors and their clans; and they engaged in the construction of large-scale irrigation projects, roads, and bridges. All of this required complex record keeping. As the Incas did not have a writing system, some detailed system of accounting was needed. The khipu provided that. )

III. Classical Era Mesoamerica and North America, 300–900 C.E.

A. Maya Agriculture and Trade• 1. Maize and other vegetables were traditional crops, but

the Maya included groves of fruit trees in their agricultural development.

• 2. In an effort to avoid crop failure, the Maya built raised agricultural fields to avoid seasonal floods. The raised-field system helped to support the Maya population.

• 3. A network of waterways, including swamps, served as transportation thoroughfares. Large canoes carried cargoes to other populations.

III. Classical Era Mesoamerica and North America, 300–900 C.E.

B. Maya Science and Religion• 1. A book of mythological narratives survived the Spanish attempts to

destroy all records of the Maya religion. The Popul Vuh provides a view of the Maya interpretation of world creation and the concepts of good and evil.

• 2. Maya religious rituals included human sacrifice. Human sacrifice was conducted to honor the gods and demonstrate the king’s military strength.

• 3. Mathematics was based on the vigesimal system and included the use of the number zero.

• 4. The Maya mathematical system improved their system of astronomy and the development of their calendar.

III. Classical Era Mesoamerica and North America, 300–900 C.E.

C. Growth and Assimilation of the Teotihuacán and Toltec Cultures

• 1. Zapotecan-speaking peoples in southern Mexico developed a large religious center that featured elaborate tombs and temples.

• 2. The city of Teotihuacán in central Mexico was a large urban center consisting of a variety of neighborhoods and tradesmen. Agricultural laborers lived outside of the city. Inside the city were several large pyramids at which people worshipped various deities.

• 3. The Toltec confederation was a weak union of strong states. The Toltecs extended their power throughout the region of Central America. Their capital city was Tula.

Questions for Great Serpent Mound• Great Serpent Mound, Adams County, Ohio (p. 311)

• 1. The Hopewell Culture and other Mississippi valley cultures were

influenced by the Mesoamerican civilizations to the south. Do you see any possible evidence of that influence in this photograph?

• (Answer: The feathered serpent was a common deity in Mesoamerica. It is possible, though hardly provable, that the serpent mound was influenced by the cultural importance of the feathered serpent to the south. )

• 2. Why might one conclude that this mound had a religious, ritual, or

artistic significance?• (Answer: Simply put, it is hard to imagine a “practical” use that the mound

could have had. )

III. Classical Era Mesoamerica and North America, 300–900 C.E.

D. Hohokam, Hopewell, and Mississippian Societies• 1. The Hohokam people used irrigation and terrace

agriculture. They also built platforms for ceremonial events.• 2. Along the Ohio River, the Hopewell built extensive

mounds as tombs for priests, leaders, and other important officials. They also built mounds shaped like animals or geometric figures.

• 3. The settlement of Cahokia along the Mississippi River included the largest mound of any of the mound-building cultures. An agricultural society, Cahokia at its peak was the largest city north of Mesoamerica.

IV. The Aztecs

A. Religion and War in Aztec Society• 1. The creator deity Quetzalcoatl was one of many gods

worshipped by the Mexicas. Quetzalcoatl, a feathered serpent god, was revered as a source of knowledge.

• 2. The warrior god Huitzilopochtli symbolized the sun, which needed precious fluids to keep moving. The precious fluid usually was blood; human sacrifice was an important part of Mexica religious identity.

• 3. Most of those sacrificed were war captives seized in battle. Conquered states were forced to provide a tribute of people to be used as human sacrifice.

IV. The AztecsB. Social Distinctions Among Aztecs• 1. The Aztec aristocracy included warriors who had

distinguished themselves on the battlefield. Generals, judges, and governors were among the warrior aristocracy.

• 2. The macehualtin were the ordinary citizens and the largest segment of the Aztec population. This class performed agricultural, military, and other domestic services. This group possessed certain rights of citizenship.

• 3. The poorest class of citizens was the tlalmaitl, meaning the landless workers. These individuals depended on the security provided by the upper classes and existed in a peasant-type environment.

• 4. Slaves were the lowest social class. Many were prisoners of war, but others were criminals from the Aztec society itself. Most slaves eventually gained their freedom.

Questions for Aztec Adolescents• Aztec Adolescents (p. 317)

• 1. How does this scene reflect the importance of Tenochtitlan’s location in the middle of a

lake and the city’s extensive canal system?• (Answer: Boys are learning both to paddle or pole cargo canoes, and apparently to fish using

nets, indicating a close familiarity and use of waterways. )

• 2. What activities are the youths learning to do? Are they basic activities necessary for daily

life, or are they more specialized and arcane (for example manufacture of luxury items, religious ritual, and so on)?

• (Answer: The boys are learning to fish, to carry cargo on their backs, and to move cargo by boat. Thus, they obtain food and transport goods. The girls pound corn kernels into meal and weave cloth for clothing. Food, clothing, and simple transport of goods are all activities integral to daily life, not arcane specialties. )

• 3. Based on your answer to question two above, what social class do these youths seem to be

from?• (Answer: The scene and the activities presented suggest that they are common people, not

from families of warrior aristocrats, merchants, or priests. )

IV. The Aztecs

C. The City of Tenochtitlán• 1. Tenochtitlán included nearly 60,000 households and a

population of about 250,000. The Aztec Empire at one point could claim a population of 5 million people.

• 2. The city was surrounded by stone and adobe walls. Wide streets and canals crisscrossed the city.

• 3. Markets featured butchers, artisans, seamstresses, and a wide variety of services and merchandise.

• 4. The great temple of Huitzilopochtli was located in the central part of the city. It was approached by three flights of stairs and rose nearly one hundred feet high.

V. The IncasA. Earlier Peruvian Cultures• 1. Located along the northern coast of Peru, the Moche people built cities around

large plazas with temples and stone masonry. The Moche agricultural system provided enough food for the people and the military.

• 2. Moche civilization consisted of numerous small city-states that were not unified as an identifiable group. Warfare was common among them.

B. Inca Imperialism and Its Religious Basis• 1. Each ruler’s corpse was mummified and placed in a sacred chamber. His

descendants managed his land and income to pay for the upkeep of his mummified remains and to support themselves and his cult.

• 2. A desire for conquest created an opportunity to gain new territories but also to improve one’s place within society.

• 3. Conquered peoples were forced to adopt the Inca language. This created a level of unity. Incas stressed government by means of imperial unification. Their religion was also required to be accepted by the conquered populations. This was an effort to prevent rebellion in subject territories.

• 4. Inca society enjoyed an infrastructure that included excellent roads, which were built to ease military transportation and communication.

V. The IncasC. The Clan-Based Structure of Inca Society• 1. Clans were granted lands by authorities, and individual

families worked those lands for generations.• 2. Every family had to provide crops for the Inca elite. The

families were also expected to supply members for military service.

• 3. The state required everyone to marry and at times identified when and whom a person should marry. Marriage was sometimes used as a symbol of conquest, as Inca elite married the daughters of elite families of conquered states.

• 4. Ordinary people worked in the fields and mines to make the life of the nobles comfortable.