-
Marine and Petroleum Geology
ed
Jo
BP Exploration, Chertsey road, Sunbury-upon-Thames, Middlesex,
TW16 7LN, UKbBP Exploration and Production, 14 Road 252, Maadi,
Digla, Cairo, Egypt
cBP Amoco Exploration 501 Westlake Park Boulevard, Houston, TX
77253-3092, USA
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Broucke et al., 2004; Clemenceau et al., 2000; Deptuck etal.,
2003; Fonnesu, 2003; Fugitt et al., 2000; Humphreys etal., 1999;
Kendrick, 2000; Kolla et al., 2001; Mayall and
carbon industry has substantially driven forward
ourunderstanding of these depositional systems. Much of ourincrease
in knowledge has come from the observations and
ARTICLE IN PRESSinterpretations made possible by the
increasingly availablehigh quality 3D seismic data, particularly
from WestAfrica (e.g. Navarre et al., 2002). Interpretation of
the
0264-8172/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2006.08.001
Corresponding author. Tel.: +441932 762 000.E-mail address:
[email protected] (M. Mayall).Keywords: Turbidite system;
Channel; Reservoir
1. Introduction
Turbidite channels are recognised as very importanthydrocarbon
reservoir types in almost all areas and settingswhere deep-water
facies are being explored, appraised orproduced (Beydoun et al.,
2002; Brami et al., 2000;
OByrne, 2002; Mayall and Stewart, 2000; Navarre et al.,2002;
Posamentier, 2003; Posamentier and Kolla, 2003;Posamentier et al.,
2000; Prather, 2003; Prather et al., 1998;Sikkema and Wojcik, 2000;
Wonham et al., 2000; Weimerand Slatt, 2004). Over the last 510
years, in particular, thesignicance of turbidite channel reservoirs
to the hydro-Received 22 September 2005; received in revised form
12 July 2006; accepted 15 July 2006
Abstract
Turbidite channels are important but frequently complex
reservoirs in the exploration, appraisal and development of
deep-water
facies. Over the last 10 years in particular, high-resolution
seismic data and extensive outcrop studies have increased our
knowledge of
the complexity of these sedimentary bodies. Such is their
variability and complexity that developing and applying single or
even multiple
depositional models has limited applicability. Instead, we
recognise an alternative approach to help rapidly evaluate
turbidite channel
reservoirs. The paper mainly concerns the evaluation of large
erosionally conned 3rd-order channels, typically 13 km wide and
50200m thick.
Each channel is unique but each generally has four recurring
elements namely, the sinuosity, the facies, repeated cutting and
lling and
the stacking patterns.
Several different styles of sinuosity can be identied, each
having different implications for sand distribution. Four main
facies can
often be recognised on seismic, calibrated by cores and logs; a
basal lag, slump/debris ows, high net:gross stacked channels and
low N:G
channel levees. Most channels contain all of these facies but in
widely varying proportions.
Repeated cutting and lling is a feature of just about every
channel studied. The process has major implications for reservoir
and non-
reservoir distribution.
The stacking patterns of the 4/5th-order channels within the
3rd-order channel can have a critical impact on facies and
heterogeneity
distribution and can strongly inuence well design and even
potentially the development concept.
This paper discusses the impact of each of these elements on
exploration, appraisal and development issues.Turbidite channel
reservoirsKand effective
Mike Mayalla,, Eda23 (2006) 821841
y elements in facies predictionevelopment
nesb, Mick Caseyc
www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo
-
high-resolution seismic data is being supported by increas-ing
well log and core data. Accompanying the subsurfacedata, outcrop
analogue studies and studies of modern andPleistocene channel
systems have resulted in an extensiveand mounting literature on the
nature of turbidite channelreservoirs (Abreu et al., 2003; Adedayo
et al., 2005;Babonneau et al., 2002; Beaubouef, 2004; Beaubouefet
al., 1999; Browne and Slatt, 2002; Busby and Camacho,1998; Campion
et al., 2000; Clark and Gardiner, 2000;Clark and Pickering, 1996a,
b; Coleman, 2000; Cook et al.,1994; Cronin, 1995; Cronin and Kidd,
1998; Cronin et al.,2000, 2002; Damuth et al., 1983; DeVries and
Lindholm,1994; Elliott, 2000; Emmel and Curray, 1985; Eschardet
al., 2003; Gardner and Borer, 2000; Gardner et al., 2003;Haughton,
2000; Hickson and Lowe, 2002; Johnson et al.,2001; Kenyon et al.,
1995; Kirschner and Bouma, 2000;Kneller, 2003; Link and Stone,
1986; Lomas et al., 2000;May and Warme, 2000; Morris and
Busby-Spera, 1988,1990; Mulder et al., 2003; Peakall et al., 2000;
Pirmez et al.,2000; Pirmez and Imran, 2003; Prather et al., 2000;
Samuelet al., 2003; Slatt, 2000; Slatt et al., 1994, 2000; Spinell
andField, 2001; Walker, 1975; Weimer and Slatt, 2004).
Thesenumerous, detailed and comprehensive studies havefocused on
channel classication, specic aspects of
cutting stratigraphy (Fig. 1). In our view, each channel
isunique i.e. one model, or even a series of models, cannot
besuperimposed everywhere. However, we believe that thereare a
series of recurring features that can and should beinvestigated to
rapidly advance the evaluation of anyturbidite channel system. The
aim of this paper is tosuggest an approach which can quickly and
efcientlybreak down this complexity into elements that can
readilybe related to reservoir distribution and
heterogeneitieswithin the channel.In presenting a fairly pragmatic
approach we recognise
that there are many elements of turbidite channel deposi-tional
process and controls that we do not understand.However, even
without this full understanding we are ableto focus on making
practical, applied, decisions regardingthe challenges facing
exploration, appraisal and productionof the turbidite channel
reservoirs.We believe that the problem of describing and
interpret-
ing turbidite channels can be broken into four areasthenature of
the sinuosity, the facies, the recognition ofrepeated cutting and
lling episodes and the stackingpatterns of the channels. The
sections below describe eachof these major elements.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
y o
M. Mayall et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006)
821841822channel morphology, depositional processes,
detailedstudies of individual channels or studies of
regionalsystems.When interpreting turbidite channels on seismic
data, the
image can initially be one of a bewildering complexity
ofamplitude variations, seismic facies and complicated cross-
Fig. 1. The large erosional channels can display a bewildering
complexiterosional surfaces shown in (b). Each channel is unique
but there are com
heterogeneities.2. Stratigraphic setting and terminology
In describing channels and their internal architecture awide
range of terminology has been proposed to cover therange of scales
of features that can be observed e.g. geo-body, channel complex,
channel storey, channel-complex
f surfaces, amplitude variations and seismic facies (a).
Interpretation ofmon themes to help us understand and predict the
reservoir facies and
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStrolM. Mayall et al. / Marine and Peset,
conned-channel complex system (Gardner and Borer,2000; Navarre et
al., 2002; Sprague et al., 2002). Werecognise the value of these
terms, but for the purposes ofthis work we are using a simple
terminology, describing thechannels and their internal architecture
by what we believeto be their sequence stratigraphic setting.Like
most workers we recognise that turbidite channels
form a continuous spectrum from erosionally conned,through a
combination of erosion and constructionallevees, to channels
entirely conned by levees. In thispaper, we are largely focussing
on large erosionallyconned channels (Fig. 2). However, most of the
aspectsof turbidite channels we will describe are applicable also
tochannels with a combination of erosional and leveeconnement. In
channels that are wholly conned by
Fig. 2. Typical characteristics of the 3rd-order erosional
channels; 13 km wide
multiple stacking of smaller channels. Map is an RMS amplitude
extraction
Location of seismic shown with red line on the map.
Fig. 3. Summary of terminology and streum Geology 23 (2006)
821841 823levees, many of the elements are relevant but there
alsoappear to be differences that are beyond the scope of thispaper
to discuss. The channels that we are considering aretypically 13 km
wide (but can be wider) and 50200mthick (Figs. 2 and 3). They
usually have a well-denederosional base and a complex internal ll.
In sequencestratigraphic terms, the large erosional base can
commonlybe demonstrated to be a 3rd-order bounding surface(12ma)
and smaller scale erosional cuts within it to be4th- and 5th-order
surfaces as discussed below. Thesmallest channel element we
recognise, typically a fewhundred metres wide and 1030m thick, we
call individualchannels.The denition of the large erosionally based
channels as
3rd-order sequence boundaries can be demonstrated by
, 50200m thick, conned by an erosional base, often sinuous and
lled by
0100ms above the red horizon which is interpreted as the channel
base.
atigraphic setting used in this paper.
-
to recognise that there are at least four causes of sinuosityin
turbidite channels; initial erosive base, lateral stacking,lateral
accretion and sea-oor topography. Different stylesof channel
sinuosity have been pointed out by Beydounet al., 2002; Kolla et
al., 2001, who refer to elementary andcomplex channel migration.
The different styles of sinuos-ity have different implications for
the reservoir distributionand heterogeneity patterns.
3.1. Initial erosive base
In many cases, mapping of the original erosional con-nement of
the channel shows a sinuous form (Fig. 5). Thisis essentially an
erosional effect caused by turbidite owsby-passing and continuing
downslope. In some cases, theouter position of a bend has also been
extended byrotational sliding and slumping from the channel walls.
Inmost examples, we see no obvious effect, in terms ofunderlying
lithology, for the location of the sinuous bendsand conclude that
the erosionally created sinuosity is aninherent part of the
turbidite ows and channel formation.In theory, the sinuosity
generated during the erosion
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 4. Sinuosity in the large 3rd-order erosional channels is
common;
however. several causes of the sinuosity can be recognised as
described in
gures following.
troltheir stratigraphic relationship between major
3rd-ordermaximum ooding surfaces (Fig. 3). The 3rd-ordermaximum
ooding surfaces often have sufcient biostrati-graphic control and
diagnostic forms to provide acondent tie to the chronostratigraphic
time scale andlinked into a sequence stratigraphic framework.
Exceptingthe dominance of other controlling factors, it appears
thatthe majority of the ll of these major channels is
associatedwith periods of 3rd-order eustatic lowstand.
Biostrati-graphic analyses also allow the 3rd-order
transgressivesurface to be identied and show that this surface
istypically overlain by dominantly hemipelagic shales.Hence, the
thickness of the deposits associated with thelowstand systems tract
is often much greater than theoverlying shale-prone sections
relating to transgressive andhighstand systems. With the 3rd-order
nature of the majorerosional channel complex determined, the nature
of thecomplex ll can be further analysed. It should be noted
thatdown depositional systems tract, in more distal settings,
the3rd-order ll may become non-composite and split out intoseparate
4th-order channel systems resulting in channelbifurcation. In such
circumstances, a well-dened biostrati-graphic framework is
invaluable in aiding a correctinterpretation.In practice, the
delineation of 4th- versus 5th-order
frequency events is often difcult to determine withcondence. In
a slope system where channel activityswitches over time, periods of
abandonment may resultfrom autocyclic events rather then be
directly controlled byhigh-order eustatic cycles. Hence, if
autocyclic processesdominate, the ll of any 3rd-order channel
complex may bepurely a combination of stacked high-frequency
eventsdeposited during periods when the given channel systemwas
acting as an active conduit. Because of this difculty inbeing able
to readily and systematically distinguish between4th- and 5th-order
surfaces, in this paper, we refer to theerosional cuts within the
3rd-order erosional as 4/5th-ordersurfaces. We recognise that where
the data allows, it can beuseful to specically interpret the
4/5th-order surfaces, it isnot usually necessary in order to make
progress in breakingout the key elements for facies prediction.
3. Sinuosity
A spectacular feature of most modern turbidite channelsis the
sinuosity that is regularly observed on sea-oorimage maps (e.g.
Babonneau et al., 2002; Cronin et al.,2002; Damuth et al., 1983;
Kenyon et al., 1995). Increas-ingly, seismic amplitude maps
generated from older slopeturbidite channel sequences also show the
same ubiquitoussinuosity (Fig. 4). (Beydoun et al., 2002; Deptuck
et al.,2003; Fonnesu et al., 2003; Kolla et al., 2001; Mayall
andOByrne, 2002; Mayall and Stewart, 2000; Navarre et al.,2002;
Posamentier et al., 2000; Sikkema and Wojcik, 2000;Wonham et al.,
2000). The sinuosity varies from occasional
M. Mayall et al. / Marine and Pe824bends in the channel to
highly sinuous channels withnumerous cut-off bends. In our
experience, it is importanteum Geology 23 (2006) 821841phase, could
cause sands to subsequently accumulate at orupstream of the channel
bends as a result of ow stripping.
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStrolM. Mayall et al. / Marine and PeHowever, in
our experience, it is hard in most cases toestablish a preferred
location of later turbidite sandsdeposited around the bends.
3.2. Lateral stacking
In some channels, a bend has formed due tosystematic lateral
shifts of the smaller 100200m wide
Fig. 5. Sinuosity due to erosional base. Time map on the
erosional base (arrow
represent deepest part of channel. Erosional base shows high
degree of sinuos
Fig. 6. Prominent sinuous element in channel caused by
systematic lateral stack
from a 30ms window in the middle of the channel ll.eum Geology
23 (2006) 821841 825channels. This appears to have occurred due to
thechannel lling, shifting slightly laterally and re-incising.Fig.
6 shows an example which demonstrates a degreeof aggradation. Fig.
7 shows, through a series of super-imposed time-sequences maps, the
sinuosity increaseof a channel from 1.2 at the base to 1.8 at the
top. Thechannel is highly aggradational, in this example it
isstrongly levee conned, and the sinuosity increases
ed) of the large erosional channel shown in seismic line. Darker
red colours
ity.
ing of smaller 4/5th-order channels. Map is an RMS amplitude
extraction
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStrolM. Mayall et al. / Marine and Pe826through a
series of discrete lateral step-wise shifts of thechannel.Lateral
stacking of channels has been well documented
in a number of excellent outcrop areas (Campion et al.,2000;
Clark and Pickering, 1996b; Gardner et al., 2003;Eschard et al.,
2003), although in the outcrop cases it isdifcult to demonstrate if
the stacking patterns seen in 2Dsection are related to the
development of sinuosity in thechannels.As with many of the
observations we can make, it is
unclear if this style of sinuosity in the channel is due
todepositional processes or is a function of changes in sea-oor
topography due to diapir or fault movement. Forexample, the lateral
stacking seen in the Eocene turbiditechannels near Ainsa (Spain)
are interpreted to be due tothrust movements (Clark and Pickering,
1996b).
3.3. Lateral accretion
On some channels, the sinuosity has been created bylateral
migration of an open channel. In this case, a series
Fig. 7. Example of sinuosity caused by lateral stacking of
channels. Channel
Channel migrates in a series of discrete steps.eum Geology 23
(2006) 821841of seismic reectors dip towards the channel (Fig.
8)marking the systematic lateral migration of the channels.In map
view, traces of the dipping reectors show arcuatepatterns within
the sinuous bends of the channel (Fig. 8).On the opposite side of
the nal channel, the reectorsfrom older strata terminate against
the channel edge. Thisarchitecture of turbidite channels has been
thoroughlydocumented by Abreu et al. (2003) who refer to them
aslateral accretion packages (LAPS) and fully document anumber of
subsurface and outcrop examples. This parti-cular manifestation of
the sinuosity in the channels is mostlike the lateral accretion
well documented from meanderinguvial systems, with erosion on the
outside of the bank anddeposition on the inner bank as a point bar.
Images of thisstyle of sinuosity have received much attention
anddiscussion particularly regarding depositional processes(e.g.
Kolla et al., 2001; Peakall et al., 2000). It is probablyfair to
say that we do not fully understand the processesthat form these
features, but of all the styles of depositionalsinuosity, they are
the most likely to be caused solelyby depositional process rather
than partially or completely
bends show stacking patterns in appropriate direction to form
sinuosity.
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStrolM. Mayall et al. / Marine and Peby sea-oor
topography. However, in our experience,this form of sinuosity in
the channels is relativelyrare within the whole spectrum of
turbidite channels.It is usually relatively thin, a few tens of
metres beingtypical.Additionally, although Abreu et al. (2003)
describe
sandy and amalgamated examples of this style of sinuosity,our
experience is that low net to gross style (the non-amalgamated
style of Abreu et al., 2003) is most common.In these forms the
sands occur just as a basal lag withperhaps some sand occurring
along the lower part of thedipping reectors. The nal channel is
also dominantlymud-lled as evidenced by low amplitude seismic
andconvex down compaction.
Fig. 8. Sinuosity formed by lateral accretion. RMS amplitude
extraction map a
shown by dipping reectors) with mud-lled nal channel. Erosional
terminat
Fig. 9. Sinuosity created by sea-oor expression of faults. RMS
amplitude extr
seismic line is shown with white line. Channel shows a prominent
bend as it reum Geology 23 (2006) 821841 8273.4. Sea-floor
topography
As turbidite channels cross the slope there is inevitablysome
control on their geometry due to contemporaneoussea-oor topography
(Figs. 9 and 10). On many of themajor slope systems, salt or shale
diapirism and associatedfaults create subtle to signicant sea-oor
topography. Themost substantial topographic effects control the
down-slope route and can cause major diversions of the
channelorientation (Mayall and Stewart, 2000). On a more
subtlescale, the sea-oor expression of the faults often appear
tocause signicant bends in the channels. Although it is oftenhard
to prove the cause, the repeated coincidence ofprominent channel
bends and the location of faults,
nd seismic line (location shown in red on map). Channel accretes
laterally,
ion of older reectors on right side (outer bend) of channel
(arrowed).
action map is of a 30ms window in the middle of the channel.
Location of
uns along the down-thrown side of a NWSE fault (arrowed).
-
tur
ll
ARTICLE IN PRESStrolM. Mayall et al. / Marine and
Pe828particularly associated with diapirism, seems to indicate
acausal link. It seems that the channels divert around themaximum
sea-oor expression of a fault and pass down-slope at the lateral
tip-out of the topography.Examples of channel diversion at the
sea-oor expres-
sion of faults in the present day is well known from modernfans
e.g. the Var Fan (Cronin, 1995). From a conceptualpoint of view, it
is possible that ow stripping at thesesharp channel bends may
result in sands being depositedimmediately upstream of the
bends.There has been considerable progress made on under-
standing the nature of turbidity current ow alongsubmarine
channels and the potential for hyperpycnalows in deepwater (Das et
al., 2004; Kneller, 2003; Mulderet al., 2003; Peakall et al., 2000;
Pirmez et al., 2000; Pirmezand Imran, 2003). However, much remains
poorly under-stood regarding the process of generating sinuosity
indeepwater channels. For example, is there a process orcharacter
of the ows that can generate different forms ofchannel sinuosity?
Or are there a number of differentprocesses that create, at least
supercially, similar lookingplanform geometries? It appears, in
most cases, that a
et Spera, 1990).f these facies can be foundd Stewart (2000)
indicatedf this complexity into four
Fig. 10. Sinuosity in part formed by sea-oor expression of
faults.
Radiating and concentric faults from diapir in NE corner of
image are
coincident with major bends in channel, examples arrowed. basal
lags, slumps and debris ows, high N:G stacked channels, low N:G
channel-levee.The rationale for dividing the channel-ll facies
into
these four types is,
they are often recognisable even on poor quality seismic, they
are the important elements for predicting reservoirdistribution and
heterogeneity patterns,
they can, but not always, occur in a distinctive
verticalsequence,
they can illustrate some of the major risks and pitfalls
infacies prediction.
It is important to recognise that not all of these
faciesnecessarily occur in every channel. However, dividing
thechannel-ll lithologies in this way provides a useful modelfor
considering the possible facies that can be present. Thisapproach
provides a quick and systematic consideration ofreservoir facies,
non-reservoir facies and potential barriersand bafes to uid ow.
4.1. Basal lags
Most erosionally conned turbidite channels have somemakinant it
is practical to group all oin facies (Figs. 11 and 12):tha
turbidite channels; Mayall anin
However, while any and all o
al., 2003; Morris and Busby-rain (e.g. Beaubouef, 2004; Campion
et al., 2000; Clark andPickering, 1996a, b; Cook et al., 1994;
Cronin et al., 2000;Cronin and Kidd, 1998; Eschard et al., 2003;
Gardnermu
positional processes; high- and low-density turbidites,d ows,
debris ows, slides, slumps and hemi-pelagicdem boulders and
conglomerates to almost entirely mud-s and encompass the whole
spectrum of gravity-drivenfroThe sedimentary rock types that can
occur withinbidite channels are clearly highly variable. They
rangesingle channel seen on seismic may have sinuous elementsas a
function of two or more of the processes describedabove. Although
much remains to be understood regardingthe origins and causes of
the sinuosity in channels, anessential element of the evaluation of
turbidite channels ashydrocarbon reservoirs is an understanding of
which stylesof sinuosity are present. It is important to recognise
thatthere may be several styles of sinuosity present withdifferent
implications for the reservoir distribution andheterogeneity
patterns.
4. Facies
eum Geology 23 (2006) 821841d of basal lag formed when the
channel was being cutd most of the turbidite ows were by-passing
and
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStrolM. Mayall et al. / Marine and Pedepositing
their main sediment load further downslope.However, this phase of
limited deposition within thechannels can take different forms
(Fig. 12).
Coarse sands and conglomerates are probably the mostcommon form
of basal lags comprising massive or poorlystratied intervals
typically ranging from less than a metreto 5m thick (Fig. 12a).
They usually appear to form a layerat the base of the channel but
may locally thicken and thinin relation to irregularities on the
erosional base. Where thechannels have not been deeply buried and
most of thesands are acoustically soft (lower acoustic impedance
thansurrounding shales), the basal lags are often acousticallyhard
due to the presence of dense pebbles. In thesecircumstances, the
basal lags make a very distinctiveseismic reector and can be an
excellent aid to mappingthe base of the channels (Fig. 11b). The
reservoir quality ofthe coarse sands and conglomerates can be
variable but dueto the relatively larger size of the clasts in this
facies theyhave the potential for being important as a high
perme-ability interval.
Mudclast conglomerates are also common at the base ofthe
channels. They are composed of intraformational
Fig. 11. (a) Simple model of facies in a channel ll and (b)
seismic exampleum Geology 23 (2006) 821841 829mudclasts, within a
sandy matrix, which have been erodedfrom the channel base and walls
(Fig. 12b and c). Theconcentration of mudclasts varies, with the
most intensiveconcentrations forming a mass of compacted clasts
withjust small patches of sandy matrix. In this form, it ispossible
that the facies could form a permeability barrier orbafe within the
reservoir. Additionally, at the base ofsome channels there may be
an interval several metres thickcontaining a number of mudclast
conglomerate beds.Individually the beds may only be a few tens of
metreswide but overall it is possible that the overall interval
mayrespond as a zone of reduced transmissivity.
Shale drapes at the base of channels have beenincreasingly
described from a number of outcrops (e.g.Gardner and Borer, 2000;
Gardner et al., 2003; Eschardet al., 2003). They form as the main
body of the turbiditeby-passes the channel and only the tail
deposits mud andsilt (Fig. 12d and e). There is a good chance that
these shaledrape by-pass deposits could form permeability barriers
orbafes.We recognise at least three types of basal lag facies
deposition when the turbidites were largely by-passing the
e of simple ll (Mayall and Stewart, 2000; Mayall and OByrne,
2002).
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStroleumM. Mayall et al. / Marine and
Pe830channel. Depending on the style, they have the potentialfor
forming either high permeability zones (coarse sandsand
conglomerates) or possible production barriers andbafes (mudclast
conglomerates and shale-drapes). Of thethree types probably only
the coarse sands and conglom-erates have the potential for being
recognised on seismicdata. Therefore when modelling turbidite
channels it isimportant to recognise the potential for critically
differentreservoir properties at the base of channels.
4.2. Slumps and debris flows
Many channels contain slump and debris ow facies.These vary from
a few centimetres to tens of metres thick.
Fig. 12. Basal Lag facies in channel ll (see Fig. 11). The basal
lag may be repre
and (c) outcrop (mudclasts are present in the recessively
weathered areas, exam
and (e) outcrop, (Brushy Canyon Fm, Texas), which can form a
permeability ba
few metres thick. The conglomeratic basal lags are often
acoustically hard. FiAco13beadmutrasup
sen
ple
rrie
g. 1Geology 23 (2006) 821841wide variety of processes are
involved including internallyherent slides, slumps and incoherent
debris ows (Fig.ad). Some of the facies are clearly seen on seismic
to haveen derived locally by sliding and slumping from thejacent
channel walls (Fig. 13d). However, it is likely thatch of the
material has been derived by long distancensport from much further
upslope. The potentiallyporting lines of evidence for this
includes:
the debris ows may contain extraformational clastswhich are
coarser than any other material in the sandyor conglomerate facies
seen in the channel;some channels have such large volumes of
slump/debris ows that it is hard to see how all of this
ted by coarse sands and gravels (a), mud clast conglomerates in
(b) core
s arrowed, Pab Fm, Pakistan) or (d) shale by-pass drapes in (d)
core,
r or bafe. The basal lag is generally from a few tens of
centimetres to a
2c kindly supplied by Remi Eschard.
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStrolM. Mayall et al. / Marine and Pematerial
could have been derived from the local channelwalls.
Slumps and debris ows are common components ofturbidite channels
studied in outcrop e.g. Clark andPickering (1996b), Eschard et al.
(2003). Posamentier andKolla (2003) note that slumps and debris ows
are mostcommon at the early stages of a lowstand sequence butmay
also occur mid-cycle. Although they were discussingunchannelised
mass transport complexes, this wouldconcur with our own
observations that the slumps/debrisows commonly occur near the base
of channel lls.Seismically the facies usually forms
weak-moderate,
discordant to chaotic amplitude reectors. In some cases,these
facies are mostly seismically opaque and can be
Fig. 13. Slumps and debris ows in a channel ll (see Fig. 11) are
in part deriv
along the channel. Can comprise slumps (a and b), debris ows (c)
or rotatioeum Geology 23 (2006) 821841 831difcult to distinguish
from thick massive sands. This is animportant pitfall and is
discussed later.In general, the slump/debris ow facies are composed
of
muddy matrix and muddy sands to clean sands but withcomplex
contorted geometries, and as such are generallynot effective
reservoirs for oil. However, in gas reservoirsthey may contribute
to production. This facies has a greatpotential for forming
important permeability barriers orbafes during production.
4.3. Stacked high N:G channels
From a reservoir perspective, the most importantelement in the
facies ll of a channel we call stacked highnet to gross channels
(Fig. 14). This facies comprises
ed from the channel walls but also have undergone long-distance
transport
nal slide blocks (d, arrowed).
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStrolM. Mayall et al. / Marine and Pe832stacking
and amalgamation of a series of channels each ofwhich are typically
110m thick and 100500m wide. Ongood quality seismic these
individual channels, or at leastsome lengths of them, can be
resolved on amplitudeextraction maps. They are dominated by massive
sandswith Ta and Tb turbidites (Fig. 14a). Thin
mudclastconglomerates or coarse lags may mark the base of
eachchannel. Some channels showing ning/thinning upwardsof beds and
Tc, Tcd and hemipelagic shales may bepreserved at the top of the
individual channel lls. Inoutcrops in particular, it can be seen
that thickeramalgamated beds dominate the axis of the
channels,while towards the margins of each individual channel
moreshale beds were deposited and preserved resulting in
thedominance of more thinly interbedded facies and lower netto
gross (Fig. 14b) (Beaubouef, 2004; Beaubouef et al.,1999; Eschard
et al., 2003; Campion et al., 2000; Gardneret al., 2003). In
examples where there is focused stacking ofthese smaller channels
within the larger erosional conne-ment, it is common to nd axis
dominated and margin-dominated areas of the channel ll developed
(Fig. 14c).
Fig. 14. High netgross stacked channels in a channel ll (see
Fig. 11), are
interbedded sands and sales towards the margins (b). Outcrop
picture (b) from
CMchannel margin (Beaubouef et al., 1999). Stacking of the sands
may ge
upwards compaction features, arrowed (c and d).eum Geology 23
(2006) 821841This effect, combined with the contrast with the
adjacentmudstones, often results in prominent differential
compactionover the highest N:G parts of the channel ll. In
somechannels, the differential compaction effect extends tens or
evenhundreds of metres into the overlying sequence (Fig. 14c andd).
In these cases, recognising this effect can be the simplest andmost
effective approach to predicting good reservoir presenceand
location. In other channels, focused stacking may notoccur and even
in high N:G facies there may be no differentialcompaction effects
to assist reservoir prediction.Many outcrop studies of turbidite
channels focus on this
element of the channel ll sequence and there are manydetailed
descriptions and illustrations of the range of faciesand
architectural elements. These studies clearly demon-strate the
heterogeneity patterns that can develop and thedistribution of
potential barriers and bafes to uid ow(e.g. Campion et al., 2000;
Clark and Pickering, 1996a, b;Cook et al., 1994; Cronin et al.,
2000; Eschard et al., 2003;Gardner et al., 2003; Hickson and Lowe,
2002; May andWarme, 2000; Morris and Busby-Spera, 1990; Slatt,
2000;Slatt et al., 2000).
typically dominated by massive sands (a and b) but with more
thinly
the Buena Vista outcrop Brushy Canyon Fm, Texas, CAchannel
axis,
nerate well-dened axis with mounded/chaotic seismic facies and
convex-
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStrolM. Mayall et al. / Marine and PeThe high
net-to-gross stacked channel facies is clearly themost prolic and
simplest reservoir facies within the largeerosional channels. Net
to gross values are typically4070% with good connectivity, although
heterogeneitiesoccur in the form of shales deposited and preserved
at thetop of individual channels and more heterolithic facies atthe
margins.In the subsurface, the biggest pitfall with this facies
can
be in distinguishing it seismically from the slump/debrisow
facies. When the N:G is high, there may be no internalreectors to
resolve the individual channels. Only a top andbase reector may be
present with the internal seismiccharacter being opaque or weak and
discontinuous givingit a very similar seismic appearance to the
slump/debrisow facies. Additionally, the slope/debris ow facies
maygenerate a differential compaction effect through acombination
of depositional topography and the morecohesive, less compactable
mudstones in the debritescompared to adjacent mudstones. Resolving
this issuemay not be easy, even with the best quality seismic
andthere remains a risk in distinguishing between the best
Fig. 15. Sinuous channel levees as the nal ll of a channel (see
Fig. 11). High
amplitude map). The interval is dominated by a narrow sinuous
axis and thineum Geology 23 (2006) 821841 833(high N:G stacked
channels) and worst (muddy debrites)facies.
4.4. Low N:G channel levees
In many of the large erosional channels, the nal elementin the
ll comprises a highly sinuous leveed channel(Fig. 15a and b). This
nal channel may often spill beyondthe original connement of the
large erosional channel(Fig. 15a). In some cases, this may just be
a thin (410mthick, 50100m wide) nal channel with poorly
imagedlevees, which it can be argued, is just the topmost,
andtherefore the most clearly imaged channel of the high N:Gstacked
channel facies. However, in other cases the nalphase of the channel
ll is a prominent channel-leveesystem with the channel up to 500m
wide, a few tens ofmetres deep with prominent levees wedging away
fromthe channel axis. In these larger examples the channel llsare
predominantly muddy or low N:G and the leveesare dominated by
patchy sands at the base and thinlyinterbedded sands and muds in
the bulk of the levee
ly sinuous channel-levees often form the nal ll of the channels
(a, RMS
bedded sands in the levees (b).
-
(Fig. 15a). Because it occurs at the top of the channel lls,this
facies can occupy an important percentage of thehydrocarbon volume
in the trap. However, the patchydistribution of the sands and the
thin-bedded facies canmake this a difcult interval to develop.This
nal phase of the channel ll has apparently not
been widely recognised in outcrop studies. Gardner andBorer
(2000) and Gardner et al. (2003) recognise anunchannelised spill
phase as the nal phase in the channelll models for the Brushy
Canyon Formation outcrops butthis is not interpreted as a levee
deposit.In most channels, shales and silts deposited by low-
density turbidites can also be an important part of thechannel
ll. The shales were deposited during periods oftemporary channel
abandonment presumably during the4th-/5th-order highstands or if
the active coarse depositionwas diverted down a different
erosionally conned channelon the slope. The shale deposition varies
from lling most
of a channel to depositing only thin drapes. In some casesthe
channels have no active turbidite deposition for a timesuch that
calacareous, planktonic foraminifera dominatedshales may be
deposited as a condensed zone.Most large erosional channels can be
subdivided using
this broad four-fold facies scheme that breaks the
grossreservoir section into reservoir and non-reservoir compo-nents
(Fig. 11). Although most contain some volumes of allof the four
facies, they also clearly represent an idealisedmodel. Overall low
N:G erosional channel lls may containa basal lag and perhaps mostly
muddy slumps and debritesor are lled largely by large volumes of
mudstones as thechannel is abandoned. High net to gross channel lls
aredominated by thick intervals of stacked channels with onlysmall
volumes of debrite material. All variations in betweenexist (Fig.
16).Additionally and critically the ll of large 3rd-order
0.5 millions years. Incision of a smaller channel may vary
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Low N:G (0-10-20)
Channel lag small isolated (sinuous)channels
Moderate N:G (20-30-40)
Axial core concentratedin part of channel Highly layered
fill
High N:G (40-50-60+)
Stacked channels throughout
- no compaction
- local compaction
- well defined compaction
M. Mayall et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006)
821841834Fig. 16. Range of N:G ll in channels and associated
geometries.Fig. 17. Repeated cutting and lling within a large
3rd-order channel. In thisfrom very moderate erosion of earlier
deposited channel llto severe erosion and substantial removal of
earlier llsediments. This process has three very important
implica-tions for reservoir distribution and connectivity
(Mayallerosional channels is rarely simple. Most have been
re-occupied repeatedly in a history of repeated cutting andlling.
The repeated cutting and lling of turbidite channelsis discussed
below.
5. Repeated cutting and lling
In most cases, the large erosional 3rd-order channelsappear to
be relatively long-lived features. The lls of thechannels have
often been re-incised by erosion and then in-lled two, three or
even four times by smaller 4/5th-orderchannels. Biostratigraphic
control in some of the largeerosional channels indicates that they
were conduits forsediment transport along the slope over periods of
up toexample only modest erosion is observed at the base of each
cut (yellow).
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStroleumanFig
1.
Fig
san
debM. Mayall et al. / Marine and Ped OByrne, 2002). These issues
are illustrated ins. 1719.
In the case of extensive erosion, which is not unusual,earlier
channel-ll deposits may be preserved only aserosional remnants
scattered throughout the channel.Even with good quality seismic
data this can makemapping of the resulting complex stratigraphy
withinthe channel very difcult. With poor quality seismic
datacorrelation of logs can become very perplexing.
Fig. 18. Example of complex repeated cut and
. 19. The large erosional 3rd-order channel is divided into a
series of sma
dy channel of sequence 2 and is lled with muddy debris ows. As a
result se
ris ow ll of sequence 3. Isochron scale from ca. 50m, purple to
0m, bro2.
3.
ll. I
ller
que
wn.Geology 23 (2006) 821841 835The facies at the base of each
4/5th-order inll sequenceis critical to the connectivity across the
larger erosionalchannel. If these facies are composed of
mudclastconglomerates or shale drapes they may result inbarriers or
bafes within the reservoir.The inll of each 4/5th-order channel ll
sequenceusually varies. If one channel ll is dominated by
muddyslumps/debris ows the entire channel ll can act
tocompartmentalise the reservoirs within the erosionalremnants of
earlier channel lls. Additionally, such
nterpretation of erosional cuts in yellow.
4/5th-order channels (sequences 15). Sequence 3 partially erodes
the
nce 2 comprises a series of erosional remnants separated by the
muddy
-
channel lls can be difcult to distinguish within anotherwise
sand-dominated ll, even with good qualityseismic due to the complex
internal stratigraphy. Inthese circumstances, they can have an
importantnegative and unanticipated impact on
hydrocarbonvolumes.
The repeated cutting and lling is a feature of mostsubsurface
examples in even moderate quality seismic data.In outcrops, this
characteristic is harder to map on all butthe largest exposures,
however excellent examples havebeen documented from a number of
areas (e.g. Clark andPickering, 1996b; Eschard et al., 2003;
Gardner et al.,2003).In our experience, repeated cutting and lling
are a
common, extensive and important process within mostlarge
3rd-order erosional channels. Recognising, interpret-ing and
mapping these features in as much detail aspossible is a crucial
element, that must be undertaken earlyin the process of evaluating
the large erosional channels.Such is the extent of the process that
even if the seismic
does not allow direct observation of repeated erosion, theyare
likely to be present. In these circumstances, it may beimportant to
include the architecture conceptually as asensitivity in a
reservoir model and may help in trying toexplain perplexing and
inconsistent log correlation and/orbiostratigrahic dating within
the channel ll.
6. Stacking patterns
In the above section, the characteristic of repeated cuttingand
lling of 4/5th-order channels within the large 3rd-ordererosional
channel was described. An additional and criticalfactor in
determining reservoir distribution and effectiveexploitation of
reserves is in the way the channels stack.A wide variety of
stacking patterns can be developed
(Clark and Pickering, 1996a, b). Vertical stacking may
beproduced by focusing of the channel cutting and llingevents
leading to the pronounced differential compactiondescribed above.
Lateral stacking is common and may takethe form of systematic
stacking in one direction oralternating on either side of a
pre-existing channel. Inpractice, an element of both vertical and
lateral stacking isusually present although one form of stacking
usuallypredominates.Additionally, it is quite usual for the
stacking patterns to
vary over short distances along the length of a channel.Fig. 20
shows an example where four discrete segments ofstacking can be
recognised over an 8 km length of channelall within a hydrocarbon
eld. Fig. 21 illustrate otherexamples of changes in stacking
pattern style over shortdistances along a channel. The cause of
changes in stackingstyle can be difcult to recognise, but are
probably relatedto local subtle variations in sea-oor topography
and/orsubsidence.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
rde
S a
M. Mayall et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006)
821841836Fig. 20. Wide range and rapid change in stacking pattern
style of 4th/5th-o
Base of channel shown by yellow pick, palaeoow from NS. Map is
an RMLine 1 mostly lateral stacking in different directions, line 2
strong vertical stack
in different directions.r channels over short distances within a
large erosional 3rd-order channel.
mplitude extraction over a 30ms window in the middle of the
channels ll.ing, line 3 lateral stacking in one direction, line 4
return to lateral stacking
-
ARTICLE IN PRESS
lar
dis
trolIn our experience, changes in stacking style are
extremelycommon along the length of a channel, in fact they are
tobe expected. Generally, a reservoir model based on one
Fig. 21. Dramatic change is stacking style of 4/5th-order
channels within a
can result in dramatically different reservoir distribution
patterns over short
same channel.
M. Mayall et al. / Marine and Pestyle of stacking may be
completely inappropriate for largesegments of the
reservoir.Recognising the stacking patterns within the channels
is also critical in designing the location and orientationof
development wells (Mayall and OByrne, 2002).As discussed earlier,
there is a risk that the faciesat the base of a channel may act as
permeabilitybarriers or bafes. Development wells, both pro-ducers
and injectors, need to be designed to mitigatethis risk by crossing
as many potential barriers/bafesas possible and to connect the best
reservoir facies.In examples where the stacking patterns
changealong the structure this may require radically differentwell
trajectories and azimuths to effectively exploit
theresource.Critically this can potentially impact
consideration
of a development concept (Mayall and OByrne, 2002)(Fig. 22).
Developing a eld from a xed platform hasmany advantages of dry
trees allowing easier access towells for workovers, etc. However,
from a single xedplatform well designs may have a complex range
oforientations to effectively exploit the reservoir. Thiscan lead
to difcult and expensive wells and potentiallylimit data collection
in the well. With a subsea develop-ment the more exible drill
centre locations can beoptimised to allow optimum penetration of
the reservoirwith simpler, cheaper wells. The relationship between
faciesdistribution, stacking patterns and well design is a
relation-ship that needs to be considered as early as possible in
aproject.
ge erosional 3rd-order channel (yellow pick). Switching of the
channel axis
tances along a channel. These two seismic lines are ca. 1 km
apart along the
eum Geology 23 (2006) 821841 8377. Conclusions
Turbidite channel reservoirs often form highly
complexreservoirs. A combination of highly variable facies
andcomplex internal stratigraphy makes description andprediction of
the reservoirs very difcult even with highquality seismic data.
These effects essentially result in eachchannel being unique, and
from a practical perspective,simple channel-ll models have limited
value and applica-tion. However, within most channels there are a
series ofrecurring features which, in analysing them, provides
anapproach to understanding the distribution of reservoirfacies and
heterogeneities within large (13 km wide), 3rd-order,
erosionally-based channels.
7.1. Sinuosity
Most turbidite channels are variably sinuous. Thesinuosity of
the channels is created by a number ofdifferent processes including
erosion, lateral stacking,lateral accretion and sea-oor topography.
The differentstyles of sinuosity can strongly effect the
distribution ofreservoir facies.
7.2. Facies
The potential reserve facies which ll turbiditechannels can be
grouped into four associations. Each of
-
ARTICLE IN PRESStroleum838thesei
Fig
uni
Fig
in c
toM. Mayall et al. / Marine and Pese can often be identied on
even moderate qualitysmic data.
basal lags of coarse sand/conglomerates, mudclastconglomerates
or shale drapes;
50m
1km
Mudstones Channel ma
Coarse chan
Stacked cha
Mudclast conglomeratesLevee deposits
Slump / Debris flows
Shales presestacked chan
. 23. Summary model showing the potential reservoir distribution
and hete
que but can be interpreted by considering:
The sinuositythere may be a number of different causes
The four main faciesbasal lags, slumps, high N:G channels,
channel leve
Repeated cutting and llingit is probably there, even if it
cannot be ima
Stacking patternsrapid changes can be expected along the
channel
. 22. Drilling from a xed location platform may result in
development well
ompletion success and restrict data collection. The more exible
location of
be drilled (b). Figures made by Ciaran OByrne.
rgin
nel
nne
rvene
rog
e
ged
s wi
muGeology 23 (2006) 821841slumps and debris ows which may be
locally derivedfrom the collapse of channel walls or from long
distancetransport;high netgross stacked channels form the best
qualityreservoirs;
lags
l sands in axis
d inl sands
eneity patterns in a large 3rd-order erosional channel. Each
channel is
.
th very complex trajectories (a). The complex designs may result
in risk
ltiple drilling manifolds in a sub-sea scheme require less
complex wells
-
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Turbidite channel reservoirs--Key elements in facies prediction
and effective developmentIntroductionStratigraphic setting and
terminologySinuosityInitial erosive baseLateral stackingLateral
accretionSea-floor topography
FaciesBasal lagsSlumps and debris flowsStacked high N:G
channelsLow N:G channel levees
Repeated cutting and fillingStacking
patternsConclusionsSinuosityFaciesRepeated cutting and
fillingStacking patterns
AcknowledgementsReferences