Materials Used in Bone Repair A Look at the History of Technology and Methods Used By Halley McLaren and Leonardo Larocca
Materials Used in Bone Repair
A Look at the History of Technology and Methods Used
By Halley McLaren and Leonardo Larocca
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In this presentation we will discuss:
An overview of the material and structural properties of bone
Types of bone breaks and traditional ways to mend bone
How new materials including ceramics and polymers are breaking through the limitations of traditional bone healing practices
How stem cells and biomaterials are being used to build bone from scratch
Developing methods of the future
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Bone composition (1)
Composite phase
Organic & inorganic
Living, vascular
Composition changes over location & time
3 parts: matrix, cells, marrow
Dense cortical bone & cancellous/trabecular bone (has spaces)
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The Three Functional Divisions (1)(11)(12)
MatrixStrength/elasticity & mineral storeCollagen (protein) 70-90% of non-mineralized ECM &hydroxyapatite (HA) Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 70% of boneNon-collagenous proteins -made by bone cells & regulate bone mineralization and remodelling
Bone CellsOsteoblasts – productionOsteocytes – maintenanceOsteoclasts – reabsorbtion of bone
MarrowOsteogenic stem cells originate here
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Structure (1) (2)
Strongest along axis which is parallel to the collagen fiber mineral crystal axes (anisotropic)
Almost as strong as steel, but lighter and more elastic
Cortical bone found on bone’s exterior & is stiff
Cancellous bone provides network of spaces for marrow
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Understanding Bone Fractures
Main categories are:CompleteIncompleteSimple (closed)Compound (open)
[22]
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Understanding Bone Fractures
[23]
Some types of bone fractures
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Problems associated with bone fractures
Blood lossVeins or arteries damaged
Injury to organs, tissues or surrounding structuresStunted growth of the bone
injury to the lining of the bone (periosteum)Specialized connective tissueBone-forming potentialities
[24]
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Traditional methods used to solve fractures
Plaster of ParisExternal fixationInternal fixation [28]
[28]
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Complications of methods
Poor alignment of the limbIncorrectly fitted plaster castInfectionInadequate stabilization after the break/fractureInadequate blood flow
These complications may not permita proper bone healing
[24]
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More susceptible areas
[26] [27]
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Biocompatibility: Titanium
Excellent corrosion resistanceWhich limits ions released into the tissue
Poor tribological propertiesInteracting with surfaces that are in relative motionSignificant release rates when sliding against another material
Production of pigmentation on the skintoxicological and clinical significance of this is not clear
[33]
[33]
[33]
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Titanium is still an intrinsically safe biomaterialMay be used with minimal risk under many well-defined conditionsIf large amounts of titanium are released as a result of enhanced wear critical level of reactivity may be reached
Biocompatibility: Titanium
[33]
[33]
[33]
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Ti-based amorphous alloysThey do not contain Al and Ni elementsExcellent potentiality of corrosion resistanceHigher strength and lower Young's modulus than pure Ti and Ti–6Al–4V (Titanium-Aluminum-Vanadium) alloy
Ex: (TixZryTaz)85Si15
Biocompatibility: Titanium Alloy
[34]
[34]
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Problems with traditional materials for bone implants (13)
E.g. plastics & stainless steel have different properties than bone (3)
May have to be replaced after a few years because of absorption (3) (5)
Invasive (3)
Surrounding real bone atrophies from not bearing weight (3)
Suppress osteogenicdifferentiation (4)
Immune response (4)
Inflammation (5)
Chronic soreness (10)
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Problems with Traditional Implants (8)(14)
The “glue” that attaches solid metal & ceramic joint replacements to bone usually wears out
Solid ceramic bone implants are made of the same materials as real bones, but real bone is hard on the outside and porous on the inside
Porous scaffolds allow real bone to grow into holes so the glue is trivial
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Grafting Versus BGSs (1)
Grafts useful for severe & large breaks with a stabilization apparatusBone grafting ideal – bone renews naturallyProblems with Grafting
Not enough supply for demande.g. hip repair may take 4-6 femoral heads
Auto graft risks weakening another boneRisk of disease & ethical issues
Bone graft requirementsOsseointegrationBe osteoconductiveBe osteoinductive
Many synthetic bone-graft substitutes (BGSs) can fit all these requirements and be produced limitlessly
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What is required of a material for use in bone repair? (1) (3)
2 Main Design Consideration Groups:
Chemistry & BiocompatibilityThe scaffold either needs to be biodegradable for new bone to take its place, or remain in the bodyBe active in promoting the differentiation of stem cells
Specific Mechanical PropertiesThe scaffold has to have a porous network to encourage bone and vascular growthHave enough strength to bear appropriate weight
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Analysis of a few bone graft substitutes:
Synthetic polymers
Collagen-hydroxyapatite composite (both naturally occurring in bone)
Nano bones
Stem Cells
Bones created from sea-water-frozen scaffolds
Biomaterial ink jet printer
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Synthetic Polymer Scaffolds (4)(15)
AdvantagePore size can be easily controlled Some patented compositions claim to be non-toxic
DisadvantagesChemicals such as additives or traces of catalysts may be released from the polymer & cause adverse reactions Polymeric scaffolds can often take a few years to degrade whereas collagen-HA composites may only take a few months to a year Osteogenic cells fuse better to collagen surfaces than polymers
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Collagen (4)(16)
StrengthsCollagen is naturally occurring in bone and thus is biocompatibleIt is easily broken down and reabsorbed within the body
WeaknessHas low mechanical properties (E ~100 MPa) compared to bone (E ~2-50GPa)
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Hydroxyapatite (HA) (7)(19)
HA is classified as a ceramicSynthetic HA has a similar composition to HA found in boneStrengths
BiocompatibleOsteoconductive
Weaknessfragile and weaker than cortical bone
Useful for dental fillings or coatings on implanted bones where there is not a lot of stress
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Collagen & HA Composite (4)(1)
Extra-cellular matrix is 95% collagen and HATogether they have better mechanical properties than one material alone
Collagen is ductileHydroxyapatite is brittle
Individually, they influence osteoblast differentiation Together they enhance:
osteogenesisosteoconductive properties
Many different patents on this composite material
Different size/number of poresDifferent ratio of materialsSource of collagenDensityDefect chemistry of HAParticle size
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Three Methods of Fabrication (4)(17)
Method 1: Collagen-HA Heat Gels
Liposomes have a polar phospholipid layer Can deliver water-soluble drugs & materialsCalcium and phosphate ions can be held in liposomes & added to collagen acidic gel suspensionGel inserted into skeletal defectBody heat initiates gel formation A collagen fibrous network forms & minerals start to deposit
Method 2: Water/Oil Suspension
Collagen-HA gel beads are used as injection bone fillersA collagen suspension is mixed with powdered HAWhen heated & mixed in olive oil, collagen fused & remodeled shapeDisadvantages:
Cannot remove all the oil when doneViscosity of injection mixture too low when in contact with body fluids –not stable
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Method of Fabrication 3 (4)
Critical Point ScaffoldsForms porous matrixIce crystals form between collagen fibresAt CP liquid & vapour appear identicalUnique pressure & temperature Above CP surface tension is small - minute matrix collapseCO2 (31.1°C, 7.3MPa) has lower CP than H2O (364°C, 22.1MPa) –preferredBenefits:
Low residueEasy ice removalPore size determined by:
• Freezing rate• Solubility of the
suspension• Collagen concentration
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NanoBones (5)(18)
Main material is calcium phosphorus on the scale of 30 nm x 60 nm
The key is that:On a large scale calcium phosphorus will not degradeOn a nanoscale calcium phosphorus does degrade
Nanoscale material degrades after 6 months and natural bone fills gaps
Successful trials & approved by China's & Germany’s FDA & has a good chance to be approved by U.S. FDA
Experimenting being done with nanotechnology for repair of brain and the liver
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NanoBones (5)(18)
AdvantagesRemain in body for a relatively short period of time Lowered risk of infectionNo operation for removalLowered risk of breakage of new boneLess pain
DisadvantagesHas only been proven effective on small bones less than 2 cm
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Ceramics and Stem Cells
Technology that combine cells capable of osteogenic activity with an appropriate scaffolding material
Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) combined with hydroxyapatite/b-tricalciumphosphate (HA/TCP) ceramic scaffolds20%HA / 80%TCP induce bone formation in large, long bone defects
[35]
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Stem Cells
OverviewEmbryonic stem cells
Can differentiate into all of the 220 types of cells found in the human body
Adult stem cellsLimited in flexibilityResearch using adult stem cells has a two decade head start on embryonic stem cells
[29]
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Bone healing with Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSC)
The MSC is the basic cellular unitBone regeneration mimics bone healing and can be achieved with MSC combined with strategies of:
OsteogenesisOsteoinductionOsteoconductionOsteopromotion
[32]
[32]
31
MSC and their progeny respond aggressively to local mechanical forces:
low-to-moderate magnitudes of tensile strain and hydrostatic tensile stress may stimulate new bone formationThis occurs because of deformation or elongation of cellsCellular deformation results in intracellular signals, which in turn encourage regenerating cells to proliferate and follow an osteoblastic lineage
Bone healing with MSC [32]
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The effect of the mechanical environment on bone regeneration
Compressive forces: chondrogenesis is favoredTensile forces: osteogenesis is favored
[32]
Bone healing with MSC
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The effect of the mechanical environment on bone regeneration:
distractive forces: osteogenesis is favored
[32]
Bone healing with MSC
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The effect of the mechanical environment on bone regeneration:
Several strategies have been employed to impart an optimal mechanical environment for osteopromotionOrthopedic fixation devices [32]
Bone healing with MSC
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Bone healing with MSC [32]
[32]
Immunologically privilegedThese techniques utilize osteoconductive and osteoinductive carriersMSC can be manipulated and combined with carriers that will result in bone regeneration of critically sized bone defects
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Improving on Stem Cell Implantation
Bone marrow is taken from the patient, processed, & stem cells are transplanted into fracture site
At least 40,000 people have already been treated by this method
Method can be improved by increasing survival and creation of transplanted cells – just about 1 in 20,000 bone-marrow cells is a bone-producing stem cell
Comb scaffolds containing epidermal growth factor (EGF) help survival rate
A goal is to be able to remove bone marrow from a patient & immediately separate the stem cells in a scaffold enhance their growth & survival, then implant the cells into the patient.
[36]
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Sea Water Scaffolds (6) (10)
Seawater freezes to make a porous framework with wafer-like layers
Mirrors intricate structure of nacre (mother of pearl-CaCO3)-finely layered, found in mollusk shells
Nacre’s construction in the mm scale differs from its’ nm scale
Freezing a watery suspension of HA concentrates the HA in the spaces between the ice crystals which makes nacre-like layers
Increasing the rate freezing reduces the size of the layers
Smallest size developed so far is 1 micron, whereas nacre is ½ a micron
Nature’s architecture with scientists selection of materials
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Sea Water Formed Bones (6)
StrengthMechanical strength is 4 times stronger than traditional HA scaffoldsLightweightRough layers help adhesionSpace between layers can be filled with organic polymer that degrades over weeks to release antibiotics & bone growth stimulating compoundsBone fills pores
WeaknessCurrently in experimental stage
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Biomaterials Ink Jet Printer - Background (9)
Exact shapes of gaps in bone are printed and inserted into body
Grafts are printed layer by layer to mock real bone structure
“Paper” = thin bed of cement-like powder
“Ink” = acid and more cement powder
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Ink Jet Printer (9)(20)
Advantages
Takes around 10 minutes to print
Printer is only around 1-2 sq m in size
Graft is biocompatible (made of similar materials to real bone) , will dissolve & be replaced by new bone
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Ink Jet Printer (9)(21)
Daily Mail Very big advantageHoles in graft can be precisely deignedBone can be channeled to grow in a specific direction
cosmetic surgeryreconstructive surgery Spinal surgery
DisadvantageThis technology is still far from being an established method
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Summing up the materials
There is no definitive material or method used for bone repair that will always yield the best results. The size and the severity of the damage are factors will influence the type of bone repair implemented. The technology is continuously changing.
The movement away from old bone repair techniques to dissolving scaffolds is promising because:
Biocompatible materials and scaffolds that mimic natural bone structure will integrate better with bone & support new growthNo need for replacement Less invasiveReal bone is strengthenedReal bone eventually replaces scaffoldLess chance of a negative immune responseNot as painful
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(18) NanoBone® remodelling : Bone Grafting Material Nanotechnology for strong bones. (06/2005) [online] Available: www.artoss.com/redaktion/download.php?id=10&type=file(19) Hydroxyapatite. (28 August 2008 )[online] Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyapatite(20) Bioprinters vs. the Meatrix. (2006). [online] Available: www.boingboing.net/2006/12/19/index.html(21) Erin McCarthy E. (December 12, 2006) Bio-Inkjet Printer Draws Muscle and Bone. Popular Mechanics.
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