v Contents List of Figuresvii List of Tablesviii Series Editors
Preface ix Acknowledgements xi Notes on Contributors xii 1
Materials in ELT: Current Issues1 Sue Garton and Kathleen Graves
Part I Global and Local Materials 2 The ELT Textbook 19 Jack C.
Richards 3 Global vs. Local: Does It Matter? 37 Mario Lpez-Barrios
and Elba Villanueva de Debat 4 Adapting Materials to Meet the
Literacy Needs of Young Bahraini Learners 53 Sahar al Majthoob 5
Cultural Representations in Algerian English Textbooks 69 Hayat
Messekher Part II Materials in the Classroom 6 Coping with New
Teaching Approaches and Materials: An East-European EFL Teachers
Interpretation of Communicative Teaching Activities 89 Kristjan
Seferaj 7 Materials Adaptation in Ghana: Teachers Attitudes and
Practices 104 Esther G. Bosompem 8 Multilevel Materials for
Multilevel Learners121 Apiwan Nuangpolmak 9 Designing Effective,
Culturally, and Linguistically Responsive Pedagogy 141 Josie Guiney
Igielski Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
9781137023292viContents Part III Materials and Technology 10English
Language Learning through Mobile Phones 159 Arifa Rahman and Tanya
Cotter 11 Using Interactive Fiction for Digital Game-based Language
Learning 178 Joe Pereira 12Using Web 2.0 Tools in CLIL198 Fabrizio
Maggi, Maurizia Cherubin and Enrique Garca Pascual Part IV
Materials and Teacher Education 13 The Story Reading Project:
Integrating Materials Development with Language Learning and
Teaching for NNES Teachers in Training 219 Bonny Tibbitts and
Patricia Pashby 14Teaching Pre-service EFL Teachers to Analyse and
Adapt Published Materials: An Experience from Brazil 237 Eliane H.
Augusto-Navarro, Luciana C. de Oliveira, and Denise M. de
Abreu-e-Lima 15Factors Influencing Japanese Teachers Adoption of
Communication-oriented Textbooks253 Simon Humphries 16 Materials
and ELT: Looking Ahead 270 Kathleen Graves and Sue Garton Suggested
Reading280Index285 Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted
material 97811370232921 Overview
Materialsingeneral,andcommercialmaterialsinparticular,playacentral
role in language learning and teaching. As Richards (2001: 251)
notes Much of the language teaching that occurs throughout the
world today could not take place without the extensive use of
commercial materials. Yet, until relatively recently, this was a
neglected area in English Language Teaching (ELT) research and
publication. Tomlinson (2012) identifies the early nineties as the
decade in which serious attention began to be shown towards
materials development. Fortunately, the last few years have seen an
increase in this attention with a
numberofnewpublications,includingHarwood(2010),Tomlinson(2008),
TomlinsonandMasuhara(2010a),Tomlinson(2013),aswellasneweditions
ofpreviouspublications(McDonoughandShaw,1993,2003;McDonough, Shaw
and Masuhara, 2013; Tomlinson, 1998, 2011). An important
contribution
tothefieldhasalsocomefromTomlinsons(2012)state-of-the-artreviewof
materials development. Two things are noticeable about the majority
of these publications, however. First, the field is generally
under-researched. Many of the books published are
howtobooks,withadviceforteachers(seeforexampleMcDonough,Shaw
andMasuhara,2013;McGrath,2002;Tomlinson,2003,2011).Thesebooks may
draw on research and theory, especially in Second Language
Acquisition
(SLA),buttheyarenotbasedonresearchstudiesintomaterials.Mostcer-tainly
such volumes have an important role to play but we think it is fair
to say that the field is generally lacking in empirical studies, a
point also made
byChapelle(2009)inrelationtomaterialsevaluationandTomlinsonand
Masuhara (2010b) in relation to materials development. Three
notable excep-tions are the edited collections by Harwood (2010),
Tomlinson and Masuhara (2010a) and Tomlinson (2013). The chapters
in these volumes generally take a more theoretical perspective in
looking at what underlies the development of 1 Materials in ELT:
Current Issues Sue Garton and KathleenGraves Copyrighted material
9781137023292Copyrighted material 97811370232922Sue Garton and
Kathleen
GravesELTmaterials,althoughtheytendagaintobebasedonrelatingtheoriesof
language and language learning to materials development rather than
research into the materials themselves or their use.
Thesecondpointtobemadeisthatthemajorityofpreviouspublications focus
primarily on certain aspects of ELT materials. Thus we find books
and chaptersonmaterialsdesignanddevelopment(Harwood,2010;Jollyand
Bolitho,2011;McGrath,2002),materialsevaluationandadaptation(Islam
andMares,2003;Littlejohn,2011;McDonough,ShawandMasuhara,2013;
McGrath,2002;NationandMacalister,2010;Richards,2001),thematerials
writing process (Bell and Gower, 2011; Mares, 2003; Maley, 2003)
and types of materials (Tomlinson, 2008). Tomlinsons (2012) review,
for example, is concerned with materials devel-opment, which he
sees as both practical and a field of academic study. From a
practical point of view, it involves the production, evaluation and
adaptation of materials (p. 144), while as an object of study, the
focus is on the
princi-plesandproceduresofthedesign,writing,implementation,evaluationand
analysis of materials (p. 144). There seems to be, however, a
curious omission from these definitions that of use. Any view of
materials that neglects their actual use by teachers and/or
learners can, in our view, only be partial, and yet none of the
recent publications listed above (and indeed earlier ones such as
Cunningsworth,1995;McDonoughandShaw,1993;Tomlinson,1998)focus
onthisaspect,althoughTomlinson(2012)doessaythatinvestigationsinto
materials should ideally inform and be informed by their use.
Thisvolumethereforefocusesnotonlyonmaterialsbutontheiruse,not only
by teachers but also by learners. Where it is original is in the
number of chapters written either by or about practitioners and
based on research into the preparation and use of materials in
everyday teaching in a variety of contexts around the world.
Thefieldofmaterialsisvastandcannotpossiblybecoveredinoneintro-ductory
chapter. What follows will focus on the areas identified by the
contrib-utors to this volume as important in their work. As such,
it will examine aspects of materials that have been neglected, as
well as look at more common aspects from new perspectives. The
coursebook Current developments in materials, particularly in the
use of technology (see for example, Macaro, Handley and Walter,
2012; Maggi, Cherubin and Garcia
Pascual,Chapter12;Pereira,Chapter11;RahmanandCotter,Chapter10),
challengetraditionaldefinitions.Harwood(2010:3)usesthetermmaterials
to include texts in all forms (paper, audio, video) and language
learning tasks, with the expressed intention of including
everything from teacher handouts Copyrighted material
9781137023292Copyrighted material 9781137023292Materials in ELT:
Current Issues3to global coursebooks 1 . Tomlinson (2011: 2) gives
an even broader definition when he states that materials are
anything which is used by teachers or learners to facilitate the
learning of a language. His list of examples ranges from videos,
emails and YouTube to grammar books, food packages and instructions
given by the teacher.
Yetinspiteofthebroaddefinitionsofmaterialsthatarenowgenerally
accepted, the coursebook is still ubiquitous and plays a
fundamental role in ELT around the world (Littlejohn, 2011;
Richards, Chapter 2; Tomlinson, 2003), as can be seen in the number
of chapters in this volume that focus on some aspect of it. Thus we
find discussions of different types of coursebooks (Lopez-Barrios
and Villanueva de Debat, Chapter 3; Richards, Chapter 2); of how
coursebook materials are developed to meet local conditions (al
Majthoob, Chapter 4) and of cultural content (Messekher, Chapter
5). Other chapters focus on how teachers use coursebooks and
factors affecting their decisions (Bosompem, Chapter 7; Humphries,
Chapter 15; Seferaj, Chapter 6) or how they can be used in teacher
education (Augusto-Navarro, de Oliveira and Abreu-e-Lima, Chapter
14). The global coursebook The advantages and disadvantages of
global coursebooks are well documented
intheliterature,aswellasbeingexperiencedbyteachersintheirdailypro-fessional
practice. Below is a list that some of Gartons students on a
graduate TESOL programme drew up when asked why they would or would
not want to use a coursebook in their teaching:Why use a
coursebook? 1.It gives structure to lessons and to a course. 2. It
saves time teachers are too busy to prepare their own materials. 3.
It gives a sense of security teachers feel they know what they are
doing. 4.Itpromotesautonomyaslearnerscanuseandrefertoitoutsidethe
classroom.
5.Itisreliableasitiswrittenbyexpertsandpublishedbywell-known
publishers. 6.It gives a sense of professionalism in the way it is
presented. 7. It offers different perspectives as it focuses on
different cultures and different places. Why not use a coursebook?
1.It cannot meet the needs of a particular group of learners. 2.
The language taught might not be appropriate. 3. It might not be
culturally appropriate. 4.It is outdated. Copyrighted material
9781137023292Copyrighted material 97811370232924Sue Garton and
Kathleen Graves 5. It is not authentic. 6.It is not representative
of the local context. 7. It takes away the teachers creativity.
Perhapsunsurprisingly,thislistisverysimilartothoseintheliterature(see
for example, Masuhara and Tomlinson, 2008; McGrath, 2002; Richards,
2001, Chapter 2).
DifferentviewsofcoursebookswerealsonotedbyMcGrath(2006)inthe
metaphorsthatteachersusetodescribethem.McGrath(2006:174)catego-risedthesemetaphorsintofourgroups,onacontinuumfromdependence
toindependence,thefirstthreeofwhichdemonstratedarelativelypositive
attitude:Guidance(map,compass);Support(anchor,petrol);Resource(con-veniencestore,menu);Constraint(millstone,straightjacket).Althoughthis
study,andthelistabove,showthatteachersgenerallyhavequitefavourable
views of coursebooks, they also underline a certain ambivalence and
highlight a number of issues.
In-depthreviewsbyTomlinson,Dat,MasuharaandRubdy(2001)and Masuhara,
Hann, Yi and Tomlinson, (2008) have revealed perhaps less obvious
issueswiththeglobalcoursebook.Forexample,overallTomlinson,Dat,
MasuharaandRubdy(2001)foundthatthecoursebookstheyrevieweddid not
encourage adaptation or facilitate the tailoring of the materials
to learners
needsortolocalcontexts.Moreover,Masuhara,Hann,YiandTomlinson (2008)
found a lack of suggestions for personalisation, localisation and
mixed-level classes. They also found that topics were generally
banal and that there was a focus on politeness rather than conflict
and competition. Yet most of the above are issues that have long
been recognised as key principles that should underlie successful
materials (see, for example, Tomlinson, 2008, 2011, 2012). Critical
views InthewakeofcriticalapproachestoTESOL(see,forexampleBlock,Gray
andHolborrow,2012;Edge,2006)globalcoursebookshavealsocomeunder more
critical scrutiny. At its most basic this can be seen in the open
acknow-ledgement that global publishing is a multi-million pound
business (Masuhara
andTomlinson,2008),arealisationthatisoftensomethingofasurpriseto
graduatestudentsandteachers.MasuharaandTomlinson(2008)pointout
that, in an attempt to maximise profits, global coursebooks for
general English are aimed at the dual markets of language courses
in English-speaking coun-tries and in English as a Foreign language
contexts. The result is that they may not satisfy the needs of
learners and teachers in either (Masuhara et al. 2008: 310) and al
Majthoob (Chapter 4) makes a strong case for materials that reflect
different realities. Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted
material 9781137023292Materials in ELT: Current Issues5 Tomlinson
(2008) even goes so far as to assert that coursebooks are at least
partlytoblameforthefailureoflearnerstolearninthattheyconformto
theexpectationsofstakeholdersandthedemandsofthemarketrather
thantowhatweknowaboutlanguageacquisitionandthelearningprocess.
UnderlyingTomlinsonscriticismarepedagogicalpremises,whichstillview
materials as curriculum artefacts (Apple and Christian-Smith, 1991:
4 as cited in Gray, 2010: 2). However, Gray (2010, 2012), building
on the work of critical applied linguists such as Pennycook (1994)
and Phillipson (1992, 2009) makes a compelling case for considering
the global coursebook as a cultural artefact
whichpresentsaparticularviewofrealityandisvalueladen.Hedescribes
how ELT publishers focus on aspirational content with frequent use
of topics
aroundpersonalandprofessionalsuccess,celebrities,cosmopolitanismand
travel, all of which are believed to be motivating for language
learners (Gray, 2012: 87) and with the underlying message that
English equates with success
(Gray,2012:104).However,suchimagesmaynotbemotivatingandmaybe
resisted by learners (Canagarajah, 1993) or may leave them feeling
inadequate (Masuhara and Tomlinson, 2008: 19). The values portrayed
by coursebooks are also inscribed in the methodological
approachestheyadopt(ProdromouandMishen,2008).Globalcoursebooks tend
to be based on approaches developed in western academic
departments,
exhibitingwhatProdromouandMishen(2008:194)callmethodological
correctness. They define methodological correctness as: a set of
beliefs derived from prestigious but incomplete academic research
in the Anglophone centre that influence the decisions one makes
regarding materials and methods in the classroom, even if those
decisions are incon-sistent with the local context and particular
needs and wants of the students. (ibid.: 194) The effects of the
introduction of western methodological approaches, and the pressure
it may put on teachers who are expected to use new approaches and
materials,arewelldocumented(seeGarton,CoplandandBurns,2011fora
summary of the issues).
Gray(2012:111)callsforalternativearticulationsofEnglish,acallthatis
reflectedinalternativeapproachessuchasthatoutlinedbyGuineyIgielski
(Chapter 9) through the development of materials that are based in
culturally and linguistically responsive pedagogy.
However,inspiteofcriticisms,teachersandlearnersthemselvesmaygen-erally
view global coursebooks favourably, albeit with a healthy lack of
idealism (Yakhontova, 2001; Zacharias, 2005). This is far from the
view of teachers and learners as unquestioning consumers, which
sometimes seems to emerge from more critical approaches to
materials. Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
97811370232926Sue Garton and Kathleen Graves Global vs. local
coursebooks An alternative to the global coursebook lies in books
that are produced for spe-cific countries or regions. In some cases
these are local versions of global books; in others they are books
written especially for a particular country, either by
expertsfromEnglish-speakingcountries,orbylocalwriters,orincollabor-ation.
The solution in China has been to use cooperation between local
edu-cation departments, local publishers, overseas publishers and
textbook writers
(Hu,2005).AlMajthoob(Chapter4)providesanexcellentexampleofhow
alocalversionofacoursebookcanmeettheneedsoflearnersinaspecific
context far more effectively than any global coursebook.
However,thesebooksdonotnecessarilyaddresstheissuesraisedabovein
relation to global coursebooks. As Hoque (2009) points out, in
Bangladesh, for example, textbook writing committees are led by
academics with little experience of teaching in schools. Taking the
case of Algeria, Messekher (Chapter 5) notes how, even in locally
produced coursebooks, the culture of Inner Circle (Krachu, 1985)
countries may still predominate, and even where local culture is
included, it may be in a diluted form. Moreover, the approach taken
to culture is one of acritical information-giving, which does
little to develop the intercultural aware-ness needed by learners
who are more likely to be using English to communicate
withothernon-nativespeakersthanwithnativespeakers 2 .AsGravesand
Garton note (Chapter 16) localizing content enables learners to
talk and write about their own experiences, concerns and culture
through English. Producing
localtextbooksthatdonotreflectlocalcontextsseemslikeamissedoppor-tunity
to promote positive attitudes towards both local culture and
English. Interestingly, Chapelle (2009) points to US national
guidelines that state the focus of materials should be on contexts
where language is used. Given that, in the case of English, that
now means everywhere in the world, all materials should be taking
an awareness-raising approach to language and culture (see Graves
and Garton, Chapter 16). However, local publishers can also have a
positive influence on their global counterparts. Prodromu and
Mishen (2008) look at the example of Greece as
whattheycall(ibid.:203)aninterestingexampleofthelocaldetermining
the global, the periphery fighting back against the centre. In
response to local demands, Greek publishers produced coursebooks
that introduced a stronger
form-focusedelement,whichwasnotonlymoresuitedtolocalculturesof
learning (Jin and Cortazzi, 2006) but also went some way to
reinstating
prac-ticesthathadlongfallenoutoffavour,suchasuseoftheL1andgrammar
explanations. As a result, this hybrid approach has now become the
norm in materials published for the Greek market.
Itisworthnotingthatsuchhybridpracticeshaveprobablyalwaysbeen
verymuchaliveinthemajorityofEnglishclassroomsaroundtheworld,
asteachersadaptedglobalmaterialstotheirowncontexts(seeHumphries,
Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
9781137023292Materials in ELT: Current
Issues7Chapter15;Seferaj,Chapter8).However,atleastwiththeadventofmore
hybridpracticesinpublishedcoursebooks,suchpracticescanagainbe
considered respectable. Materials and their users We made the point
in the introduction that there is surprisingly little written
aboutmaterialsusersandsofar,inthischapter,wehaveconsideredthe
coursebook as a tool. Yet any discussion that sees materials
independently of their users, the learners and teachers in a
variety of learning contexts, can only be partial. As Edge and
Garton (2009: 55) put it: the teachers purpose is not to teach
materials at all: the purpose is to teach the learners and the
materials are there to serve that purpose.
Theygoontonote(ibid.:60)thatwhatpublishedmaterialscannotprovide
areinsightsintotheneedsandinterestsofparticulargroupsoflearnersand
decisions about how best to use the materials. It is precisely how
teachers use materials to serve the purpose of teaching learners,
their insights and
decision-making,aswellaslearnersattitudestowards,anduseofmaterials,thatis
currently missing from the literature. As Moulton (1997: vii quoted
in Opoku-Amankwa, 2010: 162) noted:
Itisdifficulttofindouthowteachersusetextbookswithoutactually
observing them ... what they think about their use without actually
asking them ...
Observinghowteachersusetextbooksandaskingthemwhythey use them as
they do will reveal significant information about the
learning-teaching process and how it can be improved.
Moreover,thecontinuedseparationofmaterialsandtheiractualuserisks
entrenchingtheoldtheory/practicedividethatClarkewasproblematising
twenty years ago (Clarke, 1994).
OnenotableexceptionisOpoku-Amankwa(2010),whoseethnographic
studylookedattheinteractionbetweenteachers,learnersandtextbooksin
anurbanprimaryschoolinGhana.Opoku-Amankwa(2010)identifieda
numberoffactorsthatinfluencedstudentsaccesstoanduseoftextbooks,
including class size, seating arrangements and teachers
interpretation of policy
concerningstudentaccesstotextbooks.Heconcludedthattherewasadis-crepancy
between the availability of materials and students access to and
use of them and that this could have a negative impact on literacy
development. This study underlines the importance of looking at the
role materials play in actual classroom contexts. Copyrighted
material 9781137023292Copyrighted material 97811370232928Sue Garton
and Kathleen Graves Studies such as this, together with those
looking at teachers beliefs and atti-tudes towards materials (see,
for example, Lee and Bathmaker, 2007; Zacharias,
2005),learnersattitudes(Yakhontova,2001)andthosecomparingteachers
and learners attitudes (see, for example, McGrath, 2006; Peacock,
1997) offer an important insight into materials and their users.
Anumberofchaptersinthisvolumegosomewaytoaddressingthisgap
intheliteratureandfromavarietyofperspectives.Seferaj(Chapter6)and
Humphries (Chapter 15) both report on teachers actual classroom
practices in using materials, while Bosompem (Chapter 7) shows how
a group of teachers
inGhanaactuallyadaptedtheirmaterialsandalsoexaminestheirmotiva-tions
for doing so. What is also interesting about Bosompems chapter is
the attentionitdrawstothepowerofthecoursebookinsomecontextsasher
teachers, far from seeing adaptation as necessary for learners and
the sign of a good teacher, felt guilty and inadequate. Detailed
and personal accounts of
materialsadaptationtosuitaparticularcontextaregivenbyNuangpolmak
(Chapter 8) and Guiney Igielski (Chapter 9), both of whom are
responding to issues that have been identified in the literature.
By focusing on materials for mixed levels, Nuangpolmak addresses a
problem that has not only been raised
byMasuhara,Hann,YiandTomlinson(2008)inregardtocoursebooks,but which
is also seen by English teachers, at least at primary level, as
their biggest challenge (Garton, Copland and Burns, 2011). Guiney
Igielskis focus on cul-turally and linguistically responsive
pedagogy is an effective contribution to the debates around how
best to value the multilingual and multicultural expe-riences of
learners in the language classroom. However, most of the chapters
in this book address materials use from the teachers point of view,
rather than from that of the learners. Tomlinson and
Masuhara(2010b)notethatinvestigationsintotheeffectsofmaterialson
language learning would be desirable, but that there are practical
difficulties
tocarryingoutsuchstudies:theywouldhavetobelongitudinal,requiring
considerable resources; and it would be extremely difficult to
control for vari-ables influencing acquisition in a classroom
situation. This remains an area for research. Materials use and
change
Asoutlinedabove,oneofthereasonsforthepopularityofcoursebooksis
thattheyaredeemedtoprovideaclearsetofactivitiesandguidelinesthat
both teachers and students can follow. Writers such as Hutchinson
and Torres (1994), Masuhara and Tomlinson (2008) maintain that
materials can support novice teachers or those who lack confidence.
It is also often argued that appropriate coursebooks can facilitate
curricular
changebecausetheyprovideavisibleframeworkthatbothteachersand
Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
9781137023292Materials in ELT: Current Issues9students can follow
(Rubdy, 2003) and they help teachers to fully understand and
routinize change (Hutchinson and Torres, 1994: 323). However, it
would seem this is often not the case. In response to the perceived
global demand for communication in English, new language curricula
around the world have generally emphasised commu-nicative
competence. Recent curriculum changes at all levels, together with
the introduction of English to primary schools, have created a
series of challenges for teachers (see Garton, Copland and Burns,
2011 for a detailed discussion), and their use of materials,
putting to the test the assertion that coursebooks can facilitate
change. First,whilecurriculamaychange,thebooksusedmaynot.Thusinmany
countries,teachershavefoundthemselveswithalackofsuitablematerials,
either because materials are not available (Hoque, 2009; Hu, 2007;
Mathew and
Pani,2009)orbecausethosethatareavailabledonotreflectchangesinthe
curriculum (Hu, 2007; nal, 2009; Nunan, 2003). Second, it may
simply not be enough to give teachers a new book and expect
themtochangehowtheyteach.AsNur(2003)notes,teachersmayneed
trainingtousethenewbooks,otherwisetheycontinuetoemployprevious
methods. While multimedia packages may offer support to teachers
with low levels of English proficiency (Mitchell and Lee, 2003;
Nunan, 2003), actually changing the way that teachers teach is far
more complex, as Seferaj (Chapter 6)
andHumphries(Chapter15)bothshow.Humphries(Chapter15)identifies
arangeoffactorsthatinfluencethewaythatteachersusecoursebooksand
shows that simply changing a coursebook will not necessarily change
the way a teacher teaches. Seferajs teacher informant also raises
the question as to what extent teachers should be expected to
change the way they teach and brings us back to Prodromou and
Mishens (2008) idea of methodological correctness. As Seferajs
(ibid.) teacher shows, teachers demonstrate a clear understanding
of,andareabletoclearlyarticulate,theverygoodreasonsforadaptingthe
newmaterialstheyaregivenratherthanchangingthewaytheyteach.So,
whilegovernmentsmandatecommunicativelanguageteaching,thetypical
pragmaticresponsefromteachersistointerpretandadapttheapproaches
according to their local context (Littlewood, 2007). It seems,
therefore, that the introduction of new coursebooks alone may not
lead to changes in practice. Although coursebooks may represent the
new cur-riculum and provide some basic support when there is a
shortage of qualified
practitioners,theteachersmaynotunderstandtheunderlyingprinciples
(Nur, 2003). Moreover, beginning teachers do not always have the
confidence
tochallengetheauthorityofthecoursebook(Bosompem,Chapter7;Gray,
2000) potentially leading to confusion and feelings of guilt.
Teacher education is necessary to help practitioners to understand
materials better, together with how and whether to introduce
changes inherent in new Copyrighted material
9781137023292Copyrighted material 978113702329210Sue Garton and
Kathleen Gravesmaterials. Yet courses on materials evaluation,
adaptation and design seem to
berelativelyrareongraduateprogrammes.TibbitsandPashby(Chapter13)
andAugusto-Navarro,deOliveiraandAbreu-e-Lima(Chapter14)showhow
teacher education programmes can ensure that teachers are informed
users of materials rather than mere consumers. Technology
NooverviewofmaterialsinELTcanignoretheenormousimpactthattech-nology
has had in recent years. It is no exaggeration to say that
developments
indigitaltechnologyhaverevolutionisedlanguagelearningmaterials(see
Macaro, Handley and Walter, 2012 for a review of Computer Assisted
Language Learning in primary and secondary education).
Ontheonehand,technologyhasbeenembracedbypublisherswhonow use it to
accompany coursebooks, producing not only CD-roms and DVDs but
alsocompanionwebsitesandversionsoftheirmaterialsfortheInteractive
Whiteboard (IWB). This is what we might call top-down uses of
technology. However, perhaps the most exciting developments are the
affordances given for the bottom-up development of materials by
teachers and learners through the use of Web 2.0 tools. Thomas
(2009) shows the range of possibilities afforded
bythesetoolswithchaptersonSkype,mobilephones,PersonalLearning
Environments,socialnetworkingsites,podcastsandweblogs,tonamejusta
few. Motteram (2011) also gives examples of how teachers can use
technology
todevelopmaterials.Theuseofdigitalaudioandvideo,theInternet,blogs,
wikis, Virtual Learning Environments and so on has put the
possibilities of the adaptation and creation of a broad range of
language learning materials into the hands of the teacher, but also
into the hands of the learners (Motteram, 2011: 304).
Thislastpointisimportant.Prensky(2001)callsthecurrentgeneration
ofstudents,thefirstgenerationtohavegrownupwithdigitaltechnology ,
digitalnatives.Ontheotherhand,hecallstheirteachers
digitalimmigrants ,
agroupwhoneedstogetusedtoanewwayofthinkingandlearningand
whohavevaryingdegreesofsuccess.Therefore,theuseoftechnologycan
place the learner squarely at the centre of materials in a way not
always pos-sible with traditional materials. Pereiras use of
interactive fiction in language learning (Chapter 11) shows how
learners can be active users of materials. The
projectdescribedbyMaggi,CherubinandGarciaPascual(Chapter12)isa
clearexampleofhowlearnerscantakecontrolofthematerialsandoftheir own
learning.
However,notalllearnershavetheopportunitytobecomedigitalnatives.
Chapelle(2009)pointsoutthattheglobalspreadoftechnologyinlanguage
learningandthesocial,politicalandeconomicrealitiesoflearnersaround
Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
9781137023292Materials in ELT: Current Issues11the world may not be
compatible. However, Rahman and Cotters experience (Chapter 10)
shows that widely accessible and relatively low-cost technology,
such as mobile phones, can be effective in language learning and
actually has the potential to reach learners who may otherwise
struggle to access English classes. The example that Rahman and
Cotter (Chapter 10) give is a very significant
one.TheuseofmobilephonestodeliverEnglishcoursesinBangladeshis
anexampleofhowtechnologycontributestoclearpedagogicalgoalsand
enhances the learning experience. As Kervin and Derewianka (2011:
328) note, the concern should always be with the contribution that
technology can make
tolearning,andtheylistanumberofimportantpedagogicalconsiderations
(ibid.: 349) concerning how the electronic materials fit with
learning aims and objectives as key. Unfortunately, this is not
always the case. Mukundan (2008: 100) notes the money wasted on
technology through investments such as lan-guage laboratories,
leaving teachers to puzzle over how to fit new materials into
existing practices and with the risk they will focus on technology
and not on learners. Conclusion
Thisintroduction,andindeedthisbookcannotfocusoneveryaspectof
materials in ELT, which is a huge area. We have only very briefly
mentioned well-covered ground such as materials development and
evaluation. We have
ignoredaspectsofthecontentofmaterials,suchasgender,andthelan-guageused(seeforexample,Jones,KitetuandSunderland,1997;Nguyen,
2011; Sunderland, 2000) as well as debates around authentic
materials (see for example, Guariento and Morley, 2001; Gilmore,
2007; Peacock, 1997). We have
alsonotmentionedtheuseofcorporainmaterialsorasmaterials(seefor
example,Willis,2011).Finally,wehavealso,toanextent,ignoredlearners,
bothfromtheperspectiveoflearner-developedmaterials(see,forexample,
Maley,2011;Willis,2011)andtheeffectsofmaterialsonlearners(butsee
RahmanandCotter,Chapter10).Tomlinson(2012)calledformoreresearch
ontheempiricaleffectsofmaterialsonSLA.Ellis(2011)alsocallsforevalu-ation
based less on the appeal of materials and more on what learners do
with them and what they learn. We would certainly endorse both
these calls. However, in this volume we have focused on the
materials themselves and the way that teachers use them, relatively
neglected areas to date. We see the underlying message of this
introduction and of this volume as how materials need to be a fit
with learning aims and objectives. Materials are fundamental to
language learning and teaching (although see Thornbury, 2000 for an
alter-nativeview)butmaterialscannotbeviewedindependentlyoftheirusers.
What this volume does is look at how materials are actually used to
fulfil the Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
978113702329212Sue Garton and Kathleen Graveslearning aims and
objectives in a variety of local contexts and how these local
experiences can resonate with practitioners around the world in
order to help them become more effective materials users. Notes 1 .
Throughoutthisvolume,thetermscoursebookandtextbookwillbeused
interchangeably. 2. We use these terms purely for convenience,
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36(1): 2337. Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
9781137023292285Indexacademic tasks, 146, 1534accents,
173achievement gap, 141adaptation, see materials
adaptationaddition, to materials, 1067Albaniaclassroom practices
in, 94100communicative teaching approaches in, 89103educational
context in, 904L2 learning in, 90L2 teaching in, 901reforms in,
913Algeria, 6, 271cultural representations in English textbooks in,
6986educational reforms in, 735Islamic fundamentalism in,
74teachers perspectives in, 802Apple, M. B., 48Argentina, 39, 42,
448assessment, 1456, 1534, 208, 210attitudes towardsadaptation,
11011, 117coursebooks, 28English classes, 258materials, 78mobile
phone lessons, 1679use of L1, 42audio lessons, 1645autonomous
learning/learners, 58, 1223, 1367, 178, 183, 1913, 203, 221, 223,
230, 261authenticityof IF, 18991of language, 236, 93, 184of
materials, 224, 276in textbooks, 236, 31, 93, 184Bahrainadaptation
of materials for, 5368educational context in, 534teacher training
in, 645BANA, see Britain, Australia and North America (BANA)
countriesBangladesh, 6, 11, 159, 271, 276, 277BBC Janala in,
16372English language learning initiatives in, 160Batstone, R.,
244big c culture, 723, 78blogs, 200Borg, S., 2412Brazil, teacher
education in, 23752Britain, Australia and North America (BANA)
countries, 101, 256, 257, 265, 271, 272Brown, D.,, 223Byrd, P.,
212CALL framework, 1845, 1923Carter, R., 25celebrity culture, 73,
78, 80cell phones, see mobile phonesChapelle, A. A., 6, 1011,
1845China, 6, 40, 70classroom practices, 94100, 258CLIL, see
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)CLT, see
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)collaborative learning, 188,
2024commodity culture, 723Common European Framework of Reference
(CEFR), 165communication-oriented textbooks, 25369communicative
competence, 9, 179Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), 401,
89103, 221, 2223, 234challenges of, 92classroom practices,
94100implications of, 1002in Japan, 25467principles of, 179reforms
and, 913resources and textbooks for, 934Copyrighted material
9781137023292Copyrighted material 9781137023292286Indexcommunity,
2234comprehension, 589computer-mediated collaborative learning
(CMCL), 188computers, 199200confidence, 169, 175,
256contentethnically and culturally diverse, 1434evaluation of,
210level, amount, and relevance of, 173linguistically and
culturally diverse, 1501localisation of, 67, 33, 2712of materials
for English as globalised language, 2713modifying, 33reorganizing,
34representations of, 268subject matter, 42subject-specific,
146Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)advantages of,
199assessment in, 210defined, 1989evaluation in, 210selecting and
adapting materials for, 21113using Web 2.0 tools in, 198215Vertical
Transversal CLIL project, 20411context, 94, 1724,
1789contextulisation, 412, 45, 478, 50Cortazzi, M.,
6970coursebooks, 24see also materials, ELTadaptation of, 334, 46,
49, 5368, 10420, 274communication-oriented, 25369for communicative
teaching, 89, 934content of. see contentcontext for,
379contextualization of, 412corpus data and, 245critical views of,
47cultural representations in, 6986curricular change and,
810deficiencies in, 112development of, 203ELT, 1936evaluation of,
2333factors influencing adoption of, 25367global, 37global vs.
local, 3752glocal, 39introduction to, 1920local, 67, 389, 405,
479localised, 3845, 489, 2712mediating, 25964role of, 1920, 105,
109, 253selection of, 2833, 45, 1056, 266supplementation of, 467,
49teachers views on, 10910theoretical underpinnings of, 401typology
of, 20, 3741use of, 810, 323, 448values in, 5writing, 203, 27,
117course design, 241Courtillon, J., 423Crawford, J.,
1920creativity, 114, 274critical pedagogy, 40critical views,
47cultural competence, 272cultural diversity, 141, 142culturally
complex atmosphere, 144, 1501culturally responsive pedagogy,
14155cultural norms, 256cultural representationsin English
textbooks, 6986implications of, 824patterns of, 6970teachers
perspectives on, 802cultural values, 27cultureapproaches to, 6big
c, 723, 78bridge between home and school, 143celebrity, 73, 78,
80commodity, 723context and, 1724definition of, 723language and,
702little c, 723, 78local, 70role of, 26subjective, 73Copyrighted
material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
9781137023292Index287curriculumchange, 810changes in Japan,
25367content objectives, 146, 1534culturally and linguistically
responsive, 14156deletion, of materials, 108Derewianka, B.,
11developing countries, broadband penetration in, 161, 162digital
English natives, 277digital games-based language learning (DGBLL),
17897digital immigrants, 10digital natives, 1011discourse oriented
approach, 1245Eastern Europe, 901, 92Edge, J., 7educational
backgrounds, 141educational institutions, 11617educational
systemAlbania, 904Algeria, 735Bangladesh, 160Ghana, 1045Japan,
2534South Korea, 21921Thailand, 1213educational trends,
39eLearning, 200ELT materials, see materials, ELTEnglish as a
foreign language (EFL)context of, 55vs. ESL, 545teaching methods,
40English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers, 40see also
teachersin Albania, 90103classroom practices of, 94100language
proficiency of, 222, 256, 2667non-native, 89, 92pre-service,
23752in South Korea, 21921English as a second language (ESL)context
of, 55vs. EFL, 545English in Action (EIA), 160English languagein
Bahrain, 534demand for, 9as a foreign language, 271, 2723as a
global language, 71, 2703, 277role of, 65, 1212, 159, 160success
and, 5in Thailand, 1212English language learners (ELLs)see also
learnersachievement gap and, 141content objectives for, 146,
1534culturally and linguistically responsive instruction for,
14655methods of instruction for, 1446English language learning, see
language learningEnglish language teaching (ELT), 159in Bangladesh,
160current issues in, 115in South Korea, 21921theoretical framework
for, 2402via mobile phones, 15977English language textbookssee also
coursebooksadaptation of, 334, 46, 49cultural representations in,
6986development of, 203evaluation of, 238selection of, 2833, 45,
1056, 109English Seekho, 162ethnocentrism, 27evaluation, of
textbooks, 233Experiential English (EX ENG), 1223exploitation,
107exploration, 113extemporisation, 1067extension, 107extensive
reading, 63, 1834facilitation of learning, 44, 45, 50feedback, 232,
2478flexible learning materials, 124, 224fluency, 58foreign
language, 271, 2723Fullan, M. G., 1723funds of knowledge, 143, 150,
2734Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
9781137023292288Indexgames-based language learning, 17897gender
balance, 27Ghanaeducational system of, 1045materials adaptation in,
10420global coursebooks, 34, 37critical views of, 45vs. local
coursebooks, 67globalisation, 40, 270, 277glocal coursebooks,
39Google Docs, 204, 208, 21011grammar, 242, 243, 244Gray, J., 5,
26, 27, 39, 70Greece, 6handwriting framework, 62Harwood, N., 23,
241, 248Hoque, S., 6Hudelson, S., 56hybrid approaches, 67hybridised
culture, 723ICT, see information and communication technologies
(ICT)independent learners, 223information and communication
technologies (ICT), 199200Inner Circle countries, 6, 71, 75,
77input hypothesis, 240institutional factors, in textbook
selection, 28, 38instructionexplicitness of, 132methods of, for
ethnic and linguistic diversity, 1446, 1512syntactic and lexical
complexity of, 133Interactive Fiction (IF), 17897authenticity of,
18991case study, 193evaluation of, 1845evaluation of results of,
1923introduction to, 1803language learning with, 1834meaning focus,
189positive impact of, 191practicality of, 1912Interactive
Whiteboard (IWB), 10intercultural competence, 49intercultural
reflection, 434, 45, 50international markets, 213, 37see also
global coursebooksinternet, 19, 161, 199Isidori, M. V., 203Italy,
2767JapanAction Plan to Cultivate Japanese with English Abilities,
2534adoption of communication-oriented textbooks in,
25369educational system, 2534policymaking in, 2645technical
colleges, 2545Japanese teachers of English (JTEs), 25467Jin, L.,
6970Kaye, A., 2023Kervin, L., 11kizuna, 258knowledge, see funds of
knowledgekosen, 2545Kramsch, C., 26, 701Krashen, S., 240L1 literacy
strategies, 59, 174L2 literacy, 59, 90languageauthenticity of, 236,
93, 184awareness, 42barriers, 141culture and, 702development,
1702first language, 33, 546, 62, 65, 141, 14450, 162, 199, 228,
266target, 40, 423, 545, 71, 93, 1234, 163, 184, 188, 189, 199,
201, 205, 214, 224, 231theory of, 237language learning,
901games-based, 17897with interactive fiction, 1834potential, 184,
185technology for, 2767through mobile phones, 15977Web 2.0 and,
2012language proficiency, 222, 256, 2667Larsen-Freeman, D., 242,
244leaner fit, 1889Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted
material 9781137023292Index289learner assessment,
113learner-centred approach, 41, 89, 92, 94learner fit,
184learnersadoption of communication-oriented textbooks and, 2623,
266autonomy of, 124, 221characteristics of, 379confidence of, 169,
175context of, 1724culturally and linguistically responsive
curriculum for, 14156digital technology and, 1011diversity of,
1423engagement of, 146explicitness of information provided to,
132funds of knowledge of, 143, 150, 274independent, 223motivation
of, 5, 1423, 169, 175multilevel, 12140needs of, 11213,
1889participation patterns of, 1445, 1512role of, 78support for,
133, 152textbook selection and, 289views of, on materials, 5young,
54, 5664learningcontext, 1789environment, 160facilitation, 44, 45,
50factors affecting, 170practices, 16970styles, 108, 118, 121, 124,
144, 167, 170spaces, 178to read, 579linguistic contrasts, 423, 45,
48, 50linguistic imperialism, 40listening skills, 179literacy,
569framework, 624support for, 5962little c culture, 723, 78local
coursebooks, 67, 389, 479cultural representations in, 70distinctive
features of, 414, 45theoretical underpinnings of, 401local culture,
70localisation, of content, 67, 33, 2712localised coursebooks, 38,
39, 489, 2712distinctive features of, 414, 45theoretical
underpinnings of, 401Lopriore, L., 39Marsh, D., 198materials,
ELTaccess to, 7, 11, 39, 141adaptation of. see materials
adaptationanalysis of, 24051authenticity of, 276for CLIL,
21113content of, 2713coursebooks, 27, 1936critical views of,
47culturally relevant, 14155current issues in, 115ethnically and
culturally diverse, 1434evaluation of, 1, 238flexible, 124,
224future of, 2709importance of, 237literacy work in,
602multilevel, 12140next generation of, 656research on, 12selection
of, 109, 1889, 21113, 2378supplementary, 467, 49, 107, 1235teacher
developed, 67, 10420, 12238, 23752, 274technology, 1011unsuitable,
2634use of, 810, 241, 2736users of, 78for young learners,
56materials adaptation, 67, 5368, 274addition, 1067approaches to,
1068, 11415for CLIL, 21113for culturally and linguistically diverse
students, 14155deletion, 108educational institutions and, 11617in
Ghana, 10420implications of, 11518influences on, 11012investigation
of, 10815modification, 107by pre-service teachers, 23752reasons
for, 11214, 1234Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted
material 9781137023292290Indexmaterials adaptation Continued
replacement, 107teachers views on, 11012materials development, 12,
203, 237, 275for mobile phones, 1645multilevel tasks,
12338McCarthy, M., 25McGrath, I., 19, 123meaning focus, 184,
189method exploration, 114methodological correctness, 5,
9methodology, 5, 2558, 265MILLEE, 162ministries of education,
guidelines of, 201Mishen, F., 5, 6, 9mixed ability class, 47, 1245,
127, 136mobile phones, 11, 15977Modiano, M., 2778modification, of
materials, 107Mongolia, 161Montfort, N., 180Montgomery, W., 144,
1501motivation, 5, 1423, 169, 175Motteram, G., 10Moulton, J.,
7Mukundan, J., 11multilevel materials, 12140multilevel tasks,
123control over, 133designing, 1257grading, 12733implementing,
1346implications of, 1367multimedia, 1623multimedia packages,
9national curriculum, 201native language support, 145native
speakers, 271, 272non-native EFL teachers, 89, 92noticing
hypothesis, 240novice teachers, 8, 80, 82, 274Opoku-Amankwa, K.,
7oral vocabulary, 59OReilly, T., 200Outer Circle countries,
71output hypothesis, 240paralleling, 187participation patterns,
1445, 1512pedagogical fit, 42pedagogy, 5, 41culturally and
linguistically responsive, 14155language, 23940peer
evaluation/assessment, 205, 208, 247peer observation, 2478peer
support, 2234peer teaching/tutoring, 211personalisation,
412perspectives, 73, 78phonemic awareness, 57phonics, 578portfolio,
146, 1534, 225, 233Portugal, 1789, 2767post-reading/playing phase,
185, 188power relations, 40Prensky, M., 10pre-reading/playing
phase, 185, 1867pre-service teachers, adaptation of materials by,
23752pre-service training, 257primary instruction, 131Prodromou,
L., 5, 6, 9project-based learning and teaching (PBLT), 221,
222publication process, 203public schools, textbooks in,
201published materialssee also coursebookstypes of, 20publishers,
39readers theatre, 233reading instruction, 59reading skills, 1834,
226realism, 934real-life language, vs. textbook, 245re-culturing,
1723reflectionreform, 735, 8991, 101, 122, 230repetition,
174replacement, of materials, 107Richards, J.C., 21, 93, 2478,
274Rosati, L., 203rote learning, 901Copyrighted material
9781137023292Copyrighted material 9781137023292Index291Saudi
Arabia, 70scaffolding, 152Schmidt, R., 240school curriculum,
42schools, 2578secondary instruction, 131second language
acquisition (SLA), 1, 42, 65, 178, 275selection, of textbooks,
2833, 45, 1056, 266self-efficacy, 2756semiotic domains, 180situated
cognition, 180smartphones, see mobile phonesSMS, 1612social
networking, 200sociocultural traditions, 256, 260,
266socio-economic status, 141South Asia, 70South Korea, 21921,
233speaking skills, 1712, 179stereotypes, 27stimulation, 113Story
Reading Project, 21936implications of, 2323materials for,
2245structure of, 221theoretical framework for, 2215training
programme, 22532workshop overview, 22730students, see
learnerssubjective culture, 73subject-specific content,
146supplementation, 467, 49, 107, 1235Swain, M., 240target
language, 40, 423, 545, 71, 93, 1234, 163, 184, 188, 189, 199, 201,
205, 214, 224, 231task-based language teaching, 124teacher-centred
approach, 41teacher education, 910, 40, 11718, 2756in Albania, 91in
Brazil, 23752in Japan, 257recommended practices in,
24950theoretical framework for, 2402teacherssee also English as a
foreign language (EFL) teachersadaptation of materials by, 67,
10420, 12238, 23752, 274autonomy of, 1056confidence of,
256diversity self-assessment for, 149effective use of materials by,
2736external factors influencing, 257, 262as facilitators,
178information and communication, 199200knowledge base of, 14950,
2734language proficiency of, 222, 256, 2667as mediators, 104,
11213mobile learning and, 173novice, 8, 80, 82, 274peer support
for, 2234perspectives of, on cultural representations,
802preferences of, 39pre-service, 23752as role models, 2723role of,
78, 178support for, 9textbook selection and, 28, 1056training of,
645, 11618, 21920, 222, 22532, 257, 2612, 2657use of coursebooks
by, 448use of technology by, 1011views of, on materials, 5,
10910teachingapproaches to, 222communicative language, 401, 89103,
221, 2223, 234critical approaches to, 45culturally responsive,
14155discourse oriented approach to, 1245learner-centred approach
to, 41, 89, 92, 94project-based, 221, 222sociocultural traditions
and, 256task-based, 124teaching materials, see materials,
ELTtechnology, 19, 2767accessibility of, 1011digital games, 17897in
education, 199200impact of, 1011mobile phones, 15977Web 2.0 tools,
198215Copyrighted material 9781137023292Copyrighted material
9781137023292292Indextest formats, 21text authenticity,
93textbooks, see coursebookstext messages, 1612Thailand,
educational system in, 1213themed units, 145, 151Thomas, M.,
10Tomlinson, B., 1, 2, 5, 237, 240, 241top-down approaches, 56, 63,
65Tunisia, 161Turkey, 70uncertainty, 2601United Statesachievement
gap in, 141national guidelines, 6Valdes, G., 141values, 27variety,
113VARK learning styles model, 170Venezuela, 70Vertical Transversal
CLIL project, 20411video games, 17980see also digital games-based
language learning (DGBLL)vocabulary, 58Watson, J., 72, 73Web 1.0,
2001Web 2.0about, 2001case study, 20411collaborative learning and,
2024language learning and, 2012tools, 198215web applications,
200webquests, 2034Wedell, M., 172, 270western methodological
approaches, 5while-reading/playing phase, 185, 187wikis, 200writing
instruction, 1245designing multilevel tasks, 1257grading tasks,
12733implementing multilevel writing tasks, 1346writing skills,
171, 187young learners, 54, 5664Yuen, K.-M., 72, 73Copyrighted
material 9781137023292Copyrighted material 9781137023292