Materials Design and Teaching National Penghu University.

Materials Design Materials Design and Teaching and Teaching National Penghu UniversityNational Penghu University

Introduction to Introduction to Instructional Design Instructional Design ProcessProcess The role of instructional design: The role of instructional design:

Instructional design is based on Instructional design is based on what we know about learning what we know about learning theories, information technology, theories, information technology, systematic analysis (objective systematic analysis (objective analysis), and management methods. analysis), and management methods.

The factors that influence The factors that influence learning outcomes learning outcomes . The instructional design approach . The instructional design approach

considers instruction from the perspective considers instruction from the perspective of the learner rather than from the of the learner rather than from the perspective of the content.perspective of the content.

* What level of readiness do individual * What level of readiness do individual students need for accomplishing the students need for accomplishing the objectives?objectives?

*What instructional strategies are most *What instructional strategies are most appropriate in terms of objectives and appropriate in terms of objectives and learner characteristics?learner characteristics?

* What media or other resources are * What media or other resources are most suitable?most suitable?

*What support is needed for *What support is needed for successful learning?successful learning?

* How is achievement of the * How is achievement of the objectives determined?objectives determined?

* What revisions are necessary if a * What revisions are necessary if a tryout of the program does not match tryout of the program does not match expectations?expectations?

Key elements of the Key elements of the instructional design instructional design

processprocess 1. For whom is the program developed? 1. For whom is the program developed?

(characteristics of learners or trainees?)(characteristics of learners or trainees?) 2. What do you want the learners or 2. What do you want the learners or

trainees to learn or demonstrate? trainees to learn or demonstrate? (objectives)(objectives)

3. How is the subject content or skill best 3. How is the subject content or skill best learned? (instructional strategies)learned? (instructional strategies)

4. How do you determine the extent to 4. How do you determine the extent to which learning is achieved? (evaluation which learning is achieved? (evaluation procedures)procedures)

These four fundamental componentsThese four fundamental components——learners, objectives, methods, and learners, objectives, methods, and evaluationevaluation——form the framework for form the framework for systematic instructional planning.systematic instructional planning.

These components are interrelated These components are interrelated and could make up an entire and could make up an entire instructional design plan.instructional design plan.

The complete instructional The complete instructional design plandesign plan

Nine elements in a comprehensive Nine elements in a comprehensive instructional design plan: instructional design plan:

1. Identify instructional problems, and 1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an specify goals for designing an instructional program.instructional program.

2. Examine learner characteristics that 2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.should receive attention during planning.

3. Identify subject content, and analyze 3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals task components related to stated goals and purposes. and purposes.

4. State instructional objectives for the 4. State instructional objectives for the learner.learner.

5. Sequence content within each 5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.instructional unit for logical learning.

6. Design instructional strategies so that 6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.each learner can master the objectives.

7. Plan the instructional message and 7. Plan the instructional message and delivery.delivery.

8. Develop evaluation instruments to 8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.assess objectives.

9. Select resources to support instruction 9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.and learning activities.

topic objectives instruction

revision

revision

evaluation

General curriculum General curriculum planningplanning

As background information for As background information for second and foreign language course second and foreign language course designers, Tabadesigners, Taba’’s (1962:12) of the s (1962:12) of the steps which a course designer must steps which a course designer must work through to develop subject work through to develop subject matter courses has become the matter courses has become the foundation for many other writersfoundation for many other writers ’’ suggestions. suggestions.

The list of The list of ‘‘curriculum processescurriculum processes’’ includes the following:includes the following:

1. diagnosis of needs1. diagnosis of needs 2. formulation of objectives2. formulation of objectives 3. selection of content3. selection of content 4. organization of content4. organization of content 5. selection of learning experience 5. selection of learning experience

6. Organization of learning 6. Organization of learning experiencesexperiences

7. Determining of what to evaluate, 7. Determining of what to evaluate, and the means to evaluate.and the means to evaluate.

A framework of course A framework of course development processesdevelopment processes

assessing needsassessing needs Conceptualizing content formulating Conceptualizing content formulating

goalsgoals Organizing the course developing Organizing the course developing

materialmaterial Course DesignCourse Design designing an assessment plandesigning an assessment plan Defining the context articulating Defining the context articulating

beliefsbeliefs

Materials developmentMaterials development

Materials development refers to Materials development refers to anything which is done by writers, anything which is done by writers, teachers or learners to provide sources teachers or learners to provide sources of language input and to exploit those of language input and to exploit those sources in ways which maximize the sources in ways which maximize the likelihood of intake: the supplying of likelihood of intake: the supplying of information about and/or experience of information about and/or experience of the language in ways designed to the language in ways designed to promote language learning. promote language learning.

Teaching can be direct (in that it Teaching can be direct (in that it transmits information overtly to the transmits information overtly to the learners) or it can be indirect (in learners) or it can be indirect (in that it helps the learners to discover that it helps the learners to discover things for themselves). things for themselves).

Language learning is normally Language learning is normally considered to be a conscious process considered to be a conscious process which consists of the committing to which consists of the committing to memory of information relevant to what memory of information relevant to what is being learned. Language learning can is being learned. Language learning can be explicit (i.e. the learners are aware of be explicit (i.e. the learners are aware of when and what they are learning) or it when and what they are learning) or it can be implicit (i.e. the learning can also can be implicit (i.e. the learning can also be of declarative knowledge (i.e. be of declarative knowledge (i.e. knowledge of how the language is used).knowledge of how the language is used).

Explicit learning of both declarative Explicit learning of both declarative and procedural knowledge is of and procedural knowledge is of value in helping learners to pay value in helping learners to pay attention to salient features of attention to salient features of language input and in helping them language input and in helping them to participate in planned discourse to participate in planned discourse (i.e. giving situations such as giving (i.e. giving situations such as giving a talk or writing a story which allow a talk or writing a story which allow time for planning and monitoring). time for planning and monitoring).

Materials should achieve Materials should achieve impactimpact

Impact is achieved when materials Impact is achieved when materials have a noticeable effect on learners, have a noticeable effect on learners, that is when the learnersthat is when the learners’’ curiosity, curiosity, interest and attention are attracted. interest and attention are attracted.

Materials can achieve impact through:Materials can achieve impact through: a) novelty (e.g. unusual topics, a) novelty (e.g. unusual topics,

illustrations and activities); b) variety illustrations and activities); b) variety (e.g. breaking up the monotony of a (e.g. breaking up the monotony of a unit routine with an unexpected unit routine with an unexpected activity) activity)

c) attractive presentation (e.g. use of c) attractive presentation (e.g. use of attractive colors; lots of white space; attractive colors; lots of white space; use of photographs);use of photographs);

d) appealing content (e.g. topics of d) appealing content (e.g. topics of interest to the target learners; topics interest to the target learners; topics which offer the possibility of which offer the possibility of learning something new; engaging learning something new; engaging stories; universal themes; local stories; universal themes; local references).references).

Materials should help Materials should help learners to feel at easelearners to feel at ease

Materials can help learners to feel at Materials can help learners to feel at ease in a number of ways:ease in a number of ways:

--feel more comfortable with materials --feel more comfortable with materials with lots of white space than they do with lots of white space than they do with materials in which lots of different with materials in which lots of different activities are crammed together on the activities are crammed together on the same page;same page;

--are more at ease with texts and --are more at ease with texts and illustrations that they can relate to their illustrations that they can relate to their own culture than they are with those own culture than they are with those which are culturally exotic; which are culturally exotic;

--are more relaxed with materials which are --are more relaxed with materials which are obviously trying to help them to learn than they obviously trying to help them to learn than they are with materials which are always testing are with materials which are always testing them. Feeling at ease can also be achieved them. Feeling at ease can also be achieved through a through a ‘‘voicevoice’’ which is relaxed and which is relaxed and supportive, through content and activities supportive, through content and activities which encourage the personal participation of which encourage the personal participation of the learners, through materials which relate the learners, through materials which relate the world of the book to the world of the the world of the book to the world of the learner and through the absence of activities learner and through the absence of activities which could threaten self-esteem and cause which could threaten self-esteem and cause humiliation. humiliation.

Factors to consider in Factors to consider in defining the contextdefining the context

People : students (how many, age, gender, People : students (how many, age, gender, culture, other languages, purposes, culture, other languages, purposes, education, profession, experience)education, profession, experience)

Other stakeholders: school administrators, Other stakeholders: school administrators, parents, founders, and communityparents, founders, and community

Physical setting: location of school: Physical setting: location of school: convenience, setting, classroom( size, convenience, setting, classroom( size, furniture, light, and noise) Always same furniture, light, and noise) Always same classroom? classroom?

Nature of course and Nature of course and institutioninstitution

Type/purpose of courseType/purpose of course Mandatory, open enrollmentMandatory, open enrollment Relation to current/previous coursesRelation to current/previous courses Prescribed curriculum or not Prescribed curriculum or not Required tests or notRequired tests or not

Teaching resourcesTeaching resources

Materials availableMaterials available Required text?Required text? Develop your own materials?Develop your own materials? Equipment: cassettes, video, Equipment: cassettes, video,

photocopying, and clerical supportphotocopying, and clerical support

TimeTime

How many hours total over what How many hours total over what span of timespan of time

How often class meetsHow often class meets For how long each timeFor how long each time Day of week, time of dayDay of week, time of day Where fits in schedule of studentsWhere fits in schedule of students StudentsStudents’’ timeliness timeliness

Why is it important to Why is it important to define onedefine one’’s context? s context?

The The ““givensgivens”” of one of one’’s context are the s context are the resources and constraints that guide resources and constraints that guide our decisions. Knowing how long a our decisions. Knowing how long a course is, its purpose, who the course is, its purpose, who the students are, and how it fits in with students are, and how it fits in with other aspects of the curriculum other aspects of the curriculum helps us to make decisions about helps us to make decisions about content, objectives, and so on. content, objectives, and so on.

A clearer understanding of what is A clearer understanding of what is possible within a given amount of time will possible within a given amount of time will allow us to be realistic about what weallow us to be realistic about what we——teacher and studentsteacher and students——can accomplish. can accomplish. Knowing what equipment or support is Knowing what equipment or support is available will help us make choices about available will help us make choices about how much and what kind of material to how much and what kind of material to prepare. Information about time, for prepare. Information about time, for example, can help us make decisions about example, can help us make decisions about how many areas of content we can how many areas of content we can realistically address within the time frame realistically address within the time frame of the course. of the course.

Information about teaching resources will Information about teaching resources will help us make decisions about how many help us make decisions about how many areas of content we can realistically areas of content we can realistically address within the time frame of the address within the time frame of the course. Information about teaching course. Information about teaching resources will help us make decisions about resources will help us make decisions about the kinds of materials we choose or the kinds of materials we choose or develop. The relationship of the course to develop. The relationship of the course to other courses will help us make decisions other courses will help us make decisions about content, so that we build on previous about content, so that we build on previous content.content.

Expectations of the students and Expectations of the students and stakeholders can help us make stakeholders can help us make decisions about what is appropriate decisions about what is appropriate to cover and how students will be to cover and how students will be assessed.assessed.

The more information you have The more information you have about your context the more able about your context the more able you will be to make decisions and to you will be to make decisions and to plan an effective course.plan an effective course.

Defining oneDefining one’’s context can also be viewed s context can also be viewed as part of pre-course needs assessment. as part of pre-course needs assessment. Information about the students and about Information about the students and about the curriculum is clearly related to the curriculum is clearly related to studentsstudents’’ learning needs. Other learning needs. Other information, such as time and setting, information, such as time and setting, does not necessarily help define studentsdoes not necessarily help define students’’ language learning needs, but has to be language learning needs, but has to be taken into account in order to design a taken into account in order to design a course that can focus on the needs within course that can focus on the needs within the givens of the context.the givens of the context.

Three pieces of adviceThree pieces of advice

Try to get as much information as possible Try to get as much information as possible by asking for it specifically or by trying to by asking for it specifically or by trying to find others who have taught in that find others who have taught in that context. If available, printed materials context. If available, printed materials prepared for the students (brochures, prepared for the students (brochures, catalogues) is a helpful source of catalogues) is a helpful source of information since studentsinformation since students’’ expectations expectations may be based on what they find there. Talk may be based on what they find there. Talk to students who have taken the course or to students who have taken the course or teachers who have taught it. Ask forteachers who have taught it. Ask for

Information as though you were a Information as though you were a student. The second is to design the student. The second is to design the course with a similar group in mind, if course with a similar group in mind, if you have knowledge of such a group, so you have knowledge of such a group, so that you are not stymied when making that you are not stymied when making decisions. For example, you can develop decisions. For example, you can develop a menu of possibilities (topics, tasks, a menu of possibilities (topics, tasks, materials) from which to choose as you materials) from which to choose as you know your students are your context know your students are your context better. better.

Many teachers teach with a syllabus Many teachers teach with a syllabus that is part of a set curriculum that is part of a set curriculum within a specified period of time. within a specified period of time. While the teacher may not be able to While the teacher may not be able to design the blueprint for the course, design the blueprint for the course, she/he can learn to adapt it or some she/he can learn to adapt it or some aspect of it to the particular needs of aspect of it to the particular needs of her/his students. her/his students.

Materials should help Materials should help learners to develop learners to develop

confidence.confidence. Relaxed and self-confident learners learn Relaxed and self-confident learners learn

faster. (Duley, Burt and Krashen, 1982)faster. (Duley, Burt and Krashen, 1982) Most materials developers recognize the Most materials developers recognize the

need to help learners to develop need to help learners to develop confidence but many of them attempt to confidence but many of them attempt to do so through a process of simplification. do so through a process of simplification. They try to help the learners to feel They try to help the learners to feel successful by asking them to use simple successful by asking them to use simple language to accomplish easy tasks. language to accomplish easy tasks.

The value of engaging the learnersThe value of engaging the learners’’ minds and utilizing their existing skills minds and utilizing their existing skills seems to be becoming increasingly in seems to be becoming increasingly in countries which have decided to countries which have decided to produce their own materials through produce their own materials through textbook projects rather than to rely textbook projects rather than to rely on global coursebooks which seem to on global coursebooks which seem to underestimate the abilities of their underestimate the abilities of their learners. learners.

What is being taught should be What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and perceived by learners as relevant and

useful.useful. Most teachers recognize the need to Most teachers recognize the need to

make the learners aware of the make the learners aware of the potential relevance and utility of the potential relevance and utility of the language and skills they are language and skills they are teaching.teaching.

Materials should require Materials should require and facilitate learner self-and facilitate learner self-

investment.investment. Materials help them to achieve this Materials help them to achieve this

by providing them with choices of by providing them with choices of focus and activity, by giving them focus and activity, by giving them topic control and by engaging them topic control and by engaging them in learner-centered discovery in learner-centered discovery activities.activities.

Learners must be ready to Learners must be ready to acquire the points being acquire the points being

taught.taught. It is important to remember that the It is important to remember that the

learner is always in charge and that learner is always in charge and that ‘‘in the final analysis we can never in the final analysis we can never completely control what the learner completely control what the learner does. does.

Materials should expose the Materials should expose the learners to language in learners to language in

authentic use.authentic use. Materials can provide exposure to Materials can provide exposure to

authentic input through the advice they authentic input through the advice they give, the instructions for their activities give, the instructions for their activities and the spoken and written texts they and the spoken and written texts they include. They can also stimulate include. They can also stimulate exposure to authentic input through the exposure to authentic input through the activities they suggest (e.g. activities they suggest (e.g. interviewing the teacher, doing a interviewing the teacher, doing a project in the local community, project in the local community, listening to the radio, etc.) listening to the radio, etc.)

Materials should provide the Materials should provide the learners with opportunities to use learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve the target language to achieve communicative purposes. In communicative purposes. In addition, communicative negotiation addition, communicative negotiation of opportunties for use are of opportunties for use are interactive and encourage interactive and encourage negotiation of meaning (Allwright, negotiation of meaning (Allwright, 1984, p. 157). 1984, p. 157).

Materials should take into account that the Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually positive effects of instruction are usually delayed. delayed.

Research into the acquisition of language Research into the acquisition of language shows that it is a gradual rather than an shows that it is a gradual rather than an instantaneous process and that this is equally instantaneous process and that this is equally true for instructed as well as informal true for instructed as well as informal acquisition. Acquisition results from the acquisition. Acquisition results from the gradual and dynamic process of internal gradual and dynamic process of internal generalization rather than from instant generalization rather than from instant adjustments to the learnersadjustments to the learners’’ internal grammar. internal grammar.

Materials should take into account Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning that learners differ in learning styles. A learnerstyles. A learner’’s preference for a s preference for a particular learning styles is variable particular learning styles is variable and depends on what is being and depends on what is being learned, where it is being learned, learned, where it is being learned, who it is being learned with and who it is being learned with and what it is being learned for. what it is being learned for.

Materials should take into account Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective that learners differ in affective attitudes. Ideally, language learners attitudes. Ideally, language learners should have strong and consistent should have strong and consistent motivation and they should also have motivation and they should also have positive feelings towards the target positive feelings towards the target language, their teachers, their fellow language, their teachers, their fellow learners and the materils they are learners and the materils they are using.using.

Materials should permit a silent period at Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction. It has been the beginning of instruction. It has been shown that it can be extremely valuable to shown that it can be extremely valuable to delay L2 speaking at the beginning of a delay L2 speaking at the beginning of a course until learners have gained course until learners have gained sufficient exposure to the target language sufficient exposure to the target language and sufficient confidence in understanding and sufficient confidence in understanding it. The silent period can facilitate the it. The silent period can facilitate the development of an effective internalized development of an effective internalized grammar which can help learners to grammar which can help learners to achieve proficiency when they eventually achieve proficiency when they eventually start to speak in the L2. start to speak in the L2.

Materials should maximize learning Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic and emotional intellectual, aesthetic and emotional involvement which stimulates both involvement which stimulates both right and left brain activities. right and left brain activities.

Materials should not rely too much Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice. on controlled practice. ““Controlled Controlled practice appears to have little long practice appears to have little long term effect on the accuracy with term effect on the accuracy with which new structures are which new structures are performedperformed”” (Ellis, 1990, p. 192) and (Ellis, 1990, p. 192) and ““have little effect on fluencyhave little effect on fluency”” (Ellis (Ellis and Rathbone, 1987).and Rathbone, 1987).

Materials should provide Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback. opportunities for outcome feedback. Feedback which is focused first on Feedback which is focused first on the effectiveness of the outcome the effectiveness of the outcome rather than just on the accuracy of rather than just on the accuracy of the output can lead to output the output can lead to output becoming a profitable source of becoming a profitable source of input. input.

Course Design for Business Course Design for Business EnglishEnglish

1. Course objective: based on learners1. Course objective: based on learners ’’ language level, target learners, and age language level, target learners, and age levels.levels.

2. class activities: one-on-one advice or 2. class activities: one-on-one advice or group discussion, and etc. group discussion, and etc.

3. methods of learning: informal lecture 3. methods of learning: informal lecture s, seminars, and workshopss, seminars, and workshops

4. topics: course content and process4. topics: course content and process 5. materials selection5. materials selection

The criterion of grading: quiz & The criterion of grading: quiz & homework (30%), Mid-term (30%), homework (30%), Mid-term (30%), and Final Exam (40%)and Final Exam (40%)

Course syllabus: Course syllabus: Course assessment: Course assessment:

Lesson PlanLesson Plan

Based upon your course design, you Based upon your course design, you may do a lesson plan such as what may do a lesson plan such as what your todayyour today’’s topic is, what your s topic is, what your learners have learned, how their learners have learned, how their language competence is achieved, language competence is achieved, whether your topic is related to their whether your topic is related to their previous experience or learning, and previous experience or learning, and further detect what their class further detect what their class responses are. responses are.

The format of your The format of your lesson planlesson plan

I. Target learners:I. Target learners: II. Your topic:II. Your topic: III. The Methods of Teaching: III. The Methods of Teaching:

Communicative Language Teaching, Communicative Language Teaching, Grammar-Translation Approach, Grammar-Translation Approach, Audiolingual Method, and etc.Audiolingual Method, and etc.

IV. Instructional Media:IV. Instructional Media: V. How is the class going?V. How is the class going?

How is the class going?How is the class going?

A. Warm-up activityA. Warm-up activity B. course content:B. course content: C. pre-teaching, during-teaching, C. pre-teaching, during-teaching,

and post-teachingand post-teaching D. StudentsD. Students’’ feedback feedback E. formative evaluation: detect E. formative evaluation: detect

studentsstudents’’ strength and weakness strength and weakness F. summative evaluation: F. summative evaluation:

VI. Your assessment: your VI. Your assessment: your assignmentassignment