Materi Qualitative Introduction - S2

QUALITATIVE METHODS

Badri Munir Sukoco, PhD

Department of Management, Airlangga University

Outlines

Introduction

Qualitative Research Design

Tips on Writing A Qualitative Paper

Introduced to Qualitative

Taken class organized by Prof. Nicholas Pazderic, PhD

http://pazderic.com/nickola-pazderic/

Introduced to Qualitative

Taken class organized by Prof. Nicholas Pazderic, PhD

http://pazderic.com/nickola-pazderic/

Proposed 3 ideas, but all rejected, either because too

quantitative or remote from social processes

Thesis: Discovery or Nightmare?

By Badri Munir Sukoco

RA7937116

The Ideal Body of Man

By Badri Munir Sukoco

RA7937116

An Empirical Look at Becoming

Vegetarian

by Badri Munir Sukoco

RA 7937116

Body Piercing as Tribal Behavior among Indonesian Migrant

Workers in Taiwan

By Badri Munir Sukoco

RA7937116

Part I - Introduction

10/23/2014 11

Introduction

Theory explains why empirical patterns are observed or expected.

Two streams of scientific inquiry: theory development and

refinement;

Dominant scientific method quantitative mainly used to test and

refine existing theory;

Qualitative method best for theoretical development, because the

richness of explanation resulted from the process;

Scientific Process

Current theory

New theory

Inductive grouping

Observable facts

Understanding insightBridge Laws

Testing

Anomaly Hypothesis

retroduction

Laws, generations

Two Big Assumptions

Assumptions of the nature of social science

Assumptions of the nature of society

10/23/2014 14

A Scheme for Analyzing Assumptions

about the Nature of Social Science (Burrell and Morgan, 1979; hal. 3)

Ontology: Nominalism vs.

Realism

Nominalism assumes that society is relative and the social

world is names, concepts and labels that make individual

structure reality

Realism assumes that the real world has hard, intangible

structures that exist irrespective of our labels. The social

world exists separate from the individuals perception of it

Epistemology: Positivism vs.

Anti-Positivism

Positivism seeks to explain and predict what happens in the

social world by searching for patterns and relationships.

Hypotheses are developed and tested

Anti-positivism rejects that observing behavior can help

people understand it. Social science cannot create true

objective knowledge of any kind

Human Nature: Voluntarism vs.

Determinism

Determinism sees man as being determined by the situation

and environment he is in

Voluntarism sees man is completely autonomous and

possessing free will

Method: Ideographic vs.

Nomothetic

Ideographic focuses on detailed observation of society

Nomothetic involves hypotheses testing and employs

methods such as surveys and other standardized research

tools

Axiological: Value Free vs. Value

Laden

Value-free contends that researchers can

conduct research without the imposition of

values

Value-laden contends this is simply impossible

Assumptions of the Nature of

Society

Two theories about society: order and conflict

1. Order or integrationist view sees society as relatively stable

and based on consensus

2. Conflict or coercion view sees society as constantly changing

and disintegrating

10/23/2014 21

Fundamental Distinctions in Underlying

Philosophies

All science is based on paradigmatic thinking (Guba and Lincoln, 1994)

Paradigms as universally recognized scientific achievements

that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a

community of practitioners(Kuhn, 1970; hal. viii)

Paradigms as commonality of perspective which binds the

work of a group of theorists together (Burrell and Morgan, 1979; hal. 23)

Four Paradigms for the Analysis

of Social Theory (Burrell and Morgan, 1979; hal. 22)

Where are we?

We are here

10/23/2014 23

Functionalism vs. Interpretivism

Items Functionalism -

Quantitative

Interpretivism -

Qualitative

Goal Theory testing and refinement Understanding of a phenomenon / create a new

theory

Data and analysis Closely replicate prior research Unique but should be reasonable and plausible

Theory Mainly use existing theory Develop new theory

Ontology Objectivity researchers as external observers

Subjectivity researchers as

internal observers

Epistemology Positivism search for regularities and causal

relationships among variables

Relativism search for best

explanation of a phenomena

Methodology Quantitative data collection and statistical analysis

Qualitative data (multi-modes

of data) and grounded theory

Additional References

Bansal, P. dan Corley, K. (2012). Whats Different about Qualitative

Research? Academy of Management Journal, 55(3): 509-513

Bansal, P. dan Corley, K. (2011). The Coming of Age for Qualitative

Research: Embracing The Diversity of Qualitative Methods. Academy of

Management Journal, 54(2): 233-237

Gephart, R. P. (2004). Qualitative Research and the Academy of

Management Journal. Academy of Management Journal, 47(4): 454-462

Pratt, M.P. (2009). For the Lack of A Boilerplate: Tips on Writing Up (And

Reviewing) Qualitative Research. Academy of Management Journal, 52(5):

856-862

Part II Qualitative

Research Design

Authored by David McHugh

Research Designs and Methods

A Research Design provides a framework for the

collection and analysis of data. Choice of research design

reflects decisions about priorities given to the dimensions

of the research process.

A Research Method is simply a procedure for collecting

data. Choice of research method reflects decisions about

the type of instruments or techniques to be used.

Methodological and Theory

Usage Approaches in QualitativeMethodological approaches:

1. Post-positivist: social world is patterned and that causal relationships can be discovered and tested via reliable strategies.

2. Interpretive: social world is constantly being constructed through group interactions, and thus, social reality can be understood via meaning-making activities of social actors.

3. Critical: social reality as a discourses created in shifting fields of social power shape social reality and the study

Theory usage approaches:

1. Deductive: emphasized in post-positivism, test theory or a hypotheses against data.

2. Inductive: emphasized in interpretive and critical belief system, generates theory directly out of the data.

10/23/2014 28

A Brief Introduction to Qualitative

Methods

Qualitative methods are a set of data collection and analysis techniques that can be used to provide description, build theory, and to test theory (Van Maanen, 1979) from the early 1900;

It emphasizes the process and experiential of researchers to develop an understanding of complex phenomena from the perspectives of those who are living it (Miles and Huberman, 1994);

Researchers can propose new variables and relationships to increase the understanding of complex processes;

Mainly criticized for unsystematic process (and report), because of lack of consistency on terminology and consistency

10/23/2014 29

Qualitative Methods for Data Analysis

and Collection

Qualitative methods are interpretative techniques that seek to

describe, decode, translate, and focus on meaning (not the

frequency) of phenomenon (Van Maanen, 1979).

It creates many data collection analysis methods (e.g., grounded

theory, case study, ethnography, etc), which might confusing for

unfamiliar researchers;

The questions asked usually begin with words like how, why, or what

and uses a process-oriented approach to knowledge building.

Qualitative Research Design

1. General research questions

2. Selecting relevant site(s) and subjects

3. Collection of relevant data

4. Interpretation of data

5. Conceptual and theoretical work

6. Writing up findings/conclusions

5a. Tighter specification of the

research question(s)

5b. Collection of further data

Authored by David McHugh

Research Questions

guide your literature search

guide your decisions about the kind of research design to employ

guide your decisions about what data to collect and from whom

guide your analysis of your data

guide your writing up of your data

stop you from going off in unnecessary directions and tangents

Research questions:

Formulating Research Questions

The what quesJons focus on individuals and social seKngs

describe reality in terms of what it naturally is

What is happening? What are people doing? What does it mean to

them?

The how quesJons emphasize the producJon of meaning how

meaning is constructed by those within a given setting

How are the realities of everyday life accomplished?

Data Sources

Interviews

Observation

Secondary data (internal and external)

Other relevant data (video, picture, memo, etc)

Formulating Questions for an Interview Guide

Formulate

interview

questions

Specific

research

questions

General

research

area

Interview

topics

Review/revise

Interview questions

Pilot guide

Identify novel

issues

Revise interview

questions

Finalize guide

Criteria for Successful

Interviewers I

1. Knowledgeable: thoroughly familiar with the focus of the interview; pilot interviews of the kind used in survey interviewing can be useful here.

2. Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off; asks whether interviewee has questions.

3. Clear: asks simple, easy, short questions; no jargon.

4. Gentle: lets people finish; gives them time to think; tolerates pauses.

5. Sensitive: listens attentively to what is said and how it is said; is empathetic in dealing with the interviewee.

6. Open: responds to what is important to interviewee and is flexible.

7. Steering: knows what he/she wants to find out.

Criteria for Successful

Interviewers II8. Critical: is prepared to challenge what is said, for example, dealing with

inconsistencies in interviewees' replies.

9. Remembering: relates what is said to what has previously been said.

10. Interpreting: clarifies and extends meanings of interviewees' statements, but without imposing meaning on them.

11. Balanced: does not talk too much, which may make the interviewee passive, and does not talk too little, which may result in the interviewee feeling he or she is not talking along the right lines.

12. Ethically sensitive: is sensitive to the ethical dimension of interviewing, ensuring the interviewee appreciates what the research is about, its purposes, and that his or her answers will be treated confidentially.

Kinds of Question

1. Introducing questions: `Please tell me about when your interest in X

first began?'; `Have you ever . . .?'; `Why did you go to . . .?' .

2. Follow-up questions: getting the interviewee to elaborate his/her

answer, such as `Could you say some more about that?'; `What do you

mean by that . . .?'; Can you give me an example? even `Yeeees?

3. Probing questions: following up what has been said through direct

questioning.

4. Specifying questions: `What did you do then?'; `How did X react to

what you said?

5. Direct questions: `Do you find it easy to keep smiling when serving

customers?'; `Are you happy with the amount of on-the-job training

you have received?' Such questions are perhaps best left until towards

the end of the interview, in order not to influence the direction of the

interview too much.

Kinds of Question contd6. Indirect questions: `What do most people round here think of the ways

that management treats its staff?', perhaps followed up by `Is that the

way you feel too?', in order to get at the individual's own view.

7. Structuring questions: `I would now like to move on to a different topic'.

8. Silence: allow pauses to signal that you want to give the interviewee the

opportunity to reflect and amplify an answer.

9. Interpreting questions: `Do you mean that your leadership role has had to

change from one of encouraging others to a more directive one?'; `Is it

fair to say that what you are suggesting is that you don't mind being

friendly towards customers most of the time, but when they are

unpleasant or demanding you find it more difficult?'

Kvale (1996)

Role Consultant Apprentice Confidante

Characteristics Competent, knowledgeable, professional

A credible outsider who secures the trust of management Exchange of access for knowledge or information, often in the form of a written report or verbal presentation

Nave, unthreatening, personable

A younger person who can make themselves useful within the organization

Exchange of access for productive labour

Mature, attentive, trustworthy

An impartial outsider who is able to listen to peoples problems Exchange of access for psycho-social support or therapy

Examples Watson (1994a)

Holliday (1995)

Parker (2000)

Ram (1994)

Collinson (1992)

Delbridge (1998) Holliday (1995) Sharpe (1997) Crang (1994)

Dalton (1959) Parker (2000) Perlow (1997) Casey (1995) Freeman (2000)

Observation - 3 Roles for Observers

Classifications of Participant Observer Roles

Complete participant

Participant-as-observer

Observer-as-participant

Complete observer

Total participant

Researcher-participant

Total researcher

What is `Going Native'?

`Going native' refers to a plight that sometimes afflicts

ethnographers when they lose their sense of being a researcher

and become wrapped up in the world view of the people they

are studying. The prolonged immersion of ethnographers in the

lives of the people they study, coupled with the commitment to

seeing the social world through their eyes, lie behind the risk and

actuality of going native. Going native is a potential problem for

several reasons but especially because the ethnographer can lose

sight of their position as a researcher and find it difficult to

develop a social scientific angle on the collection and analysis of

data.

What is Triangulation?Triangulation:

entails using more than one method or source of data in the study of social phenomena.

is an approach that uses `multiple observers, theoretical perspectives, sources of data, and methodologies (Denzin)

has tended to emphasise multiple methods of investigation and sources of data

can operate within and across research strategies

can to refer to a process of cross-checking findings deriving from both quantitative and qualitative research (triangulation of methods)

may often allow access to different levels of reality

The Process of Induction The

Dynamic Dance

Look for Patterns in

Data

Formulate Tentative

Ideas (Hypothesis) to

Explore by Gathering

More Data

Start by Gathering

ObservationsGeneration of

Theory

Qualitative Method Sampling

Qualitative research aims to look at a process or the meanings

individuals attribute to their given social situation.

The question is not about how many women have problems with

their body image, but how women experience being overweight in

a thin culture.

Sampling methods: purposive, judgment , convenience, and

theoretical samplings

When the results are the same across individuals, it reaches

theoretical saturation and it needs to employ different individuals

for multiple perspectives to enhance understanding.

What is Theoretical Saturation?

The key idea is that you carry on sampling theoretically until a

category has been saturated with data.

`This means, until (a) no new or relevant data seem to be emerging regarding

a category, (b) the category is well developed in terms of its properties and

dimensions demonstrating variation, and (c) the relationships among

categories are well established and validated' (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 212).

In the language of grounded theory, a category operates at a

somewhat higher level of abstraction than a concept in that it may

group together several concepts that have common features

denoted by the category. Theoretical sampling refers to the

sampling, not just of people, but also of settings and events.

Authored by David McHugh

Knowing When to Stop

There is a tendency for qualitative research to lack a sense of an obvious end point

In organizational research it is likely that a deadline for data collection will be negotiated at the outset

The researcher may feel that they have simply had enough

The researcher's categories are thoroughly saturated

Disengagement has to be managed

Getting out, should be handled in such a way as to leave the door open to the possibility of future research or fieldwork

The researchers ethical commitments must not be forgotten

Qualitative Data Analysis

General strategies of qualitative data analysis: analytic induction*

grounded theory*

Basic operations in qualitative data analysis: steps, considerations, and problems associated with coding (see Ch. 21)

Other methods for qualitative data analysis: narrative analysis

cognitive mapping

repertory grid technique.

What is Analytic Induction?

Analytic induction is an approach to the analysis of

data in which the researcher seeks universal

explanations of phenomena by pursuing the

collection of data until no cases that are inconsistent

with a hypothetical explanation (deviant or negative

cases) of a phenomenon are found.

The Process of Analytic InductionRough definition of problem

Hypothetical explanation

of problem

Examination of cases

Deviant case

not confirming

hypothetical

explanation

No deviant cases

Hypothesis confirmed

Reformulate

hypothesis

Hypothetical explanation

redefined to exclude

deviant case

End of examination of cases

Data collection ceases

What is Grounded Theory?

In its most recent incarnation, grounded theory has beendefined as:

theory that was derived from data, systematically gathered andanalyzed through the research process. In this method, datacollection, analysis, and eventual theory stand in close relationshipto one another (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 12)

Thus, two central features of grounded theory are that it isconcerned with the development of theory out of data andthe approach is iterative, or recursive, as it is sometimescalled, meaning that data collection and analysis proceed intandem, repeatedly referring back to each other.

Authored by David McHugh

Tools of Grounded Theory

Theoretical sampling

Coding

Theoretical saturation

Constant comparison

Strauss and Corbins Classification of Coding in Grounded Theory

Open coding breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing and categorizing

data (Strauss and Corbin, 1990: 61)

this process yields concepts, which are later grouped and turned into categories

Axial coding data are put back together in new ways after open coding, by making

connections between categories (1990: 96)

this is done by linking codes to contexts, consequences, patterns of interaction and to causes

Selective coding selecting the core category, systematically relating it to other categories,

validating those relationships, and filling in categories that need further refinement and development (1990: 116).

a core category is the central issue or focus around which all other categories are integrated

Outcomes of Grounded Theory

Concept(s) refers to labels given to discrete phenomena; concepts are referred to as the

building blocks of theory (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 101)

Category, Categories a concept that has been elaborated so that it is regarded as representing real-

world phenomena

Properties

attributes or aspects of a category

Hypotheses

initial hunches about relationships between concepts

Theory according to Strauss and Corbin (1998: 22), a set of well-developed categories

. . . that are systematically related through statements of relationship to form a theoretical framework that explains some relevant social . . . or other phenomenon

Processes and Outcomes in Grounded Theory

Processes Outcomes

1. Research problem

2. Theoretical sampling

3. Collect data

4. Coding 4a Concepts

5. Constant comparison 5a Categories

6. Saturate categories

7. Explore relationships 7a Hypothesesbetween categories

8. Theoretical sampling

9. Collect data

10. Saturate categories

11. Test hypotheses 11a Substantive theory

12. Collection and analysis of 12a Formal theory data in

other settings

Narrative Analysis

Narratives should be viewed in terms of the functions that the narrative serves for the teller

The aim of narrative interviews is to elicit interviewees reconstructed accounts of connections between events and between events and contexts

A narrative analysis entails a seeking-out of the forms and functions of narrative

For the management researcher, narrative analysis can prove extremely helpful in: providing a springboard for understanding what Weick (1995) has termed

organizational sensemaking

understanding the internal politics of organizations

Narrative Analysis & Storytelling

Narratives are sensitive to temporal sequence

Stories reflect the tellers point of view -

organizational sensemaking (Weick 1995)

Narratives can convey a multiplicity of viewpoints

How or why stories are told is as important as

their content

Authored by David McHugh

Criteria in Social Research

Reliability are measures consistent?

Replication/replicability is study repeatable?

Validity are conclusions well-founded?

Qualitative Method Validity

Validity is a process whereby the researcher earns the confidence of

the reader that he or she has gotten it right.

Three criteria

1. Validity as craftmanship: perception of credibility of the researcher and research

2. Validity as communication: a dialogue among those considered legitimate knowers, who may often make competing claims to knwoledge-building.

3. Validity as pragmatic proof through action: the extent to which

research findings impact those studies and wider context

Triangulation as a Validity Tool

Triangulation is using two different methods to get at the same

research question and looking for convergence in research findings.

Includes:

is an approach that uses `multiple observers, theoretical perspectives, sources of data, and methodologies (Denzin)

has tended to emphasise multiple methods of investigation and sources of data

can to refer to a process of cross-checking findings deriving from both quantitative and qualitative research (triangulation of methods)

Three other types triangulation:

1. Theoretical triangulation: uses two different theories

2. Investigator triangulation: uses different investigators

3. Data triangulation: different data sources

Qualitative Method Reliability

Reliability refers to verifying or cross-checking observations with other divergent sources of data.

Checklist for Evaluating Reliability: - Is the researchers relationship with the group and setting fully described?

- Is all field documentation comprehensive, fully cross-referenced and annotated, and rigorously detailed?

- Were the observations and interviews documented using multiple means (written notes and recordings, for example)?

- Is interviewers training documented?

- Is construction, planning, and testing of all instruments documented?

- Are key informants fully described, including information on groups they represent and their community status?

- Are sampling techniques fully documented as being sufficient for the study?

Authored by David McHugh

Types of Validity

Measurement (or construct) validity do

measures reflect concepts?

Internal validity are causal relations between

variables real?

External validity can results be generalized

beyond the research setting?

Ecological validity are findings applicable to

natural settings?see Research in focus 2.5

Authored by David McHugh

Alternative Criteria in Qualitative

Research

See Chapter 16

Trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba (1985) :

Credibility, parallels internal validity - i.e. how believable are the findings?

Transferability, parallels external validity - i.e. do the findings apply to other

contexts?

Dependability, parallels reliability - i.e. are the findings likely to apply at other

times?

Confirmability, parallels objectivity - i.e. has the investigator allowed his or her

values to intrude to a high degree?

Importance of a topic in its field

Contribution to the literature in that field

Relevance (Hammersley 1992) :

Part III Tips On Writing A

Qualitative Paper

Introduction

For the lack of a boilerplate, there was little direction

Because there was little direction, the author was lost

Because the author was lost (and the reviewer went along) the

contribution was missed

Because the contribution was missed, perceived impact was low

Because perceived impact was low, the paper was rejected.

A boilerplate refers to standardized language, and here also refers to an accepted template for writing up qualitative research.

Introduction

It leads to an assumption that to publish a qualitative

research, it needs a standard

Given the diversity of methodsand the range of

epistemological and ontological assumptions underlying these

methods (Morgan & Smircich, 1980) - constructing a single boilerplate is

not the right objective

In fact, Tierney (1995) argued that the creative nature of

qualitative research is one of its key strengths.

Major Problems

1. Lack of balance between theory and data

Telling about data, not showing it.

Showing too much data, and not interpreting it.

2. Making qualitative research appear quantitative.

Using deductive short hand.

Quantifying qualitative data.

Inappropriately mixing inductive and deductive strategies.

Finding Better Paths

1. Make sure your methods section includes the basics.

Discuss why this research is needed.

Are you building new theory or elaborating existing theory?

Why did you choose this context and this unit of analysis?

How did I get from my data to my findings?

2. Show datain a smart fashion.

3. Think about using organizing figures.

4. Think about telling a story.

5. Consider modeling someone whose style you like who

consistently publishes qualitative work.