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Masters of

CoMMand

alexander, hanniBal , Caesar,

and the Genius of

leadershiP

bArry strAuss

S I M O N & S C H U S T E R

NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO SYDN EY N EW DELHI

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Copyright 2012 by Barry S. Strauss

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Strauss, Barry S.

Masters of command : Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and the genius of leadership / BarryStrauss.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.1. GeneralsHistory. 2. Command of troopsHistory. 3. Military history, Ancient.

I. Title.

UB200.S78 2012

355.0092'237dc23 2011036243

ISBN 978-1-4391-6448-8ISBN 978-1-4391-6907-0 (ebook)

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1

ten QuAlities

of suCCessfulCommAnders

y

OU COULDNT MISS THE KING. THE BATTLE WAS ALREADY A MUDDLE OF MEN

n horses in motion n yet he ws unmistkle. He ws short utmusulr n he st on huge lk stee. Shining in his spleni rmor,

with tll white plumes xe on either sie o his helmet, Alexner the

Gret, king o Meon, le the seon we o the Compnion Clry. A

lst o ugles n ror o ttle ries h sent them o, glloping ross

the shllow Grnius Rier n up onto the opposite nk, uner the wit-

ing eyes o Persis nest horsemen. Flush with itory oer the rst we

o the Meonin ttk, the Persins hrge the enemy with lou shouts.

Two Persin rothers zeroe in on Alexner himsel. Rhoeses nSphithrites were oth ristorts; Sphithrites ws goernor o Ioni,

welthy proine on wht is toy Turkeys Aegen ost. The roth-

ers hrge n Spithrites split Alexners helmet with his simitr

n grze Alexners hir. Alexner struk k n roe his wooen

lne into Spithritess hest. As Spithrites ie, his rother swung his

swor t Alexners nke he n ime ethlow. In the split seon

eore he me ontt his rm ws slie o y the et swor o Cleitus

the Blk, Meonin of er. Alexner ws se. It ws My y in

northwestern Antoli (Turkey) in 334 b.c.

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M A S T E R S o fC O M M A N D2

One hunre eighteen yers lter, the in o ttle soune ross the roll-ing hills o southern Itly, where the rmies o Rome n Crthge were

loke in eth struggle outsie the little town o Cnne. As the Romn

legions mrhe steily orwr, the Crthginins gritte their teeth n

retrete, tking sulties s they went. Woul they ollpse uner the

Romn onslught or woul they rw the enemy into trp?

Both sies ommners le rom the ront. The Romn onsul Pul-

lus plunge into the thik o things, urging his inntry to rush the oe.

His Crthginin opponent e him not r wy, in the enter o theCrthginin inntry line, positione where he h een sine the strt o

the ghting hours erlier. Hnnil o Crthge ommne his troops in

person.

Hnnil roe on horsek, wering mil restplte n plume

helmet, n rrying roun shiel. His e ws mous or its right n

ery look. He h only one goo eye, hing lost the ision in his right eye

to isese uring long, hr mrh yer erlier.

The ttle h rehe its eiing moment. Just little longer n theCrthginins oul spring their trp, ut they woul e hr-presse to

hol on ginst Romes power. Knowing this, Hnnil roe mong the

soliers, hertening n heering on his men n een tring lows with

the Romn enemy. I the risk he ws tking int kill him, Hnnil woul

hiee triumph. It ws the ternoon o August 2, 216 b.c.

One hunre sixty-seen yers lter, in the spring o 49 b.c., iil wrgrippe Rome. The onit rge rst in Itly, Spin, n southern Frne.

Then the entrl ront moe estwr. The ous shite to the ost o

Epirus (toy Alni), the nl gtewy to the Ariti Se n Itly. Two

gret generls, Pompey n Cesr, were jokeying or position on the ln

outsie the strtegi port ity o Dyrrhium (moern Durrs, Alni).

Eh mn le lrge rmy, mpe outsie o town.

They plye witing gme, puntute y ursts o ghting. Eh

rmy trie to outnk the other n stre it out through series o wlls,

mots, orts, n towers ross the hilly terrin. Suenly, in erly My,

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3Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders

oreom ge wy to looy enggement. Deserters rom Cesrs rmy

reele wek point in their lines. Pompey use the inormtion to ttk

n tke Cesr y surprise. But Cesr rllie n lunhe ountert-tk tht sme y. It strte out well, ut then his men oun themseles in

mze o none wlls n ithes. When they were ssulte in turn,

they pnike.

Cesr ws there, mong his men, n exmple o ourge. Tll n

sinewy, he stoo rm. Soliers rn y in retret, still holing their ttle

stnrslong poles line with metl isks n toppe with re

imge o humn hn. Cesr gre the stnrs with his own hns

n ommne the men to stop. His wors were usully persusie n hislk eyes shone with igor. Yet not single mn stoppe; some looke t

the groun in shme, n some een threw wy their stnrs. Finlly,

one o the stnr erers, with his pole upsie own, re to thrust the

shrp en o it t Cesr himsel. The ommners oygurs ut o his

rm t the lst moment n se Cesrs lie. I not or them, the iil wr

might he ene on the spot.

Three generls, three ttles, n one pttern: lie thrown into the thik

o omt. But omt ws only the prie o mission. These werent just

ommnersthey were solier-sttesmen onquering n empire. Alex-

ner the Gret, Hnnil, n Julius Cesr re the ig three o nient

militry history. Alexner set the pttern. Hnnil me little more

thn entury lter, lling Alexner the gretest generl o ll time.

Cesr ppere out 150 yers lter n wept, s young mn, when he

sw sttue o Alexner, lmenting tht he, Cesr, hnt onquere ny-thing yet.

Eh ws mster o wr. They h to look r eyon the ttleel.

They h to eie not only how to ght ut whom to ght n why. They

h to ene itory n know when to en the wr. They h to enision

the postwr worl n to esign new worl orer tht woul ring stil-

ity n lsting power. In short, they were not only el ommners ut

lso sttesmen.

Yet eh woul proly wnt to e rememere s ttle hero. Neer

min the long hours o silent ontempltion, the ontinul hshing out o

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Masters o fCoMMand4

plns in onerenes, the negotitions or wr-winning llines, the teious

etils o stoking grnries or remoing wgons stuk in the mu. The

thik o looy ttleprimitie, elementlis where they elt most thome.

In ttle, they were heroi. As el ommners, leers o the rmy

in omt n on mpign, they were peerless. As strtegists, they he

mixe reor. Their wr plns rehe or the skies, ut only Alexner n

Cesr got there. As sttesmen ll three ell short. Neither Alexner nor

Cesr, muh less Hnnil, eer sole the prolem o how to ring out

or how to mintin the new worl orer tht eh one sought.

Alexner (356323 b.c.) onquere the lrgest empire the worl h yetknownPersi. But he ie just short o turning thirty-three, ter suer-

ing humiliting mutiny y his men n without hing proie or his

suession or pln to minister his st new omin. His empire immei-

tely ollpse into iil wr n hos. Fity yers lter, it onsiste o hl

ozen new kingoms, ll goerne y Alexners ellow Greeks, ut none

rule y his mily. Fr rom estlishing ynsty, Alexner ws the lst

o his line to reign.

Hnnil (247183 b.c.) took ommn o olonil empire in Spinoune y his ther n expne y his rother-in-lw. Then Rome hl-

lenge his ontrol. Rome n Crthge were loo enemies, hing lrey

ought mjor wr oer Siily, whih Rome h won. Now, with the support

o his home goernment in Crthge, Hnnil lunhe wr to eng

Rome one n or ll. He omplishe the spetulr et o rossing the

Alps in the snow with his rmy n his elephnts, n mrhe into Itly.

There he hne Rome its gretest ttleel eets, inluing one o the

most thorough itories in the nnls o wrre, Cnne (216 b.c.) Yet helost the wr. Like Alexner, he ws the lst memer o his mily to hol

politil power in his stte.

Cesr (10044 b.c.) ollowe up the epoh-mking onquest o Gul

y ghting n winning iil wr ginst the st welth n mnpower

o the Romn repuli. Cesr egn legisltie progrm to hnge the

repuli into monrhy, ut politis ore him. He ws more intereste in

strting new mpign ginst the Prthins (n Irnin kingom). Yet

eore he oul lee or the ront he ws ste to eth y row o

Romn sentors, t the oot o his enemys sttue on the Ies o Mrh. Ce-

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5Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders

sr i estlish ynsty, thoughor rther, his gret-nephew Otin

(63 b.c.a.d. 14) i. In his will, Cesr nme Otin s his opte son

n heir, ut Otin h to ght or teen long n looy yers eorethe rest o the Romn worl epte him. Otin is etter known y the

nme he lter hoseAugustus, Romes rst emperor.

Eh o the three generls ws militry proigyn gmler. They

onronte empires: enemies with r lrger rmies thn their own; enemies

who enjoye strtegi ommn o the se; n enemies with the home-

ourt ntge. Yet these generls riske eerything or itory.

All three le their ores in rmti sweep into enemy territory: Ce-

sr rosse the Ruion, Hnnil rosse the Alps, n Alexner rossethe Drnelles. Alexner egn long wr in the Persin empire (334

323 b.c.), Hnnil egn struggle with Rome known toy s the Seon

Puni Wr (218201 b.c.), n Cesr strte the iil wr (4945 b.c.). Eh

mn next experiene mix o suess n ilure, n then went on to win

smshing itory in ttle. Yet in the en Hnnil lost his wr n Alex-

ner n Cesr won empty itories.

I wrote this ook to explin why. The story o these three supreme om-

mners is s resh toy s it ws two thousn yers go. It oers lessonsor leers in mny wlks o lie, rom the wr room to the orroom

lessons n wrnings.

the ten Keys to suCCess

When Theoore Ayrult Doge ue Alexner, Hnnil, n Cesr s

gret ptins in 1889in ook o tht nmemost o his reers -mire imperil mition. Toy, ter the looy twentieth entury, we re

less sure o it. The grneur o these three gret generls inspires ut their

lethlity is terriying. They re three gos o wr, yet they re lso three

eils. We mire these men or the sme reson tht we er them, euse

they seem to e superhumn in some wys. They stn or gretnessn

or miguity. They were gret ut not goo. Or, rther, the goo in them

ws mixe with eil.

All the more reson to sk wht ounts or the gret ommners

suesstheir irtues or their ies? Eh h his own style. Alexner

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Masters o fCoMMand6

ppers in the ilil Book o Dniel s one-horne he-got, oreul n

impetuous, ut I preer to think o him s horsespirite, speey, tough,

n more thn le to hul hey lo when neee. Hnnil ws greteline pretor, like leoprunning, strong, gile, nimle, stelthy, n

opportunisti. Cesr ws wolst n relentless, skillul n murer-

ous hunter.

But the min reson or their suess ws the things they hel in om-

mon. They knew how to ply the gme o wr n they rought ertin

qulities to it. Lets egin y esriing those qulities n then well turn

to the gme.

Some o these qulities re mirle, others not. Some re mirleonly in moertion. But onquerors re rrely moerte, lest o ll Alexn-

er, Hnnil, n Cesr.

Ten qulities unerly the wrtime suess o these three gret om-

mners. The rst nine re mition, jugment, leership, uity, gility,

inrstruture, strtegy, terror, n rning. The tenth is ierent, s it is

something tht hppens to ommner rther thn something he hsthe

qulity o Diine Proiene.

1. Ambition

The Greeks si it est. Their wor or mition isphilotimia, whih liter-

lly mens loe o honor. Their wor or rie is horme, whih hs oer-

tones o emotionthink o our wor hormone. An thir Greek wor,

megalopsychia, trnsltes poorly into English ut we nee it to unerstn

these gret leers. It mens gretness o soul, reerring to pssionte

rie to hiee gret things n to e rewre with supreme honor.Enter Alexner or Hnnil or Cesr.

They were memers o wht Arhm Linoln one lle the trie o

the egle. They rimme oer with tlent. Their sel-ssurne knew no

limits. Men o towering mition, they thirste n urne or istintion.

Nothing less thn the onquest o new worls woul stisy them.

Their ims were loty ut lso egotistil n unjust. Alexner spre

emory n Greek iiliztion ut he ttke Persi to onquer n em-

pire, not to right wrong. Hnnil wnte to ree his ountry rom Romes

hokehol ut he rejete negotition in orer to ril Alexners on-

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7Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders

quests. Cesr stoo up or the interests o orinry people ut he urne

to e the rst mn in Rome n he int hesitte to oerturn the repuli.

The gret ommners were not ountnts who enourge CEOs toownsize their plns. They oul no more stop onquering thn lions n

stop hunting.

2. Judgment

Goo jugment, guie y eution, intuition, n experiene, enes ll

three ommners suess in wr. When it omes to politis, though, Ce-

sr is in lss o his own, ollowe y Alexner n Hnnil in istntthir.

They were immensely intelligent ut they eh h something more

qulity known s strtegi intuition. When e with new sitution, eh

oul rw rom pst experiene n ome up with the right nswer. They

knew how to operte without peret inormtion n they were unpple

uner pressure. They were le to think retiely, rpily, n eetiely.

An they oul re others like ook. They knew wr ut they lso knew

people.They i not nee on-the-jo trining. Beore they rosse the Helles-

pont, the Alps, or the Ruion, our three leers h ll quire proieny

in the rt o wr.

Alexner n Hnnil lerne t the eet o their mous wrrior

thersPhilip II, the ll-onquering king o Meon, n Hmilr

Br, the Crthginin generl who ought Rome to stnstill. Cesr

me rom n ristorti mily n he prtie the tritionl rts o the

Romn noilityortory n wr. By the time he rosse the Ruion in49 b.c., t ge ty, he h gone to the gretest o ll shools o wr: he h

onquere Gul (tht is, the equilent o most o moern-y Frne s

well s Belgium).

Although super-ompetent s soliers, eh o the three ommners

h his lin spot. Alexner ignore nies, Hnnil ignore sieges, n

Cesr rely knew logistis. These were signint isilities.

Beore he eme onqueror, Cesr ws politiin n he mstere

the power gme in Rome. Beore ining Persi, Alexner got the hng o

Meons ourt intrigue n ksting, ut tht ws r ry rom go-

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Masters o fCoMMand8

erning huge empire. When he ttke Rome, Hnnil h not set oot

in Crthge sine the ge o ninenerly twenty yers eoren when

it me to omesti politis, he rely knew his ABCs. He woul eentullypy or his ignorne.

3. Leadership

They h iron in their souls. The gret ommners were eisie, oreul,

n ssure. They h sts whom they onsulten requently oer-

rule. They thrie on giing orers. Men oeye, n not just euse o

their rnk: they oeye euse their ommner h erne their respet.The men h lerne to trust their leer with their lies.

They rethe ignity. Only Alexner ws king ut Hnnil n

Cesr were lorly. Yet they ll h the ommon touh, espeilly tht poli-

tiin Cesr.

I int ollow the use. I ollowe the mnn he ws my rien.

With these simple wors, lieutennt o Cesr summe up seret o

the gret ommners suess. They ppele to their ollowers not just

s onquerors or hies ut lso s men. They h those speil personlqulities tht inspire others on eep, emotionl leel. More thn ortori-

l skill, lthough tht mttere, there ws the simple ut eloquent gesture.

The sight o Hnnil in his rmy lok, sleeping on the groun with his

men, or Alexner in the esert, reusing helmet ull o wter while his

soliers went thirsty, or Cesr sleeping on the porh o requisitione hut

so his ril rien Oppius oul rest insiethese senes i more to inspire

the soliers onene then hunre speehes.

Not tht the ommners relie on rienship to mnge their rmiesr rom it. Skille tors, they oul re up n rmy or ouse its pssion.

Cesr one stoppe mutiny with single wor: itizens. By ressing

his men with iilin title he rought them k to their sensesn re-

mine them how muh they re their hies pprol.

They were msters o rewr n punishment. They use honors n

sh prizes to oster rery. They pi the troops wellor e mutinies.

They were ig-herte n wnte eeryone to know itthey kept rel-

tiely little loot or themseles ut ole it out to their riens.

When it me to their est troops, suh s Alexners Meonins or

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9Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders

Hnnils Arins, they i eerything they oul to keep sulties to

minimum. Menwhile, they let no solier in out tht, i worst me to

worst, wiows n orphns woul reeie lish enets.They stoke the er tor y punishing nyone who rosse them, men

n ofers like. Betings, exeutions, n een ruixionsthese too

were tools o leership.

4. Audacity

Honor ws t the hert o their hrter. Courge ws the re loo o

their eins. But the wrrior irtue tht est emoies Alexner, Hnnil,n Cesr like is uity.

Eh o them ws, in his own wy, sling Mount Eerest. The king o

little Meon ws not ment to onquer Persis st empire. The goernor

o Gul ws not suppose to topple the Romn sente n its rmies. An

it ws unimginle tht the Crthginin ommner o southern Spin

shoul ross oth rier n mountin n ine Itly. But they re to o

wht oulnt e one.

Beuse he loe honor, he loe ngerwht Plutrh si o Ce-sr in ttle pplies to Alexner n Hnnil s well. They ought in the

thik o things. It ws ngerous: uring his insion o the Persin empire,

Alexner h seen reore wouns, t lest three o them serious, s well

s one serious illness rom whih he reoere. It ws lso eetie, euse

generl who shre his mens risks won his mens herts.

They were ol in the militry mpigns they esigne. Although most

generls re risk-erse most o the time, these three were risk tkers. They

lwys trie to seize the inititie. Eh one gmle tht he oul estroythe enemys enter o grity eore the enemy oul estroy his. Like ll

suessul leers, the three lso knew when notto e uious.

Alexner, Hnnil, n Cesr eh osionlly took wil risk, ut

usully they lulte the os. They re out in ront ut rrely without

rst seuring their se. Still, they eh eliee in their ininile estiny

n goo ortune, whih le them to gmle n sometimes il. Few men

oune k s quikly rom ilure s they i.

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Masters o fCoMMand10

5. Agility

They were soliers or ll sesons. Or t lest or most sesons: hnge on

the ttleel ws their rien, ut een their gility h its limits. An

one o the ttleel n into politis, they e more ifult hl-

lenges.

When the onitions o omt hnge, they retoole. Hing exelle

t onentionl wrre in western Asi, Alexner swithe to ounterin-

surgeny when e with guerrill wr in Centrl Asi. Hnnil shite

eortlessly etween set ttles n mushes. Cesr ws t home on thettleel, ut he threw himsel into urn wrre in Alexnri n

mnge to pull o itory.

Spee ws their wthwor, moility their hllmrk. Alexners thun-

ering hey lry, Hnnils gile light horsemen, n Cesrs light-

ning inntry thruststhese were the gents o suess. In their hns,

een elephnts oul e me to moe with gre, s when Hnnils el-

ephnts were jole onto rts ross the Rhne.

They trele light, with little in the wy o supply trin. Their menlie o the lnAlexners less preriously thn either Hnnils or

Cesrs, sine the Meonins pi more ttention to logistis n i the

ne work neessry to seure supplies.

They were msters o multitsking. Cesr itte letters on horsek,

with seretry mounte on either sie, eh tking own ierent piee.

They were Herulen workholis who mnge time with the etness o

prizeghter. Only the nee or sleep n sex, si Alexner, remine him

tht he ws humn.But gility h its limits. Alexner ws nerly stymie y the Persin

eet. Hnnil pi erly or his inility to onut sieges in Itly. Cesr

nerly stre his rmy uring the poorly oneie siege o Dyrrhium.

Nor o gile wrriors neessrily mke goo politiins. Wr is lrity;

politis is rustrtion. Alexner onquere the Persin empire with gusto

ut he quikly lost interest in mnging its irs. Hnnil isoere tht

winning llies in Itly ws esier thn ening them to his will. Cesr

oun the ttleel less hllenging thn the Forum; his ownll me not

rom sentoril rmies ut rom ggers in the Sente Chmer.

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11Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders

6. Infrastructure

To win wr tkes ertin mteril things: rms n rmor, ships, oo,

money, money, n more money. With enough money, you n uy the rest.

You n een quire mnpowereen isipline n etern mnpower

tht is, merenries.

The one thing tht money nt uy is synergy. It nt uy omine-

rms ore (light n hey inntry n lry s well s engineers) tht is

trine to ght together s oherent wholen wele to its leer. You

he to uil tht on your own.An uil it our three generls i. They eh inherite zzling in-

strument n then hone it into something een shrper n more ely.

Philip II uilt the Meonin rmy n Alexner e the rown-

ing touh y leing the lry to itory in Philips gretest ttle

Cherone. Then, ter Philips eth, Alexner roe t the rmys he in

its yers o glory in Asi. Hnnil inherite the men who h re out

new Crthginin empire in Spin or his ther, Hmilr. Cesr took the

Romn legions n me them his own. Fire in the ruile o the Glliwrs, they were the nest rmy in the Romn worl.

7. Strategy

In its originl, nient Greek sense, strtegy reers to generlship oerll,

rom ttle ttis to the rt o opertions (weing ttles together in pur-

suit o lrger gol) to wr strtegy (how to win wr). A to these wht

we now ll grn strtegythe roer politil gol tht wr seres.Gret ommners must mster them ll.

Alexner, Hnnil, n Cesr ll h n instintie grsp o op-

ertions. Howeer, Cesrs mstery o ttis i not mth Alexners or

Hnnils.

Hnnil, in prtiulr, ws the mster o surprise. His mrh oer the

Alps let the enemy rethless. He rn irles roun the Romns with n

rry o unher-o triks, mnge to pry open the gtes o strong ity,

unleshe lry hrge rom hiing ple in the enemys rer, n

shuttle his rmy to reeom one night right uner the Romns noses.

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Neither Alexner nor Cesr ws in Hnnils legue ut they h

ew ons o their own. When the Persins loke mountin pss into the

hert o Irn, Alexner suessully roe through the hills n surprisethem rom the rer. When Cesr e Pompey in o-or-ie ttle, Ce-

sr hi his est troops until the enemy lry hrgethen he pulle out

his men n roke the lrys momentum.

But when it me to wr strtegy, Alexner n Cesr turne the

tles on Hnnil. They thought he n they were ogge. Knowing

tht he oul not et Persi t se, Alexner stoope to onquer Persis

Meiterrnen seportswhile putting o the ig ttle tht he re.

Thinking he to showown with Pompey, Cesr shippe the loot hewon in Gul k home to the orinry people o Itlyin eet, he ought

their otes. Hnnil ws less pinstking. He loe spee n sorery ut

he h no interest in grining own Romes llies one y one.

For ll his suess, Hnnil ile t long-term thinking. His ttleel

triumphs stunne ut i not sly Rome. When the enemy oune k,

Hnnil h no Pln B. We ont know who ws more to lme, Hnnil

or his home goernment, ut we o know who h the lst lughRome.

All three ommners h grn strtegy. Alexner wnte to on-quer the Persin empire, Hnnil to rek Romes power or goo, n

Cesr to hiee politil supremy. But those gols let mny, mny e-

tils to work out.

8. Terror

They were willing to kill innoents n eeryone knew it. Tht too ws

seret o their suess.Sene rom iil wr: when young puli ofil trie to stop Cesr

rom reking into the tresury in Rome, Cesr rise his oie n thret-

ene to kill him i he int get out o the wy. An young mn, he si,

you he to know tht it ws hrer or me to sy this thn it woul e to

o it. The terrie ofil let.

But thretening goernment ofils lie ws nothing ompre to

mssring entire ities, s the gret ommners i. Cesr ske the

smll Greek ity o Gomphi s punishment or its etrying him. Alexner

estroye the gret Greek metropolis o Thees just to show wht he i to

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13Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders

reels. Een worse woul ome lter in Centrl n South Asi, where the

ngry Meonins mssre town ter town.

Cesr i the sme in Gul, where the nient iogrpher Plutrh syshe kille million people n ensle million more. Exggertionsut

lose enough to the truth tht most Itlins were quik to surrener when

he rosse the Ruion. Cesr then leerly plye ginst type n pr-

one his enemies, whih won the ppluse o reliee puli.

The rst thing Hnnil i when he rehe Itly in 218 ws to ms-

sre the people o Turin smll ple in those ysin orer to rek

resistne in the surrouning re. When he nlly let Itly teen yers

lter, in 203, Hnnil slughtere those Itlins who reuse to go withhimn he int hesitte to ollow them into the grouns o temple to

o so. Or so the Romns lime.

9. Branding

Men with imperil mitions ont go to wr oer little things like orer

isputes. They nee grn uses n ler symols.

All three were hmeleons. None ws mn o the people ut ll plyethe populist.

Alexner egn s n enger n liertor n he ene up s

emigo. He promise pyk or Persis insion o Greee 150 yers

erlier, prolime the liertion o the Greek ities tht he onquere, n

me them emories, whether they like it or not. One he rehe Irn,

he put on selete items o Persin ress n insiste tht his men now

slm in his presene, Persin style, in no to his new, Estern sujets.

Menwhile, he tol his Greek llies to worship him s the son o the goZeus.

Hnnil too stoo or engene n liertion n he wlke his own

pthwy to the gos. To Crthge, he promise engene or its erlier

eet y Rome; to Itlins, he promise reeom rom Romn omintion.

He lime the support o the Crthginin go Melqrtor Herules. An

he enourge his Celti ollowers to onsier him hero out o their myths.

Cesr went to gret pins to show tht he ws no mere proinil go-

ernor in reolt ginst the lwul goernment o Rome. He si tht he ws

ghting or the rights o the Romn people n or his own goo nme

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the ltter priniple er to Romn herts. Cesr lso rew right line

etween himsel n erlier generls who h mrhe on Rome. They h

sele their wrs with reigns o terror, ut his poliy ws mery.As r s the gos, Cesrs mily tre its nestry k to venus.

Cesr reeie iine honors rom the Sente while still lie n ws ei-

e ter his eth. But Cesr quire something else tht ws worth still

moreelerity. His Commentaries on the Gallic War me him symol

o militry prowess. By the time he rosse the Ruion two yers lter,

Cesrs reputtion sere s ore multiplier.

10. Divine Providence

Npoleon ske or generls who were not only goo ut lso luky. He

woul he h mny osions to e plese with Alexner, Hnnil,

n Cesr. But only Diine Proiene, n not mere luk, n explin the

guine n protetion neee to reh the heights they i. Although the

preious nine tors were neessry, Diine Proiene ws essentil.

Diine Proiene guie the steps o young men orn to e onquerors,

like Alexner n Hnnil, n lso the steps o mile-ge politiinwho went to wr n turne out to e the gretest generl o llCesr.

Only Diine Proiene n le mns oes o the li. Without hing

to lit nger, or exmple, Alexner sw his worst enemy ie suenly.

The Romns plye into Hnnils hns y lunhing their iggest

rmy ginst him. He ws witing t Cnne. There, Hnnil hiee one

o the worls gretest ttleel itories, ut he ile to ollow up Cnne

with mrh on Romen tht ost him the wr.

As the sying goes, mn plns, Go lughs.

the Five stages oF War

A gret leer knows the rhythm o wr. Tht is ritil euse in wr, s

in most things, timing is eerything. Suess is not only mtter o the ten

qulities just isusse, ut o knowing when to eploy them. Tht goes

espeilly or the kin o wr tht Alexner, Hnnil, n Cesr ll h

in min.

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15Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders

Their three wrs ll ollowe similr pttern. Eh egn with

omintion o ttk n eense, in keeping with si rule o omt:

eery time you throw punh, you rete n opening or your opponent tottk, so you nee to protet yoursel. Aoringly, our generls ine

the enemys ountry while ntiipting n enemy ounterttk. Eh rn

into troule erly on, euse in wr things neer go s plnne, ut then

quikly regroupe. Next me gret itory in pithe ttle tht sht-

tere the enemys oensie pility. Then the three eh trie to nish the

jo y epriing the enemy o his money n mnpowertwo o them su-

eee. The lst step ws to rep the ruits o itory in pee greement

or the postwr worl, ut none o the ptins hiee this.Their three wrs ollowe similr pttern ut then, most wrs o. In

spite o mny hnges in tehnology, sine nient times the priniples o

wr he hnge s little s humn nture hs.

Eh o these wrs onsiste o e phses. I ll them the e stges o

wrre: (1) ttk, (2) resistne, (3) lsh, (4) losing the net, n (5) know-

ing when to stop.

In the attack stge, the eision to go to wr les to the outrek o

ghting guie y pln. The wr pln is ruils the sying goes,iling to pln is plnning to il. But eery pln runs into ostlesll

them resistance. In tht stge, the ttker hs to oerome those ostles

or il. Our generls sueee n ore their opponents to engge in

clashthe ttle or ttles tht let the ining rmy supreme. But win-

ning ttle is not enough. A suessul generl hs to ring the enemy to

his knees y using whteer it tkespursuit, siege, loke, ounterinsur-

geny, or other ttis. He hs to ring to er politil n nnil s well

s militry resoures. He nees to e rey or seon-guessing t homen insurgeny ro. Closing the net is the most omplex n hlleng-

ing stge o ll. Finlly, solier-sttesmn hs the ntge oknowing

when to stop. He ens the ghting t time n in mnner tht oes

more thn ese hostilitiesit lys the grounwork or the postwr worl.

Most people proly think o wr s three-stge proess: ttk, ght,

win or lose. But tht moel is wrong euse it simplies n istorts the

nture o wr. We nnot unerstn wr without llowing or its unpre-

itility n its unmentlly politil nture.

The gret ommners knew this. They int just pln to win. They n-

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tiipte ilure n they knew how to reoun rom it. They put ttleel

suess into ontext. They knew tht you oul win ttle n still lose

the wr. They lso unerstoo tht militry itory oes not equl politilsuess.

Wr is unpreitle. Mny nient soliers worshipe Fortune or Luk,

n not without reson. Their ommners me reul plns, ut no

plnner knows eery hill or wht lies ehin it; no orester n ontrol

the wether or preit wht Proiene hs in store. An then, there is the

enemy. Wr is not showoxing; wr is mth ginst moing trget.

The enemy hs wy o oing ny ning n tripping up the est-li

plns.For exmple, the Persins unleshe ounterttk y se ginst

Alexners se in Greee, n the Romns lunhe strike ginst

Hnnils stronghol in Spin. Both Alexner n Hnnil ue their

responses, ut Alexner ws luky. Hnnil took hr hit. Pompey

might he ttke Cesrs se in Itly rom Spin, ut Cesr et him

to the punh y ining Spin rst.

Politis onstrins wr in two wys. No generl n rry out militry

ts unless he ommns the support o his men on the ttleel n hiskers t home. No militry itory n er ruit unless it ores the

enemy to o your will. It is no use winning ttle i the enemy is le to

ght on to itory. Pee negotitions n proe treherous, n mny

generl hs won the wr ut lost the pee. For exmple, the generl

Lysner (. 395 b.c.) le Sprt to itory ginst Athens in the Pelopon-

nesin Wr (431404 b.c.), ut his postwr poliies were so hey-hne

tht his llies turne on him n Sprt threw him out o ofe. Tht ge

Athens n opening to rise gin s militry thret. In moern times, theFrenh rmy eete the reels militrily in the Algerin Wr (19541962),

ut t so high ost tht the Frenh goernment, with populr support,

eie to gie up. Algeri, ter more thn entury s Frenh olony,

eme n inepenent stte.

When we look losely t the nture o writs unpreitility n

politil nturewe unerstn why this e-stge moel is so useul. The

e-stge moel ts not just the wrs o Alexner, Hnnil, n Cesr

ut wr generlly, inluing more reent wrs suh s Irq n Aghni-

stn. It esries onentionl wrre est, ut it lso ts guerrill wrs

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17Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders

n wrs o ttrition, where the lsh is not set ttle ut ttle nonethe-

less, howeer long or morphous.

Although Alexner, Hnnil, n Cesr re known s msters oonentionl wrre, they oer lessons or unonentionl wrre s well,

rom Alexners retooling his rmy into ore exile enough to eet

Aghnistns noms n mountin ghters, to Hnnils ttil unning

in the Itlin hills, to Cesrs street-ghting in Alexnri, to the herts-

n-mins initities tht ll three generls use on enemy popultions.

greatness isnt What it used to Be

We historins re suppose to e ojetie ut the three sujets o this

ook mke tht hr. They exite the pssions rom loe to hte n oten

little o eh. Mye the worl still loes heroes. Biogrphers ertinly o.

They run the risk o lling in loe with their sujets, n these sujets

espeilly Alexner n Cesrhe h mny iogrphers. But nient

heroes sere mny n rious moern gens.

Tke Alexner. He ws onqueror ut history reors him s nion. To lierls, he ws isionry; to onserties, he ws hmpion

o Western iiliztion; n to more thn one religious trition, he ws

nerly sint. Jewish trition reors tht Alexner isite the Temple

in Jeruslem n showe it respet. Eer sine, Alexner hs een

ommon Jewish nmen remins so toy, een mong Orthoox Jews.

Christins eliee tht Alexner ws prepring the wy o the Lor y

ringing Greek iiliztion to the Est n y lying the grounwork or

the unition o humnity. Beuse he ws the son o go, euse helime to mke men ree, n euse he ie young, Alexner ppers

to some to pregure Christ. Islm too rememers Alexner, n possily

in its holiest text: mny sholrs eliee tht Dhul-Qrnin, gure men-

tione in the Qurn, n onsiere y mny to e prophet, tully reers

to Alexner.

But you ont he to e religious to reere Alexner. Ntionlists rom

Greee to Ini ll lim him. Gy-rights tiists see him s protogy

euse he loe men s well s women. A emle sholr, howeer, tol me

she looks own on Alexner s mle ntsy gure who represents the

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struggle etween enture n responsiility. Some rn Alexner s

uther n rute. Most historins, though, sing Alexners prises.

Cesr is no ones ie o sint, ut he sts show oer eerysholr een so. Cesr is the gtekeeper o his own reputtion, euse his

rillint ooks The Gallic Warn The Civil Warominte the nient his-

toril reor. For moern ote, Cesr hs the estShkespere,

who enowe the mn with trgi ignity. Still, Cesrs ees spek or

themseles n they ont lwys win mirers. He ine Gul without

just use n me riers o loo run there. Then he strte iil wr

in Rome, less or ny priniple thn or his own selsh goo. He ene up

s ittor who estroye the reeom o the Romn repuli. Cesrismstill stns toy or militry or imperil ittorship n or politil

solutism.

With Hnnil we he the opposite prolem. Beuse he ile to eet

Rome, Hnnil might pper loser rther thn the hmpion tht he ws.

Hnnil wins the herts o unerogs, whih sometimes les to strnge

eellows. As oy Sigmun Freu iolize Hnnil s Semite who

took on Rome the wy Freu resiste nti-Semitism in Ctholi vienn.

Arin Amerins he tritionlly onsiere Hnnil lk hero. Hews proly not rk-skinne, lthough mny thousns o troops in his

rmy were.

Still, Hnnils unerog ppel rests on soli groun. Ater tking

on n rrognt empire n shking it to its ore, he lost eerything. But

he mintine his ignity. Hnnil in eet reinente himsel s n -

ministrtor, restrte the struggle ginst Rome in the Est, n reuse

to let the enemy humilite him y mrhing in triumph. He ie eten ut

unowe.

Gret generls must e rey to ie young, n mny onquerors through-

out history he. They lso must e the eer-present possiility o ilure.

Conquest is not n esy jo. Suess requires omintion o militry

gretness n supreme politil skill. very ew people exel t oth.

Our generls toy o not try to exel t oth, n tht is goo thing.

They ow to iilin uthority. They o not eie whether to go to wr,

only how to ght wr, n een on tht point they must yiel to the politi-

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19Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders

ins. They o not eie politil strtegy, only militry strtegy. It is

goo thing not to put politil n militry power in the hns o one mn.

They o lose sleep oer killing people. They ont ght wrs o ggres-sion, only o eense. To e sure, sometimes eense requires ttking

nother stte tht is plotting ginst us or oppressing its own people or o-

upying ln tht is rightully ours, ut ll tht is r ry rom elring

someone elses soil to e sper-won ln, s Alexner i.

The gret ommners o the nient worl lke the humility lle

or in gret sttesmen. They were gret men ut not enetors o the

humn re; they me to estroy more thn to ulll. In mny wys, their

exmples re to e honore in the reh. An yet, they o he somethingto teh us.

No mn hs eer outone Alexners et o onquering suh lrge

empire in suh short time t suh young ge. No strtegist hs eer

pulle o more ring insion thn Hnnils mrh rom Spin oer

the Pyrenees, the Rhne, n the Alps into Itly. No ttleel ommner

hs eer won more omplete ttil itory thn Hnnils t Cn-

ne. No generl hs eer thrown the ie s olly s Cesr i when he

rosse the Ariti Se on the ee o winter without wrships or suppliesn won the wr.

No one eer unerstoo etter thn these three tht wr is politis. No

onqueror hs eer re to o-opt the onquere s rillintly s Alexn-

er i when he elre himsel to e the king o Asin te the prt.

No iner hs eer rllie the ine s smoothly s Hnnil i when

he entere Itly to the ry o Itly or the Itlins. No solier-sttesmn

hs eer omine the rrotpronswith the stikmilitry ores

etly s Cesr.An then, t the moment o triumph, no one eer orgot the rule tht wr

is politis s ompletelyor s isstrouslys they. Flush with itory

n runk with suess, eh mn i the one thing tht no suessul gen-

erl n eer re o: he suume to his own nity. Moern generls re

not immune to exessie prie. But, in emories, t ny rte, lws preent

ny one iniiul rom oing too muh mge. History tells utionry

tle.