Master thesis Marie Biermann Jan 2011

Universität Paderborn

Department Sport & Gesundheit

Fakultät für Naturwissenschaften

Arbeitsbereich ‚Sportpädagogik & Sportdidaktik„

Diplomarbeit im Studiengang Sportwissenschaft

Claims and effects of sport-in-development

projects – A state-of-the-art analysis

vorgelegt am 21.01.2011 von

Marie Biermann

Gutachter:

Prof. Dr. Wolf-Dietrich Brettschneider

Contents

INDEX OF FIGURES 03

INDEX OF TABLES 04

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 05

1. Introduction 06

2. Background of sport-in-development 08

2.1 Characteristics of sport-in-development 09

2.2 Sport-in-development projects 10

2.3 History of sport-in-development 11

3. Claims of sport-in-development projects 14

4. Qualitative and quantitative intervention studies 18

4.1 Health promotion and disease prevention 19

4.1.1 Sports for Life & Youth Action Kit 19

4.1.2 Kicking AIDS Out 21

4.1.3 Yes to Soccer & Sports for Peace and Life 23

4.1.4 Football for Health 24

4.1.5 Grassroot Soccer 27

4.1.6 Interim conclusion 29

4.2 Promotion of child and youth development 30

4.2.1 Child Friendly Spaces 30

4.2.2 BAM project 32

Contents 2


4.3 Promotion of gender equality and empowerment of

girls and women 34

4.3.1 Moving the Goalposts 34

4.3.2 ISHRAQ program 35


4.4 Inclusion of persons with disability 39

4.5 Conflict prevention and peace building 39

4.5.1 Football for Peace 39

4.5.2 The Pinelands Project 41


5. Summary 45

6. Outlook 47

References 51

Erklärung 61

Index of Figures 3

INDEX OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Phase I – Embedding sport into the international

human right framework 12

Figure 2: Phase II – Linking sport to development and peace

initiatives 12

Figure 3: Phase III – Emergence of a global movement 13

Figure 4: Phase IV – Momentum and growth 13

Figure 5: Flow chart of schools, questionnaires and children 26

Index of Tables 4

INDEX OF TABLES

Table 1: Contribution of sport to the Millennium Development

Goals 17

Table 2: Summary of findings from the survey on knowledge,

attitudes and lifeskills 22

Table 3: Daily number of participants divided into heritage 40

List of Abbreviations 5

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DOSB Deutscher Olympischer Sportbund

EU European Union

IOC International Olympic Committee

IOTC International Olympic Truce Centre

ISDPA International Sport for Development and Peace

Association

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

NCDO National Committee for International Cooperation and

Sustainable Development

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation

PLAH People Living with HIV/AIDS

SAD Swiss Academy for Development

SDP IWG Sport for Development and Peace International Working

Group

UN United Nations

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural

Organization

UNGA United Nations General Assembly

UNOSDP United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace

Introduction 6

1. Introduction

Sport has the power to change the world. It has

the power to inspire. It has the power to unite the

people in a way that little else does. It speaks to

youth in a language they understand. Sport can

create hope where once there was only despair.

It is more powerful than governments. It brings

down racial barriers.

Nelson Mandela (at the „Laureus World Sports

Awards‟ in Abu Dhabi on March 10, 2010)

People in every nation love sport. Its values (…)

are universal. (….) And when young people

participate in sports or have access to physical

education, they can build up their health and self-

esteem, use their talents to the fullest, learn the

ideals of teamwork and tolerance, and be drawn

away from the dangers of drugs and crime.

Kofi Annan (UNESCO, 2009, p. 22)

These quotations are only a few out of many that present sport as the

means to “bridge social, religious, racial & gender divides, hence

contributing to lasting peace” (Beutler, 2008, p. 365). While sport has

already been fair-well established as a tool in development schemes,

especially the “last decade has seen a substantial increase in the use of

sport to assist specific development programs” (Levermore, 2008, p. 56),

resulting in an ongoing popping up of sport-in-development projects (van

Eekeren, 2006). National governments, international organizations,

Introduction 7

NGOs and locally based community organizations put great efforts on

them and are convinced of their benefits, in terms of

promoting health and preventing disease,

promoting child and youth development,

promoting gender equality and empowering girls and women,

including persons with disability and

preventing conflict and building peace (SDP IWG, 2008).

Only recently, sport has also been reconfirmed as a tool to accelerate the

achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and to promote

peace. The MDGs were established by the UN and were originally

supposed to be reached by the end of 2015. Their major aim was to

focus world attention and resources on the eradication of global poverty

(cp. Beutler, 2008; UNOSDP, 2010a; UNOSDP, 2010b).

Sport is increasingly recognized as an important

tool in helping the United Nations achieve its

objectives, in particular the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs). By including sport

in development and peace programmes in a

more systematic way, the United Nations can

make full use of this cost-efficient tool to help us

create a better world.

Ban Ki-Moon (UNESCO, 2009, p. 22)

Sport is acknowledged as having the unique power to reach

developmental objectives (Gschwend & Selvaraju, 2006) - but can sport

really live up to its expectations? Does sport actually make a contribution

to those people for whose benefits the sport-in-development projects are

set up? How much is truly known about the effects of such projects? Do

their claims endure in reality?

Introduction 8

While many of the stakeholders take sport-in-development-projects‟

outcomes for granted, some project leaders and organizations have been

more critical, “posing searching questions about the paucity of evidence

that justifies the use of sport in these roles” (Kay, 2009, p. 1177). Theory-

guided research, evaluation and monitoring are still limited, and empirical

evidence to test the effects of interventions is rare (Levermore & Beacom,

2009).

Hence, my thesis is a state-of-the-art analysis of sport-in-development

projects and gives an answer to the question whether claims made for

sport-in-development projects come true in reality.

Firstly, sport-in-development is defined and its projects are categorized.

This is followed by a short overview of its history in order to impart

knowledge about what led to nowadays status of sport-in-development

(chapter 2). How sport is seen by its stakeholders and what claims are

made for sport-in-development projects is laid out in chapter 3. In

chapter 4 selected evaluated sport-in-development projects are

described, before a critical analysis of their evaluations and therewith

involved their effects is given. Thereupon, a conclusion is drawn;

summarizing the claims and effects (chapter 5). An outlook on what

needs to be considered in the field of sport-in-development in future

concludes this thesis (chapter 6).

2. Background of sport-in-development

With regard to the already introduced purpose of this thesis, namely to

present a state-of-the-art analysis of sport-in-development, it is

important to provide some background information. Therefore, at first

sport-in-development is defined to gain some knowledge about this field

and how sport-in-development projects can be classified. Second, a

short overview of sport-in-development‟s history is given. This is to

Background of sport-in-development 9

provide a basis for the current status of sport-in-development in society

– as discussed in chapter 3.

2.1 Characteristics of sport-in-development

In 2001, the European Sports Charter stated that “sport means all forms

of physical activity which, through casual or organized participation, aim

at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being,

forming relationships or obtaining results in competitions at all levels”

(Council of Europe & Committee of Ministers, 2001, Art. 2 §1a). A similar

definition was given by the UN Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for

Development and Peace that defined sport in the context of

development as “all forms of physical activity that contribute to physical

fitness, mental well-being and social interaction, such as play,

recreation, organized or competitive sport, and indigenous sports and

games” (UN, 2003, p. 2).

Although „competitive sport‟ is incorporated, sport – from a

developmental perspective – explicitly excludes elitism and exclusivity.

In the context of development, sport focuses on mass participation and a

playful manner practice; sport is used to reach out to as many

individuals as possible (Tobisch & Preti, 2010).

However, the definition of development is rather difficult to grasp. Willis

(2000) refers to it as a “challenging concept” (p. 829) and points to the

definition of human development given by the United Nations: “Human

development is a process of enlarging people's choices. [….] Human

development has two sides: the formation of human capabilities such as

improved health, knowledge and skills - and the use people make of

their acquired capabilities - for leisure, productive purposes or being

active in cultural, social and political affairs” (UN, 1990, p. 10). This

definition was reassured in 2010: “Human development is the expansion

of people‟s freedoms to live long, healthy and creative lives; to advance

other goals they have reason to value; and to engage actively in shaping

development equitably and sustainably on a shared planet. People are


both the beneficiaries and the drivers of human development, as

individuals and in groups” (UN, 2010, p. 2).

Taking these definitions of sport and development into consideration, the

field of sport-in-development deals with the broad and inclusive

spectrum of activities suitable for all ages and abilities for the values of

development (Right To Play, 2004; SDP IWG, 2008). In sport-in-

development projects, sport and other forms of leisure activity are for

example used for refugees, child soldiers, victims of conflict and natural

catastrophes, the impoverished, persons with disabilities, victims of

racism, stigmatization and discrimination, persons living with HIV/AIDS

and other diseases (Tobisch & Preti, 2010, p. 17) in order to “promote

educational outcomes, support health education generally and HIV/AIDS

education particularly, and foster empowerment” (Kay & Jeanes, 2010,

p. 31).

Summarizing, as this rather broad defined spectrum shows, sport-in-

development projects can take place in different contexts, can have

unlike structures and can vary in their aims as well in their outcomes

(Read & Bingham, 2009).

2.2 Sport-in-development projects

As already described, sport-in-development projects are not

homogenous and have a wide variety and objectives. Although their

differences are not always clear-cut, they can be divided into two broad

approaches: sport plus and plus sport projects. This broad division is

important, since it has implications for defining the success of sport-in-

development projects (Coalter, 2009).

The first approach deals with sport plus projects. Here, the focus is set

on sport-related outcomes. Developing sustainable sports organizations,

establishing and enhancing sports structures and acquiring physical

literacy as well as basic sporting skills are emphasized. Sport plus

projects are also aiming at broader social issues, such as HIV/AIDS


education, increasing commitment to general education and developing

values of citizenship – though, these are not the primary objectives.

The second approach handles plus sport projects. In contrast to sport

plus projects, here the focus is set on non-sport outcomes such as

HIV/AIDS education and behavior change. Sport‟s ability to attract a

large number of young people is utilized to achieve the aims of social

and health programs. In plus sport projects, sport, physical activity and

play are used as a means to an end, namely to facilitate social

improvement. Mostly, plus sport projects are loosely embedded within

sports structures. The longer-term sustainable development of sport, as

emphasized in sport plus projects, is a rather subordinate goal (Coalter,

2008; Coalter, 2009; Darnell, 2007; Read & Bingham, 2009).

While the number of sport plus and plus sport projects has intensively

increased in the recent past – something Kidd (2008) refers to as a

“mushrooming phenomenon” (p. 370) – sport-in-development‟s

“antecedents can be traced back to antiquity when the Olympic Truce

was first used to establish temporary peace between warring states, to

allow for competition among their athletes” (SDP IWG, 2008, p.3).

2.3 History of ‘sport-in-development’

The field of sport-in-development looks back on a long history. To

structure some of the milestones, the sport-in-development movement is

categorized in four phases (cp. Right to Play, 2008, p. 278-285).


Fig.1: Phase I - Embedding sport into the international human right

framework

Fig. 2: Phase II - Linking sport to development and peace initiatives


Fig. 3: Phase III - Emergence of a global movement

Fig. 4: Phase VI - Momentum and growth


Being already positioned in the human right framework in the 1940ies

(Fig. 1), sport was from the 1990ies onwards linked to wider social

benefits in the developmental context (Fig. 2). Especially in the last

decade, sport has increasingly gained importance, not only on local, but

also on national and international level (Fig. 3 & 4). Additionally to the

milestones mentioned, after 2003 the UNGA adopted several resolutions

on “Sport as a means to promote education, health, development and

peace” as well as on “Building a peaceful and better world through sport

and the Olympic ideal”; and the UN Secretary General reported six times

on SDP (UNGA, n.d.). Supported by this theoretical framework, the

sport-in-development field has experienced a real boost, with more than

1500 known sport-in-development projects (Kay & Jeanes, 2010) and

246 organizations listed on the platform „sport for development‟ (SAD,

2003).

3. Claims of sport-in-development projects

The rapid explosion of sport-in-development projects in the last decade

mirrors the belief in sport as an important tool to “achieve social,

economic and developmental goals” (Beutler, 2008, p. 365). Besides the

UN and EU, there are numerous national governments, international

organizations, NGO‟s and locally based community organizations that

put great efforts and financial support into them (Kidd, 2008; Levermore

& Beacom, 2009). As touched on in the introduction, widely recognized

people such as Nelson Mandela portrayed sport as the unifying power to

change the world. In SDP IWG (2008), it is indicated that “sport

possesses unique attributes that enable it to contribute to development

and peace processes. Sport‟s universal popularity, its capacity as one of

the most powerful global communications platforms, and its profound

ability to connect people and to build their capacities make it one of the

most cross-cutting of all development and peace tools. These attributes

also make sport an effective, low-cost means of preventing and

Claims of sport-in-development projects 15

addressing a broad range of social and economic challenges. Sport can

also be used as an important means of advancing human rights” (p. 2).

Sport-in-development projects are regarded as spaces for developing

not only physical but also social and moral skills. Tobisch & Preti (2010)

and Beutler (2008) agree on sport-in-development projects‟ capacity to

generate skills such as discipline, leadership, tolerance, solidarity, fair

play, respect and honesty. Sport-in-development projects are assumed

to provide an opportunity to assist empowerment, peace-building,

education and health awareness. According to the stakeholders, this

counts especially for children and youths, who are thereby protected

from risky and dangerous behavior, such as substance abuse and

prostitution (Tobisch & Preti, 2010, p. 37). These assumptions go along

with the concept of „Olympic Education‟ that is publicized by the DOSB

and IOC (cp. Naul, 1998; Naul, 2002).

Representatives of the UN confirm this opinion, and present sport “as an

important tool in helping the United Nations achieve its objectives, in

particular the Millennium Development Goals” (UNESCO, 2009, p. 22).

The UN millennium goals, established in 2000, include many different

issues such as reducing poverty and hunger, fighting against diseases

or eliminating gender disparity. The following table presents how sport is

seen to contribute to the millennium goals (UNGA, 2010).

1.Eradicate

extreme

poverty and

hunger

Participants, volunteers and coaches acquire transferable

life skills which increase their employability

Vulnerable individuals are connected to community

services and supports through sport-based outreach

programs

Sport programs and sport equipment production provide

jobs and skills development

Sport can help prevent diseases that impede people from

working and impose health care costs on individuals and

communities

Sport can help reduce stigma and increase self-esteem,

self-confidence and social skills, leading to increased

employability

2.Achieve School sport programs motivate children to enroll in and


universal

primary

education

attend school and can help improve academic

achievement

Sport-based community education programs provide

alternative education opportunities for children who cannot

attend school

Sport can help erode stigma preventing children with

disabilities from attending school

3.Promote

gender

equality and

empower

women

Sport helps improve female physical and mental health and

offers opportunities for social interaction and friendship

Sport participation leads to increased self-esteem, self-

confidence, and enhanced sense of control over one‟s

body

Girls and women access leadership opportunities and

experience

Sport can cause positive shifts in gender norms that afford

girls and women greater safety and control over their lives

Women and girls with disabilities are empowered by sport-

based opportunities to acquire health information, skills,

social networks, and leadership experiences

4.Reduce child

mortality

Sport can be used to educate and deliver health

information to young mothers, resulting in healthier children

Increased physical fitness improves children‟s resistance to

some diseases

Sport can help reduce the rate of higher-risk adolescent

pregnancies

Sport-based vaccination and prevention campaigns help

reduce child deaths and disability from measles, malaria

and polio

Inclusive sport programs help lower the likelihood of

infanticide by promoting greater acceptance of children

with disabilities

5.Improve

maternal

health

Sport for health programs offer girls and women greater

access to reproductive health information and services

Increased fitness levels help speed post-natal recovery

6. Combat HIV

and AIDS,

malaria, and

other diseases

Sport programs can be used to reduce stigma and

increase social and economic integration of people living

with HIV and AIDS

Sport programs are associated with lower rates of health

risk behaviour that contributes to HIV infection

Programs providing HIV prevention education and

empowerment can further reduce HIV infection rates

Sport can be used to increase measles, polio and other


vaccination rates

Involvement of celebrity athletes and use of mass sport

events can increase reach and impact of malaria,

tuberculosis and other education and prevention

campaigns

7.Ensure

environmental

sustainability

Sport-based public education campaigns can raise

awareness of importance of environmental protection and

sustainability

Sport-based social mobilization initiatives can enhance

participation in community action to improve local

environment

8. Develop a

global partner-

ship for

development

Sport for Development and Peace efforts catalyze global

partnerships and increase networking among

governments, donors, NGOs and sport organizations

worldwide

Tab. 1: Contribution of sport to the Millennium Development Goals

(UNOSDP, 2010a, p. 1 f.)

While many national governments, international organizations, NGO‟s

and locally based community organizations are convinced of sport-in-

development projects‟ benefits in terms of

promoting health and preventing disease,

promoting child and youth development,

promoting gender equality and empowering girls and women,

including persons with disability and

preventing conflict and building peace (SDP IWG, 2008),

some people have raised questions about the efficacy of the projects

(Levermore, 2008, p. 60; Levermore & Beacom, 2008, p. 252, Serena,

2009, p. 21). Coalter (2010) for example assigns sport a “mythoepic

status” (p. 296), meaning its claimed benefits are based on idealistic

ideas only. However, efforts to evaluate various projects are in progress

(Brady, 1998), trying to provide scientific evidence.

Qualitative and quantitative intervention studies 18

4. Qualitative and quantitative intervention studies

As already presented, the number of sport-in-development projects,

either sport plus or plus sport, has increased immensely throughout the

last decade. Their aims are ambitious, their expectations are high – but

the current research status in terms of the effects of sport-in-

development projects is rather confusing.

While all of them aim at the overall goal to improve development, their

specific targets vary as well as their structures and outcomes. A few

projects have been independently evaluated; others include in-house

evaluation and monitoring exercises. For example, the Swiss Academy

for Development (SAD, 2003; SAD, n.d.) and the Sport for Development

and Peace International Working Group (UNOSDP, n.d.a) are two

organizations that have dedicated their work to sport-in-development

and demand evaluations as well. Coalter (2008) developed a monitoring

and evaluation manual, trying to provide a framework to “enable

organizations to adopt an integrated approach to their planning cycle

that enables ongoing learning and development of organization capacity

and effective delivery” (p. 3). In addition, the SDP IWG (2010) and

NCDO (2008) offer a range of different toolkits in order to provide

guidance and advice for planning, implementing and evaluation sport-in-

development projects.

However, the few evaluations being conducted are not necessarily

based on these toolkits or recommendations. They differ in their design,

as well as in their scientific quality, with many of them not meeting the

overall evaluation criteria. Kay (2009) claims that “in most cases

evaluation is tentative, indicative and anecdotal, because insufficient

(human and financial) resources are given to it, and insufficient

intellectual attention in most cases is expended to identify outcomes and

gather the necessary evidence to demonstrate them” (p. 1179).

Due to these facts, it is very difficult to present an all-over state of

research with the following list not making the claim to be complete. The

following sport-in-development projects are listed concerning their


overall aim, as sorted by the SAD (SDP IWG, 2008, p. 19). First, the

sport-in-development projects are shortly introduced before their

evaluations are presented. After each evaluation, some comments on

the evaluations` usability are given. An interim conclusion about the

quality of the evaluations as well as about sports‟ benefits brings the

chapter to an end.

4.1 Health promotion and disease prevention

The sport-in-development projects Sports for Life & Youth Action Kit,

Kicking AIDS Out, Yes to Soccer & Sports for Peace and Life, Football

for Health and Grassroot Soccer aim at promoting health and preventing

disease. All of them focus primarlily on these non-sporting outcomes.

Therefore, they can be included in the group of plus sport projects.

4.1.1 Sports for Life & Youth Action Kit

Sports for Life and Youth Action Kit are two sport-in-development

projects in Ethiopia that use sport in order to

- increase knowledge and risk perception related to HIV/AIDS,

- strengthen community support, increase awareness for stigma

and support for people living with HIV/AIDS (PLAH),

- increase life-skills and self-efficacy and

- increase planning of future goals (Rajan & Franca-Koh, 2007,

p. 12 f.).

Both projects are based upon the combined constructs of the Health

Belief Model and the Social Cognitive Theory.

In Sports for Life, youths from seventh to eight grade played soccer and

beyond were involved in 24 participatory learning activities such as role-

plays, games, participation in community festivals etc. In Youth Action

Kit in- and out-of-school, youths between 15 – 20 years were involved in

a similar program composed of 30 activities.


While a baseline evaluation had been carried out prior to the program

(purely quantitative), an endline evaluation was conducted one year

after the projects‟ implementation. The goal was to find out to which

extent the programs influenced youths‟ knowledge, attitudes and

behavior to HIV/AIDS as well as their influence on life skills (Rajan &

Franca-Koh, 2007). Since the report only covers the qualitative part

(namely in-depth interviews), the quantitative part cannot be factored

into the results.

The evaluation sample was taken from three regions that had already

been involved in the baseline survey. The interviewees were split evenly

across gender and had to be „active‟ program participants, meaning they

had to be involved in at least half or more of the program (n=48). Only

the parents of these „active‟ youths were interviewed (n=12) as well as

leaders with the most experiences (n=12).

Some selected results can be summarized as follows (Rajan & Franca-

Koh, 2007, pp. 48-51):

- feelings about the program: both Sports for Life and Youth Action

Kit participants, leaders and parents stated they liked the

program;

- HIV knowledge: both Sports for Life and Youth Action Kit

participants mentioned their knowledge had increased or

deepened through the program;

- Changes in attitude and self-efficacy: both Sports for Life and

Youth Action Kit participants talked about positive changes in

their attitude towards HIV; Sports for Life participants did not

discuss their perceived self-efficacy in great detail, while Youth

Action Kit participants perceived a change in their self-efficacy to

prevent HIV/AIDS;

- Changes in collective efficacy: both Sports for Life and Youth

Action Kit youths struggled to discuss this issue, the program


seemed to have improved the ability of groups to fight against

HIV/AIDS together;

- Influence on life skills: both Sports for Life and Youth Action Kit

participants noted an improved ability to express their thoughts

and feelings, and thus avoid and eliminate negative influences of

peer pressure;

- Changes in behavior: no change to sexual behavior was seen

since both Sports for Life and Youth Action Kit participants stated

they were abstinent before and remained so after the program.

While most of the results sound quite encouraging, the study itself has

some limitations. First of all, the sample was not assigned randomly.

Only „active‟ participants were chosen for the evaluation. This might

have affected the data in terms of largely positive case findings.

Secondly, since the information was gathered by in-depth interviews

only, the outcomes are only based on participants‟ assumptions. Thirdly,

it has to be considered that the participants might reply in a manner they

expect to be seen favorably by others (social desirability bias). This is for

example the case when it comes to sexual behavior. Additionally, while

hardly anyone states to be sexually active, no conclusion can be made

on the program‟s impact on this issue (Rajan & Franca-Koh, 2007, p. 52-

54).

4.1.2 Kicking AIDS Out

Kicking AIDS Out is an international network of organisations that work

together to use sport and physical activity as a means of raising

awareness about HIV and AIDS and motivating positive behaviour

change in youth. Believing that sport and physical activity are effective

ways of attracting youth, the organization delivers knowledge and

practical life skills through fun and educational movement games and

sport activities (KAO, 2009).


A review was carried out in order

a) to learn how sport is used as a tool for addressing AIDS related

issues among young people,

b) to assess to what extent Kicking AIDS Out has been an effective

instrument in linking sport with the HIV/AIDS response and

c) to recommend changes and modifications in objectives, strategies

and working methods.

Within a quasi-experimental study design, two groups of young people

from different but similar communities in Zambia were selected. The

intervention, as well as the control group, consisted of each 20 girls and

20 boys between 14 – 18 years of age. Among other data, the groups

were compared in terms of knowledge about HIV/AIDS, attitudes about

discrimination and life-skills. This was done via questionnaires (Kruse,

2006).

Intervention group Control group

Can a person get HIV by

having sex with an HIV person

only once?

85% said yes 90% said yes

How long can a person live

with HIV without getting it?

52,5% said many

years

57,5% said many

years

Are you willing to play on a

team with a player having HIV?

90% said they are

willing

80% said they

are willing

It is safe for people with HIV to

work with children?

67,5% said yes 67,5% said yes

Have you learned that you can

make your decisions to say

no?

92,5% said yes 60% said yes

Have you learned how a

person can live a good life with

HIV?

65% said yes 72,5% said yes

Tab. 2: Summary of findings from the survey on knowledge, attitudes

and lifeskills (NORAD, 2006, p. 36)


The report reveals that Kicking AIDS Out activities‟ importance in

spreading new knowledge and information about HIV/AIDS, stigma and

discrimination is limited. There was no significant difference in the level

of knowledge between the exposed and the unexposed group.

The ability to make independent decisions and to say „no‟ in matters of

sex, as well as a higher level of self confidence, counted among the

major findings of the survey. The respondents of the study group

showed better life skills compared to those of the control group (Kruse,

2006).

Taking these positive outcomes into consideration, there are also some

limitations to the study. First of all, the time spent in Zambia was very

short (only eight days) and, therefore, insufficient for understanding

micro processes, namely what was happening among young people.

Second, concerning the knowledge of HIV/AIDS, it has to be considered

that messages could have crept in and are understood by the

participants. However, on the other hand, the messages could only be

empty phrases which are memorized and without much meaning. No

one knows to what extent messages are understood and internalized.

Thirdly, since the questionnaires were geared towards self-assessment,

it cannot be always proved whether the participants‟ estimation was also

played out in real life (e.g. stronger ability among girls to negotiate sex

and to make independent decisions).

4.1.3 Yes to Soccer & Sports for Peace and Life

Yes to Soccer in Liberia and Sports for Peace and Life in Southern

Sudan are sport-in-development projects that use sport as a means to

raise HIV/AIDS awareness. In both projects, community mentors get

trained to build their skills as peer educators and to facilitate a

curriculum based on the Social Learning Theory. The mentors then

accomplish participatory games, activities and discussions with youths in

order to inform about HIV/AIDS. The methodology used is the

participatory games-based learning method after Dewey and Freire


(Mercy Corps, 2007, p. 12). With completing ten or more of 14 (Liberia)

respectively 15 (Southern Sudan) activities within eight (Liberia)

respectively six (Southern Sudan) weeks, curricula students become

graduated and celebrate their accomplishments in graduation

ceremonies and sports tournaments (Mercy Corps, 2007, p. 6).

Both projects were evaluated with a pre-and post-test consisting of a

nine-item questionnaire (before-and-after survey). The questions were

thought up questions concerning HIV/AIDS knowledge and attitudes,

such as “If I decide to have sex, using condoms correctly every time can

help protect me from getting HIV/AIDS” or “I can tell if someone has

HIV/AIDS by looking at him/her” (Mercy Corps, 2007, p. 8).

In the Yes To Soccer evaluation, 280 participants were tested prior to

the curriculum (pretest), as well as 310 participants after completing the

curriculum (post-test). From pre- to post-test there was a 27% increase

in HIV knowledge and attitudes.

In the Sports for Peace and Life evaluation, 391 participants were tested

prior to the curriculum and 361 participants after completing it. HIV

knowledge and attitude increased by 12% from pre-and posttest (Mercy

Corps, 2007, p. 7).

Sporting activities were therefore said to have an impact on students‟

HIV/AIDS knowledge and protective attitudes in challenging post-conflict

environments (Mercy Corps, 2007, p. 22).

While sport seems to have a high impact on students‟ knowledge and

attitudes, it cannot be said whether the increased knowledge and

changed attitudes indeed change people‟s behavior – and, therefore, if

sport helps to prevent HIV/AIDS. Additionally, there was no follow-up

intervention to see if the knowledge lasted longer than the project itself.

Also, the positive outcomes might result from the mentors‟ abilities and

not from sport‟s participation alone.


4.1.4 Football for Health

Football for Health is a sport-in-development project in South Africa that

promotes health by raising awareness of cause and prevention

strategies for communicable and non-communicable diseases. For its

implementation, based on a 10-stage process proposed by the World

Health Organization, seventh graders at two schools with the same

teaching curriculum were chosen and randomly assigned to the

intervention and control group. At one of the schools, sixth graders were

also chosen, to represent an additional intervention group. Twenty-three

coaches were recruited and also randomly assigned to the intervention

and control groups. They were provided with material, such as footballs,

cones, whistles and bednets as well as with a training manual.

An eleven-week program was undertaken during school time, consisting

of 90 minutes (two 45 minutes halves) per week. In the first half, children

were taught a specific football skill (play football), whereby, in the

second half, they were provided with a certain health message which

was then linked to a specific football skill. One training session was

usually conducted with approximately 20 children (Fuller, Junge,

DeCelles, Donald, Jankelowitz & Dvorak., 2010).

To find out about the program‟s impact, an evaluation accompanied the

project. The evaluation was conducted by individual coaches who

recorded the children‟s attendance, as well as independent evaluators

who collected pre- and post-test data, not knowing about the groups‟

break-up. The two intervention groups (grade six and seven) consisted

of 370, the control group (grade seven) of 114 pupils. The data was

collected via questionnaires about health knowledge (20-items),

coaches‟ attitude towards their training programme (10-items) and

children‟s attitude towards the health education programme (6-items).

The questionnaires had statements (positively and negatively worded)

that anticipated a mixture of both positive and negative answers using a

5-point Lickert scale (Fuller et al., 2010, p. 553).


Fig. 5: Flow chart of schools, questionnaires and children (Fuller et al.,

2010, p. 550)

The evaluation‟s results are the following:

- Children in grade 7 intervention group:

o significant (p < 0.05) increases in the proportion of correct

responses for nine of the twenty health knowledge questions

postintervention;

o increases maintained at three months follow-up

postintervention;

- Children in grade 6 intervention group:

o significant (p < 0.05) increases in the proportion of correct

responses for fifteen of the twenty health knowledge

questions;


- Children in grade 7 control group:

o significant increase in the proportion of correct responses to

one of the twenty health knowledge questions post-play

Football sessions and nine of twenty questions post-Play Fair

sessions.

Overall, 90% of the children provided positive attitude responses to the

health education programme. Therefore, this sport-in-development

project is seen as successful when it comes to strategies for preventing

diseases (Fuller et al., 2010, p. 554).

Although this evaluation was following most of the scientific evaluation

criteria, the limitation of selectivity comes up. While the schools were

assigned randomly, the students were not. Both interventions and the

control group were assigned as classes, and therefore changes might

be due to other factors than the sports program exclusively.

4.1.5 Grassroot Soccer

The sport-in-development project Grassroot Soccer is an HIV/AIDS

education program that uses soccer‟s popularity and well-known adult

soccer players to entice at-risk youth into the program. It has

implemented a behavioural change curriculum based on the social

learning theory by Albert Bandura (Botcheva & Huffmann, 2004, p. 6)

focusing on student knowledge, communication and attitude. Highly

action-orientated approaches such as interactive games, activities and

discussions support developing basic life skills and reinforce core

messages (Griffiths, 2005, p. 25; Cole, 2006, p. 227). In Zimbabwe, the

program was launched in nine schools, targeting seventh grade pupils

with fourteen locally and nationally known soccer players being trained

as educators. The students undergo a four-day educational intervention

with teaching sessions conducted four times within two weeks (Botcheva

& Huffmann, 2004, p. 6).


To find out about the program‟s impact, an evaluation was conducted in

four schools, forming two groups of students: non-participants (n=149)

and participants (n=155). The students underwent a pre- and post-

intervention as well as a five-months follow-up. This data was collected

with a 36-item questionnaire consisting of questions concerning

students‟ knowledge about HIV/AIDS, self-efficacy and control beliefs

(based on a psychosocial scale by Perkel, 1992), perceptions of social

support and attitudes related to increasing and decreasing HIV/AIDS

related stigma. Furthermore, at the end of the program, 30 students (15

intervention, 25 control group) wrote a story or a poem about HIV/AIDS

to measure their emotional response. Also, students were involved in

focus group discussions (Botcheva & Huffmann, 2004, p. 7-9).

The report presents following outcomes:

- The survey‟s results showed that the intervention significantly

improved student knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of social

support related to HIV/AIDS. However, there were no changes in

students‟ self-efficacy and sense of control. The positive changes

sustained until the follow-up intervention, whereby after five

months, there was a significant decrease concerning the role of

condoms as prevention and concerning students‟ willingness to

support people with HIV/AIDS (Botcheva & Huffmann, 2004, p. 9-

13).

- Concerning the poems there were differences between the

frequency of themes between the intervention and the control

group. The intervention group more often included themes such

as prevention and treatment, possibilities of cure, emotions

concerning AIDS; whereby non-participants seemed to be

hopeless in terms of finding a solution. Therefore, emotional

awareness regarding AIDS seemed to have improved in the

intervention group (Botcheva & Huffmann, 2004, p. 15-17).


- In the focus group discussions, both trainers and students

expressed satisfaction with the program:

o 22% said they would teach others about the disease;

o 19% mentioned they would use their knowledge about

prevention;

o 10% stated they will use the knowledge for abstinence.

- In the five-months follow-up, 99% of the students expressed that

they still knew what they had learned, while 74% of them stated

they had already used their knowledge (Botcheva & Huffmann,

2004, p. 18).

Overall Grassroot Soccer is seen as an effective sport-in-development

program to educate young risk students about HIV/AIDS.

Taking these positive results into consideration, the program itself has a

few limitations. First of all, the students were exposed to the sport

component for quite a short time (twice a week for two weeks).

Therefore, it is arguable whether the outcomes resulted from sport

exclusively. A second limitation concerns generalization. The project

works only with teachers who are said to be role models, such as

professional athletes. One has to question whether the project had the

same outcomes employing regular teachers. Therefore, it is difficult to

argue that sport itself leads to such positive outcomes.

4.1.6 Interim conclusion

In regard to sport as a means to promote health and to prevent

diseases, the existing studies consistently present encouraging results.

However, taking a closer look at the evaluations‟ designs, it needs to be

considered that most of them do not follow scientific guidelines and

disclose limitations.


The evaluations of Sport for Life and Youth Action Kit as well as Kicking

AIDS Out follow a rather cross-sectional design. Therefore, although

partly presented differently in the evaluations‟ results, they cannot be

used for understanding causal progresses that occur over time

respectively if sport is the variable responsible for a change in behavior

concerning HIV/AIDS.

The evaluations of Yes To Soccer and Sports for Peace and Life,

Football for Health as well as Grassroot Soccer follow a rather

longitudinal design, trying to study change and processes over time.

Still, they lack some important issues, and only one of them (Football for

Health) works with significances and effect sizes.

Therefore, although the evaluations‟ results point to the positive benefits

of sport-in-development projects on an increase in knowledge

concerning health and HIV/AIDS, no clear scientific correlation is

presented between sport and HIV prevention.

4.2 Promotion of child and youth development

The following sport-in-development projects Child Friendly Spaces and

BAM project have the primary goal of promoting child and youth

development, both of them being located in areas that are affected by

disasters or conflicts. While trying to reach their aims with sport,

improved sporting skills are not the main desired outcome. The sports

activities are rather embedded into other recreational activities, and

therefore the two sport-in-development projects belong to the group of

plus sport projects.

4.2.1 Child Friendly Spaces

Child Friendly Spaces is a project in Rift-Valley Kenya that offers safe,

physical spaces for children affected by conflict or disasters. Two

locations were chosen and equipped with sport and non-sport tools so

that children get the chance to participate in activities, to express their

feelings and to be trained with sport and conflict resolution skills. Three


psychosocial counselors per centre organize a football and a volleyball

tournament (Serena, 2009, p. 53 f.).

In order to find out about the project‟s impact, an evaluation was

conducted by the counselors a few weeks after the project‟s

implementation. Data was collected using focus group discussions

(children, youths, adults; n=150) and a 17-item questionnaire (youths;

n=50) with questions regarding free time, recreational activities, sport

activities and the relationship of sport and personal skills as well as sport

and self-confidence.

In the focus group discussions children said that activities such as stone

games, drawing, football and singing made them happy. Youths also

appreciated the project, mainly because of learning new things, making

friends and getting the opportunity to discuss issues such as

reconciliation, entrepreneurship and health. The project, providing a

friendly environment, made them feel comfortable. Adults believed the

project made their children behave differently, in terms of being busier

and more active during the day and in terms of thinking more positive

about the future. Additionally, they were not concerned about their

children whereabouts anymore and expressed the desire to have a

similar program for adults.

The results of the questionnaires showed that youths seem to be more

confident about themselves: “I believe that I can be good in something if

I work hard at it” is answered by the majority when it comes to the

question what they learn by doing sport. When it comes to the reasons

why they like sport, making new friends, staying with others, having fun,

being member of a team counted among the major findings (Serena,

2009, p. 54-58).

While these results sound quite encouraging, namely improved self-

confidence, as well as a positive change in behavior, the data has to be

interpreted with caution. First of all, the data remains on a descriptive

level with for example parents assuming a change in children‟s behavior.


The behavior change itself was not measured. Secondly, the report

indicates improvements, although the data was taken just once.

Especially the questionnaire asks for a present self-assessment, and

therefore the results cannot be taken to make a statement about

children‟s improved self-confidence.

4.2.2 BAM project

The BAM project is a sport-in-development project in Iran that was

implemented by the SAD, using sport as a tool to support psychosocial

rehabilitation of children and youth from post-disaster trauma. For its

implementation, three locations in the earthquake-affected area of Bam

were equipped with sport tools such as football goals, table tennis

tables, rackets etc. Professional and experienced coaches were

selected in order to offer sport activities, trips and picnics in the

countryside as well as sporting competitions (Kunz, 2006).

The project was evaluated with ongoing project monitoring over one

year:

- Weekly reports of coaches: While at the beginning the coaches

were supposed to report daily, after six weeks this was reduced

to report once a week. These weekly reports consisted of

structured interviews with mostly open question about the general

atmosphere, group dynamics, individual „troublemakers‟, children

and youth who the coaches perceived as suffering mentally, the

relationship between the coach and the participants, changes in

children‟s behavior etc. The coaches were also asked to collect

quantitative data such as number and age of participants or

injuries.

- Family interviews: 15 parents (five from each location) were

interviewed with a 5-item-questionnaire. The questions addressed

the parents‟ attitudes towards the project and its perceived

benefits for their children.


- Gender survey questionnaire: Coaches, parents and children

were asked to take part in a survey with a special emphasis on

gender-specific issues, rather than on the physical and mental

wellbeing of the children. Most of the questions had pre-set

answer categories (Kunz, 2006, p. 11 f.).

According to the ongoing project monitoring report, the coaches

observed improvements in fairness and in dealing with aggression

among the children and youth over time. Parents reported that the team

spirit the children had gained during sport spread to their daily life and

that their children experienced positive behavior change. Children were

said to have improved their physical as well as their mental wellbeing.

Coaches, as well as parents, assigned sport the power to bring stability

in the children‟s shattered lives. The gender surveys‟ results let assume

that girls felt empowered and safe to participate in sport – something

they were not able to do before, due to the strong religious beliefs in

Bam (Kunz, 2009, p. 1151 ff.).

Although these results appear promising, it is difficult to isolate the

effects to the use of sport alone. First of all, the study design lacks a

control group, and therefore the effects could also be attributed to other

factors outside the project. Secondly, the sports activities are embedded

within a broader range of activities. Therefore, it is not known whether it

is the totality of the project or the sport component leading to positive

results. Another limitation is the missing data of children themselves.

While the questionnaires and interviews ask coaches and parents about

their opinions on the children‟s development, direct data is rather

fragmented. Last but not least, the project wanted to reach as many

children as possible and continuous participation was obligatory. This

fluctuation makes it difficult to detect change over time.


With regard to sport promoting child and youth development, the

evaluations‟ results sound encouraging. Nonetheless, by examining the


study designs and collected data, the results should be interpreted with

caution. Due to the projects implementation, it cannot be found out

whether sport is the only variable leading to positive outcomes.

Additionally, in both projects data on and from the main target group

remains scrappy. Last but not least, none of the studies presents

scientific results.

Therefore, it has to be concluded that the two studies are too

fragmented to make scientific statements about sport‟s influence on

child and youth development in the disaster context.

4.3 Promotion of gender equality and empowerment of girls

and women

Moving the Goalposts and ISHRAQ are two sport-in-development

projects focusing on promoting gender equality and empowering

women. Again, these projects are plus sport projects, using sport as a

vehicle to facilitate social development.

4.3.1 Moving the Goalposts

The sport-in-development-project Moving the Goalposts is a community

based organization in Kenya that focuses specifically on girls and

women to change gender disparities. Moving the Goalposts uses

football as a means to improve life skills, such as confidence,

leadership, self-esteem and team work of vulnerable females. It also

provides reproductive health education, since the area suffers from

teenage pregnancies as well as HIV infection (MTGK, 2008; Saavedra,

2009).

In 2006, a volunteer Monitoring and Evaluation team, consisting of

members from Moving the Goalposts, was established to collect and

analyze information on

a) the football experiences of girls,

b) the impact of football on their life skills and

c) the sexual and reproductive health needs of girls.


Among other data, the Monitoring and Evaluation team counted the

number of participants over three years. The increasing number is seen

as success. They also collected information on the impact of football on

girls‟ and young women‟s life skills and empowerment via questionnaires

and interviews.

The girls stated that the possibility of organizing and managing various

football activities made them develop important transferable life skills -

such as leadership, confidence, self-esteem, team work and

organizational skills. Most of them were empowered by successful

coping of football related issues, along the thinking „If I can succeed in

sport, I can also succeed in something else‟. Football was also said to

be an entry point for broader community activities, such as reproductive

health, human rights and economic empowerment initiatives (Owour,

2007).

Although the results of this evaluation sound quite encouraging, the

study itself shows some important lacks.

The data, namely a simple count of participants, was taken over three

years but remains only on a descriptive level. This limits the insight into

the impact the program has on the lives of the target group. The

qualitative data is taken only once (cross sectional study). This way, it is

not possible to talk about effects; the findings cannot be causally related

to the intervention. Also, since it were people from Moving the Goalposts

themselves that evaluated the program, data has to be interpreted with

caution. And, last but not least, it remains open whether the findings can

be generalized.

4.3.2 ISHRAQ program

ISHRAQ is a sport-in-development project in four villages in Egypt

conducted by Caritas Egypt, The Population Council, The Centre for

Development and Population Activities and Save the Children. Since in


Egypt community norms dictate that adolescent girls “should be closely

supervised until a husband can be found” (Brady, Salem & Zibani, 2007,

p. 1), girls strongly experience gender-based inequality. Therefore,

ISHRAQ‟s overall aims are to “transform girls‟ lives by changing gender

norms and community perceptions about girls‟ roles in society” (Brady et

al, 2007, p. 2), to “establish girl-friendly spaces in the community for girls

to meet, learn and play” (Brady et al., 2007. p. 2) and to ”develop skills,

increase self-confidence, build citizenship and leadership abilities, and

raise girls‟ expectations for the future” (Brady et al., 2007, p. 2).

These goals are supposed to be reached by a multi-dimensional

program, including literacy classes, life skills programs, home skills and

livelihood as well as recreation and sport. The program takes place 30

months (three hours per day for four days a week), incorporating 13

months (two times a week, 90 minutes per session) sports activities. In

the first three months, the girls get introduced to traditional games, while

in the following ten months, they learn table tennis plus an additional

team sport such as volleyball, soccer, basketball or handball (Brady et

al., 2007, p. 15).

The project was evaluated with a quasi-experimental pre-test and post-

test study design. Focus group discussions, unstructured interviews,

observation of classes, training sessions, parent and community

meetings and accepting invitations to important events composed the

rather informal data collection. More formal, a questionnaire was

developed on questions used internationally by the Population Council,

which was pre-tested before the baseline questionnaire was finalized

and fielded. Additional special questions were created to identify change

in the life of young rural girls.

587 girls, aged 13 to 15 were chosen to take part in the study. Out of

these, 134 girls from two control villages, as well as 176 eligible girls

who did not participate, served as a control group. The other girls were

subdivided, due to the length of their participation, in ISHRAQ: 118

participated for one year or less, 51 participated for 13-29 months and

108 took part for full 30 months. However, all 587 girls were surveyed at


least two points in time, and were interviewed in at least two survey

rounds.

The data was taken two times:

- Baseline data: prior to the program respectively at midpoint (from

girls who joined after the start-up);

- Endline data: four months after the program‟s end.

Concerning literacy classes, life skills programs, home skills and

livelihood the evaluation‟s results show significant improvements. Not

only did the participants significantly improve their literacy skills (ability

to read a small passage, ability to write one‟s name, ability to write

sibling‟s name, ability to write from one to ten, ability to answer a math

problem about distance: p=0.001), they also significantly changed their

attitudes regarding marriage and childbearing, regarding harassment

and violence as well as gender roles (p=0.05 – p=0.001) (Brady et al.,

2007, p. 23-28, 36).

Concerning sport the results are intercessional too (Brady et al., 2007,

27 f.):

- 94% enjoyed playing sport;

- 95% of the participants said they would encourage other girls to

play sports and 99% would encourage their daughters to play

sport;

- 95% said boys are wrong in believing that girls cannot play sport;

- 88% said that sport changed them positively, as they now feel

healthier, have social confidence, increased self-esteem, have

developed new friendships, and are more active;


- more than half of the participating girls said that without the sport

component they would not have enjoyed the classroom aspects

of the program as much.

Overall the evaluation report affirmed participating girls to be “more likely

to enroll in school for the first time or return to school, to know about key

health and rights issues, to score higher on a gender role attitudes

index, to make and keep friends and to oppose subjecting their

daughters to genital cutting” (Brady et al., 2007, p. 28).

Nevertheless, interpreting only sport as a means for these positive

results has to be done with caution. Since the program was embedded

within broader activities and structures it is difficult to allow the sport

component to be the one and only component causing positive results.

Secondly, the issue of selectivity arises. Participation in the program

was voluntarily, so no one knows whether the participants had already

been different from randomly assigned households and if this might

have influenced the project‟s outcomes.


Altogether, the evaluations of these two sport-in-development projects

sound promising concerning sport as a means to promote gender and

empower women. However, facing them squarely another picture is

drawn.

Moving the Goalposts‟ evaluation followed a cross-sectional approach,

which limits the insight on sport‟s influence on the participants‟ lives.

Therefore, statements about behavior change or a change of attitudes

cannot be given.

ISHRAQ‟s evaluation follows the scientific guidelines to a greater extent

closely and even works with significances. Nonetheless, due to the

broad spectrum of activities offered in the program, sport cannot be held

responsible as the only cause for the positive outcomes.

Taking this into consideration, sport being embedded in a broader range

of activities seems to have an influence on gender equality and women


empowerment. Still, the evaluations‟ results cannot be used for

significant statements assuring sport alone to cause positive outcomes

concerning promoting gender equality and empowering women.

4.4 Inclusion of persons with disability

As pointed out in the introduction of this chapter, this list is not

exhaustive. However, as far as known, there is no evaluation done so

far in sport-in-development projects focusing on persons with disabilities.

4.5 Conflict prevention and peace building

The sport-in-development project Football for Peace aims at establishing

peace in the North of Israel. While it sets an emphasis on increasing

soccer skills and techniques, its main focus is still on the non-sporting

outcome. The Pinelands Project focused on national unity in South

Africa, by offering a sports programme for pupils from different

ethnicities. Both projects count as plus sport projects.

4.5.1 Football for Peace

Football for Peace is a sport-in-development project in the North of

Israel. Arab and Jewish children aged ten to 15 are involved in guided

football activities over five days that include a football festival with

competitions (Hippold, 2009, p. 40). The project aims at providing

opportunities for social contact across community boundaries, improving

mutual understanding, engendering in participants a desire for and

commitment to peaceful coexistence, and enhancing soccer skills and

technical knowledge (Sudgen & Wallis, 2007, p. 1).

The project was evaluated in order to find out about girls‟ change in

attitude and change in behavior in terms of approaching and respecting

people from another culture as well as breaking down prejudices. The

evaluation was conducted via non-participating observations and

participating observations:


- Non-participating observations: The narrative observation records

were used to record basic conditions and participants as well as

group cohesiveness, social interaction respectively conflicts, team

motivation etc. at the off- and on-pitch activities.

- Participating observations: The partially structured interviews

covered the same issues as the narrative observation records.

Additionally, 15 questions were listed to be used at one‟s own

discretion (Hippold, 2009, p. 41, 47 f.).

Both methods were used daily by nine observers. The group

constellation was as follows:

Arab Jews

Day 1 7 5

Day 2 8 6

Day 3 8 4

Day 4 7 7

Day 5 8 8

Tab. 3: Daily number of participants divided into ethnic heritage

(Hippold, 2009, p. 51)

According to the evaluation‟s results, the outcomes are quite

ambiguous. All girls experience a development. Their initially

segregation partly disappeared and they worked together, approaching

the other culture. Additionally, they were willing to accept responsibility,

solved problems and improved their social skills. However, after the

training sessions they remained in their original surrounding. Arab girls

kept on meeting with other Arab girls, whereby Jewish girls arranged to

go out with Jewish girls only.

Although this study design tries to observe changes over time, it lacks

some important issues. Regarding the observation, nine observers was


quite a small number to detect all the desirable attributes. Also, different

interpretations of the observers cannot be ruled out (Hippold, 2009,

p. 42, 103). Secondly, this study does not have a follow-up. Even if the

girls co-operate within the team, it cannot be said that the messages are

understood, incorporated, endure over time; and thereby make a

contribution to intercultural communication and conflict resolution (Lea-

Howarth, 2006, p. 31).

4.5.2 The Pinelands Project

The Pinelands Project was a project, established in 1994 in South

Africa, to promote national unity. Although apartheid was no longer

enforced by law at that time, South Africa still did not have a single

unitary Education Department and few possibilities had been developed

for children of different groups to meet outside school. Most South

Africans continued to interact with members of their own population

group and there was little social contact between members of different

population groups. The Pinelands Project’s goals were the following:

a) to establish a field of social interaction beyond the institutional

confines of any particular school,

b) to use a multi-cultural, co-educational program to overcome post-

apartheid and

c) to promote national unity and nation-building in South Africa.

To see if these objectives could be achieved with sport, The Pinelands

Project chose children from different population groups, namely African

children, Whites and Coloured, who came from residential areas where

apartheid still existed. The pupils were divided into two experimental

groups (group A: athletics; group B: baseball) and a control group (group

C). Each group included people from the ethnicities mentioned above.

Group A was split up in 27 African, 13 Coloured and six White pupils

(n = 46); group B consisted of 30 African, 20 Coloured and seven White

pupils (n = 57) and group C included 17 African, ten Coloured and ten


White pupils (n = 37). The participants of the control group were fellow-

students and did not take part in the sports activities, whereas the

participants of group A and B were invited to join afternoon sessions

under the supervision of professional coaches and instructors. The

duration of the project was one school year and the data was collected

three times: at the beginning, after the first six months and at the end of

the school year (Keim, 2003).

The study focused on the question whether sport programs could

contribute to social interaction and relations between pupils of different

groups. The findings concerning fostering friendships with pupils from

other cultures in the course of the project are the following:

- At the beginning of the project, 1/3 White, about 3/4 Coloured and

most of the African pupils in group A (athletics) believed that a

multi-cultural friendship was hard to foster. After six months, more

than 80% of the White pupils, nearly half of the Coloured and half

of the African pupils negotiated this statement. In addition, 2/3 of

the White and nearly 1/4 of the Coloured pupils were uncertain at

the beginning of the project how to answer the question, whereas

after six months no White pupil of group A was uncertain

anymore and about 1/5 of the African and Coloured pupils of that

group had shifted from negotiating to being uncertain.

- In group B (baseball), the majority of African and Coloured pupils

as well as about 1/4 of White pupils regarded it difficult to foster

multi-cultural friendships. After six months, half of the African and

70% of the Coloured pupils changed their attitude into a clear

„no‟. The White pupils‟ attitude remained almost the same.

- In the control group, the majority of African and Coloured pupils

as well as 1/3 of the White pupils saw fostering multi-cultural

friendships as being difficult. After six months, the number of

African pupils who approved the question remained the same,


whereas those who had disagreed at the beginning shifted to

being uncertain. 1/3 of the Coloured pupils had shifted to the

answer „don‟t know”. However, 10% of the White pupils shifted

from being uncertain to being certain concerning the difficulty to

foster multi-cultural friendships.

In summary, both the athletics and the baseball training program

significantly changed participants‟ perceptions regarding fostering

friendships with pupils belonging to other cultures after six months

(p < 0.01) (Keim, 2003, p. 124). Contrary to these results, attitudes

remained virtually unchanged in the control group. Therefore, joint

training sessions seem to have a positive effect towards members of

other population groups. However, these results could also have been

caused by social interactions in general.

Concerning the participants‟ attitudes towards pupils from other cultures,

no significant difference between the type of sport (baseball vs.

athletics) could be identified (Keim, 2003).

Other results of the study were related to friendships between pupils

from different population groups outside the institutional school setting.

At the beginning of the program, only few pupils had friends from other

populations groups. In group A, nobody had more than three friends

from other cultures. Only 16,7% of the White pupils had friends among

Coloured pupils and no one of this group had an African friend.

Concerning the Coloured pupils about 15% of them had friends among

African or White pupils. For the African pupils, it was quite the same:

Less than 15% had White or Coloured friends. In the control group,

14,3% of the White pupils stated to have four to six Coloured friends and

more than 10 African friends.

The answers of group A after six months illustrate that there was a

considerable increase in the number of multi-cultural friendships per

participant. Group B showed similar results. The control group even

showed a decrease of friendships with pupils from other population


groups. Only 11,8% of the African pupils said to have one to three

Coloured friends, 20% of the Coloured pupils recorded to have one to

three White friends and 10% of the White pupils stated to have seven to

nine Coloured friends.

Summing up these results, it can be said that within a period of six

months, there was a significant increase in friendships among pupils

from other ethnicities in both sport groups (p < 0.01) (Keim, 2003,

p. 127). The number of friends in the control group remained practically

unchanged. Participation in multi-cultural sports groups therefore seems

to have a direct impact on the number of multi-cultural friendships. The

type of sport (athletics vs. baseball) had no significant effect on the

number of friends from other population groups (Keim, 2003). However,

again, these results could have also resulted from social interaction in

general.


While the evaluation of the sport-in-development project Football for

Peace presents some positive results, the desired outcome to make

Jews and Arabs live peacefully together seems not to be reached.

Additionally, the evaluation lacks scientific quality – such as a missing

follow-up in order to present changes over time which is another reason

why this evaluation does not contribute to prove sport as a significant

tool to prevent conflict and build peace.

The evaluation of The Pinelands project was carried out with

significances and presents encouraging results. But since sport was

embedded within broader structures, it can not be ruled out that any

other social activity in a social setting would have had the same effects.

Summary 45

5. Summary

After looking at the claims and effects of sport-in-development projects,

this chapter summarizes the results.

Sport-in-development is a field that has consistently grown within the

last decade. Sport-in-development projects, sport plus or plus sport, are

projects that use sport as a means to reach developmental goals.

National governments, international organizations, NGOs and locally

based community organizations expect huge benefits with the UN

proclaiming sport as a tool to reach the Millennium Development Goals.

Sport is presented as the panacea for developmental objectives.

In order to learn whether the claims made about sports come true,

several sport-in-development-projects‟ evaluations were analyzed. The

given evaluations are only a few, since the research base, as well as the

evidence of sports‟ impact, is unsatisfactory (Kay, 2009, p. 1178).

The evaluations conducted describe short term outputs in descriptive or

quantified forms, with some of them also looking at longer term

outcomes. Taking the evaluations into consideration, the study findings

sound promising. It seems as if sport can function as a resource to

positively influence sexual behaviour. It may also influence disease

prevention and contribute to gender equality. As to the relationship

between sport and peace building, significant positive effects of sport on

the integration process of pupils from different ethnic groups can be

identified - suggesting that sport is an appropriate tool for social

integration in post-apartheid times. It seems as if sport can serve as a

platform to encourage individuals and communities for education.

However, when taking a detailed look at the way the evaluations were

conducted, the study designs hold limitations – which influence the

authenticity of the seemingly positive results:

The studies Sports for Life & Youth Action Kit, Kicking AIDS Out and

Child Friendly Spaces have a rather cross-sectional design, meaning

Summary 46

they are based on data collected at a single point of time. Therefore,

they cannot be used for understanding causal progresses that occur

over time (cp. Bobbie, 2010; Gratton & Jones, 2010) in this purpose

sports influence on HIV/AIDS prevention, self-efficacy and behavior

change.

Also, with cross-sectional study designs, the problem of generalization

raises up. Furthermore, all three studies have a combined program in

addressing their desired outcomes. None of them does exclusively use

sport alone – and therefore it cannot be proved that it is sport alone that

leads to the results.

The other studies have a rather longitudinal study design, based on

particular variables usually collected from the same sample group over

an extended period. While longitudinal designs are usually used to study

changes and processes over time (cp. Bobbie, 2010; Gratton & Jones,

2010), in these evaluations it is difficult to make such conclusions. Most

of them draw causal relationships, although the data taken cannot

explicitly filter out sport alone as the component that causes the positive

results. Even if behavioral change does occur and can be measured, it

cannot automatically be concluded that this is the exclusive result of

sport-in-development projects. Also most of them use questionnaires in

order to measure an increased knowledge – while this might only show

that messages are memorized and not incorporated at all. It is far more

difficult to measure if the acquired knowledge results into an actual

change in behavior. Other limitations that occur in most of the studies

regard the issue of selectivity, of objectivity (with most evaluations being

in-house-evaluations), of generalization and of long-term effects. Last

but not least, hardly any of the evaluations work with significances and

effect sizes in order to analyze the statistical as well as the practical

relevance. Kay (2009), in summary, lists a “lack of clarity in planning and

specifying outcomes; lack of baseline data; short-termism in projects

and evaluations conceptual difficulties in defining measures for

outcomes; practical difficulties in operationalizing measures; and difficult

in deconstructing and attributing causality” (pp. 1178 f.).

Summary 47

This paucity of rigorous evaluation respectively the lack of empirical data

means that there is no proof yet that sport can indeed serve as a vehicle

to peace, solve complex social problems, effectively protect HIV and

AIDS and cope with economic challenges. To think that sport

automatically serves as a universal panacea is naïve. As long as the

results are not evidence-based, i.e. theory-guided and statistically

significant and as long as decent scientific studies, evaluation programs

and convincing evidence-based data are missing, the findings cannot be

utilized to prove the effects of sport.

Therefore, the evaluated sport-in-development projects don not prove so

far that the claims made about sport equal the effects of the sport-in-

development projects and that sport is indeed a tool for promoting health

and preventing disease, promoting child and youth development,

promoting gender equality and empowering girls and women as well as

for preventing conflict and building peace.

6. Outlook

To answer the question what needs to be done in order to find out about

the effectiveness of sport-in-development projects, the evaluations need

to be changed. Levermore & Beacom (2008) demand a “complete

reappraisal of the evaluation system itself, to assure that an approach is

adopted that works for sport-in-development practitioners, given the

inherent instability of the environments within which many initiatives are

operating” (p. 257).

Coalter (2008), the SDP IWG (2010) and NCDO (2008) offer a range of

different manuals and toolkits in order to provide guidance and advice

for planning, implementing and evaluating sport-in-development

projects. However, it seems that these theoretical guidelines have

mostly not been transferred into practice so far.

An exception is Coalter (2010b) who has successfully and exemplary

done so and conducted evaluations with regard to scientific guidelines.

Outlook 48

Since his evaluation report was published only a few weeks ago and its

structure differs significantly from the structure of this thesis, it was not

taken into account in the sections above. However, his approach and his

results are revealing and should be considered in future research.

Coalter‟s (2010b) main appeal is the “need for programme providers and

funders to develop programme theories and to articulate how

programmes are meant to work. A programme theory details the

components, mechanisms, relationships and sequences of causes and

effects which are presumed to lead to desired outcomes (which are also

a subject for analysis and clarification)” (p. xii).

Burnett & Uys (2000), Serena (2009, p. 22), Levermore (2008, p. 62),

Willis (2000, p. 826), Magee (2010, p. 47) and Kay (2010, p. 34) go

along this request, and make, besides the call for evaluating according

to scientific guidelines, several assumptions:

Burnett & Uys (2000) point out that it is central to identify success

indicators and norms as well as a product and process evaluation. To

find out whether sport-in-development projects reach their announced

goals, these success indicators need to be measurable (pp. 27 ff.).

Furthermore, it is important to implement a standardization of these

outcome indicators for comparing different studies. Thus, Tobisch &

Preti (2010) expect “an individually feasible programme assessing the

most favourable conditions for effective programme implementation”

(pp. 45 f.).

Another change necessary regards the theoretical approach that

underlies the conducted evaluation. While some authors argue for a

process-led participatory approach for evaluating, others ask for a

quantitative-led approach. Levermore & Beacom (2008) come to the

conclusion that a multi-dimensional approach fits the best, requiring

„outcome‟ and „process‟ based evaluation (p. 257). This is due to the fact

that an evaluation of a sport-in-development project cannot simply be

adopted from the Western world but needs to redress cultural specificity.

Kay (2010) noted that the Western researchers‟ point of view is very

different from the cultures where they conduct their studies. Continuative

Outlook 49

she points out that to assess an evaluation, local understanding and

knowledge is indispensable and that “sport for development research

needs to locate its analyses of the impact of sport within such contexts”

(p. 40). “Basing research inquiry on an implicit model of Western

scientific rationality carries the danger of dismissing – and perhaps just

missing – authentic local voices” (Kay, 2009, p. 1188f.). Therefore

evaluations should not uncritically adopt Western approaches but

consider the cultural setting of the sport-in-development projects and

include the cultural and wider context the people live within into the

evaluation process (Levermore, 2008, p. 62; Jeanes, 2010, p. 43).

Based on this aspect, evaluations should consider complexity and

miscellaneousness. While further research in form of decent quantitative

studies is needed for more theoretical thinking and empirical evidence,

in-depth qualitative studies are required as well. Only thereby, the

“complex and multi-faceted process through which individuals

experience beneficial social outcomes from sport” (Kay, 2009, p. 1188)

can be captured.

Another appeal addresses not the researchers respectively the research

process but the stakeholders and donators. Unless evidence is given

that assures sport-in-development projects‟ outcomes, money should

not easily be handed to the projects themselves but rather to their

evaluation (Coalter, 2008). Empirical data does not only improve

accountability but is indispensable for using the available money as

effectively and adequately as possible (Geschwend & Selvaraju, 2006;

Griffiths, 2005). Therefore, stakeholders and donors should join the

request for proper evaluation of sport-in-development projects.

Furthermore, it is important not to simply make general claims about

sport-in-development projects. Coalter (2010a) argues that “there may

be significant differences in organization/funder relationships,

organizational capacity and potential for sustainability” (p. 310). This

difference does not only occur in regard to plus sport and sport plus, but

to organizations in general. Stakeholders need to consider that sport

does not have “magical properties” (Coalter, 2010a, p. 310), but that it is

http://dict.leo.org/ende?lp=ende&p=Ci4HO3kMAA&search=miscellaneousness&trestr=0x8001

Outlook 50

rather sport embedded in certain structures such as social organization,

peer leaders, trainers, adequate arrangements and a material context

that can support positive outcomes and effects.

Instead of making vague, rhetorical and extravagant claims and

conceiving sport as a panacea for developmental objectives, identifying

the effects of sport-in-development projects should be the primary

concern of researchers, stakeholders and practitioners.

References 51

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Erklärung 61

Erklärung

Ich versichere, dass ich die Diplomarbeit selbstständig verfasst habe

und keine anderen Quellen und Hilfsmittel als die angegebenen benutzt

habe. Alle Stellen der Arbeit, die im Wortlaut oder dem Sinn nach

anderen Werken entnommen sind, habe ich in jedem einzelnen Fall

unter genauer Angabe der Quelle deutlich als Entlehnung kenntlich

gemacht.

Paderborn, 21. Januar 2011

------------------------------------------- Marie Biermann

Master thesis Marie Biermann Jan 2011

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