MASTER THESIS - JKU ePUB

MASTER THESIS

TO OBTAIN THE ACADEMIC DEGREE OF "MASTER OF SCIENCE"

IN THE MASTER PROGRAM "GENERAL MANAGEMENT"

Leading volunteers:

Transformational and transactional leadership in non-

profit organizations operating in the Austrian social sector

Johannes Kepler University Linz

Institute of Human Resource and Change Management

Altenberger Str. 69, 4040 Linz, Austria

Supervisor: Dr. Stefan W. Konlechner

Submission: February 2018

Author:

Bianca Christina Müller, BSc

1055874

973

SWORN DECLARATION – EIDESSTATTLICHE ERKLÄRUNG

I hereby declare that the thesis submitted is my own unaided work, that I have not used

other than the sources indicated, and that all direct and indirect sources are acknowledged

as references.

This printed thesis is identical with the electronic version submitted.

Ich erkläre an Eides statt, dass ich die vorliegende Masterarbeit selbstständig und ohne

fremde Hilfe verfasst, andere als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel nicht benutzt

bzw. die wörtlich oder sinngemäß entnommenen Stellen als solche kenntlich gemacht habe.

Die vorliegende Masterarbeit ist mit dem elektronisch übermittelten Textdokument identisch.

Linz, February 2018 _____________________________

Bianca Müller, BSc

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would particularly like to thank my supervisor Dr. Stefan Konlechner who gave

me the chance to write my thesis at the Human Resources Institute and who encouraged

me to write about this topic. I also want to thank Dr. Konlechner for his continuous support

and the open space he gave me in writing my thesis. I really appreciated the faith in me and

thank for the patience when writing my thesis besides my fulltime job.

A special thanks to all of my interview partners from Aidshilfe, Caritas, Krebshilfe, Rotes

Kreuz, Samariterbund and Volkshilfe who made it possible to empirically research on the

topic of volunteering. Thanks very much for taking the time to provide me with the most

authentic answers and for the open communication in the interviews. Besides the acquired

insights I got for my master thesis, it was also very interesting for me personally to take an

in-depth look at the voluntary engagement in non-profit organizations. Especially volunteers’

intrinsic motivation as well as the feeling of solidarity in NPOs impressed me.

Furthermore, I want to thank my supervisor and the managing director at work who made it

possible for me to take a time out of four weeks, which I could use for proceeding with my

master thesis. Without this break last October, I would not have finished my thesis yet and

might not even graduate from my studies in the end.

I also want to thank my friends for being there for me in stressful times and for encouraging

me, when I doubted about finalizing my master thesis besides my job. Big thanks also for

taking the time for proofreading my thesis and for always having a sympathetic ear for me.

Finally, I want to give thanks to my parents, who gave me the chance to study after my

graduation at commercial highschool in order to get a high-quality education. Thank you

very much for always supporting me through the years, for believing in me, encouraging

me, and for being that proud.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... I

TABLE OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ I

ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................... II

ABSTRACT .........................................................................................................................III

1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1

2 THEORETICAL FUNDAMENTALS .............................................................................. 5

2.1 Volunteering....................................................................................................... 5

2.1.1 Definition and characteristics .................................................................... 5

2.1.2 Delineation of paid work ........................................................................... 6

2.1.3 Motives for and against voluntary engagement ........................................ 7

2.2 Non-profit organizations ................................................................................... 9

2.2.1 Definition and characteristics ...................................................................10

2.2.2 Delineation of for-profit organizations ......................................................11

2.2.3 NPOs in an Austrian context ...................................................................12

2.3 Leadership ........................................................................................................14

2.3.1 Definition and characteristics ...................................................................14

2.3.2 Delineation of management .....................................................................16

2.3.3 Leadership concepts over time ................................................................16

2.4 Leading volunteers ...........................................................................................27

2.4.1 Leading without formal power ..................................................................27

2.4.2 Leadership behavior ................................................................................28

2.4.3 Leadership skills ......................................................................................30

2.4.4 The role of trust and commitment ............................................................32

2.4.5 Transformational and transactional leadership in volunteering ................33

3 RESEARCH GAP ........................................................................................................35

4 METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................37

4.1 Qualitative research .........................................................................................37

4.2 Data collection: Expert interviews ...................................................................38

4.3 Interview guideline ...........................................................................................40

4.4 Theoretical sampling ........................................................................................42

4.4.1 Volkshilfe .................................................................................................44

4.4.2 Caritas .....................................................................................................44

4.4.3 Krebshilfe ................................................................................................44

4.4.4 Aidshilfe ..................................................................................................45

4.4.5 Rotes Kreuz ............................................................................................45

4.4.6 Samariterbund .........................................................................................46

4.5 Data analysis and evaluation method .............................................................46

4.5.1 Data transcription ....................................................................................46

4.5.2 Evaluation method: Qualitative content analysis ......................................47

5 FINDINGS ...................................................................................................................52

5.1 Volkshilfe and Caritas ......................................................................................52

5.1.1 Benefit .....................................................................................................52

5.1.2 Personnel management ..........................................................................53

5.1.3 Leadership characteristics .......................................................................55

5.1.4 Feedback ................................................................................................57

5.1.5 Motivation ................................................................................................58

5.1.6 Trust and commitment .............................................................................59

5.1.7 Goals.......................................................................................................60

5.1.8 Power and control ...................................................................................60

5.1.9 Intermediate summary .............................................................................61

5.1.10 Analysis based on publicly released material on volunteering .................63

5.2 Krebshilfe and Aidshilfe ...................................................................................64

5.2.1 Benefit .....................................................................................................64



5.2.4 Feedback ................................................................................................68

5.2.5 Motivation ................................................................................................69


5.2.7 Goals.......................................................................................................71




5.3 Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund .....................................................................75

5.3.1 Benefit .....................................................................................................75



5.3.4 Feedback ................................................................................................80

5.3.5 Motivation ................................................................................................80


5.3.7 Goals.......................................................................................................82




5.4 Common findings .............................................................................................87

6 DISCUSSION ..............................................................................................................93

7 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................97

8 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH .................................................................98

9 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................99

10 ANNEX ...................................................................................................................... 111

I

TABLE OF FIGURES

Fig. 1: System theory of NPOs (based on Schwarz, 2005, p. 33ff) ...................................11

Fig. 2: FRLD model (adapted from Kirkbride, 2006, p. 28) ...............................................23

Fig. 3: Resilient Leadership (adapted from Dartey-Baah, 2015, p. 107) ...........................26

Fig. 4: Successful leadership in volunteering (based on Jäger et al., 2009, p. 86ff) .........29

Fig. 5: Personal core competences (based on Redmann, 2015, p. 126) ..........................30

Fig. 6: Different types of expert interviews .......................................................................40

Fig. 7: Evaluation methods (based on Gläser & Laudel, 2010, p. 44) ...............................47

Fig. 8: Process of the Summarizing Content Analysis (based on Mayring, 2015, p. 70) ...49

Fig. 9: Categories ............................................................................................................51

Fig. 10: Important leadership values ..................................................................................88

TABLE OF TABLES

Tab. 1: Types of NPOs in Austria ......................................................................................13

Tab. 2: Leadership vs. management (adapted from Haber, 2011, p. 313) .........................16

Tab. 3: Transformational and transactional leadership as opening and closing leadership

(adapted from Rosing et al., 2011, p. 971) ............................................................24

Tab. 4: List of interviewed NPOs .......................................................................................43

Tab. 5: Data Analysis Example (based on the interview evaluation of Aidshilfe) ...............51

II

ABBREVIATIONS

NPOs Non-profit organizations

FPOs For-profit organizations

MbE Management by exception

MbE-A Management by exception active

MbE-P Management by exception passive

FRLD model Full range leadership development model

LF Laissez-faire

CR Contingent reward

HIV Human immunodeficiency virus

H Hypothesis

III

ABSTRACT

For many years, the voluntary sector has increased steadily. More and more people engage

in the social well-being of the society which brings along a boost in voluntary engagement.

Due to the omission of the salary, voluntary leadership asks for a special leadership

behavior and builds upon a wide-ranging value system. As only little literature is available

on this topic, and most of the research was done on the general behavior of volunteer

leaders so far, this thesis explores leaders’ attitudes and patterns of behavior. Thereby, the

thesis addresses two contemporary leadership styles, the transformational and

transactional leadership approach. In fact, it aims at how leaders manage to lead volunteers

in non-profit organizations by taking account of transformational and transactional

leadership behavior.

To elaborate on this, existing literature was collected together, refined with an empirical

qualitative study. Therefore, seven experts in six non-profit organizations located throughout

Austria were interviewed to gather in-depth information about their experiences and

leadership characteristics. In addition, by means of additional material of the organizations’

homepage, folders or position papers to the topic of volunteering, the level of accordance

with what was said in the interviews was examined.

Finally, the results reveal that both transformational and transactional leadership find their

usage in leading volunteers. However, it depends on the organization as well as on the

organizational context, whether leaders tend to a more transformational or transactional

behavior. In general, there is common agreement that volunteers are an inevitable and

essential human resource in non-profit organizations. Without their voluntary assistance,

lots of associations would not be able to survive. That is why all leaders embody a very

reliable, thankful and appreciative attitude. On top of that, mutual trust, positive feedback

and friendliness play a vital role, whereby also open-mindedness and being available for

volunteers at any time were highlighted as key leadership characteristics.

Keywords: Leading volunteers, voluntary leadership, leadership in NPOs

1

1 INTRODUCTION

For decades, leadership is in the focus of researchers, which is due to its paramount

importance for following out an organization, as well as for guaranteeing a successful

outcome (Schreyögg & Koch, 2010, p. 258). In order to run a prosperous business,

companies rely on its leaders who are responsible for directing employees towards reaching

the company goals on the one hand, and for ensuring organizational interests and

commitment on the other hand (Pearce, 1993, p. 3ff), so the same in the non-profit sector.

Aside from that, the voluntary sector has increased steadily since the 19th century. Not only

the number of non-profit organizations is still growing, but also voluntary engagement has

gained in importance. Volunteers become more and more a central part of our

contemporary society and contribute essentially to the economic stability. Lots of tasks

could not be coped without voluntary work, which is why volunteers support the state with

the vast challenges the economy entails. In Austria alone, nearly 50 per cent of the

population works voluntarily in a non-profit institution1, which is due to a growing sense of

social responsibility (Hundstorfer, 2009, n.d.). The commitment for social welfare and an

overall societal well-being, as well as environmental and cultural support are, among others,

in the focus of voluntary engaged people and organizations (Statistik Austria, 2008, p. 21).

Volunteers work freely and without any financial remuneration, and take a stand for third

parties' good. In order to foster this solidarity properly, professional and masterly leadership

is needed. This implies that a major challenge comes up to volunteers’ leaders who are

responsible for directing them and for recognizing their needs and expectations. Not only

the lack of financial compensation, but also the supposed difference between leading

volunteers and paid employees is crucial to lead capably and adequately. In order to cope

with the responsibility of leading volunteers, there is need for special leadership skills and

an appropriate behavior.

1 According to a study by 'Statistik Austria' in 2008, 44 % of the Austrian population prior to 15 years engages in

voluntary work. For more detailed information the following websites are recommended to visit:

http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/menschen_und_gesellschaft/soziales/freiwilligenarbeit/index.html

http://www.sozialministerium.at/cms/site/attachments/0/1/0/CH2174/CMS1218022135039/1._freiwilligenbericht_

2009.pdf

2

Leading volunteers demands for an instinctive feeling, additional skills and competences

that underline volunteers' motives. As it is challenging to make volunteers working for the

purpose of the organization without direct control and formal power, staying in close contact

to volunteers and building trustful relationships, while simultaneously preserving

professionalism, is of increased significance. Leaders face the difficulty of aligning the

followers' and the organizations' goals (Redmann, 2015, p. 64ff).

Despite the importance of the topic, rather little literature on leading volunteers or leadership

in non-profit organizations is available (Dwyer et al., 2013, p. 184; Jäger et al., 2009, p. 80;

Redmann, 2015, p. 70). Most of the existing data present rather general and superficial

findings. There is hardly literature about leaders’ behavior existing that was extracted from

empirical research. This is why data about attitudes, patterns of behavior as well as special

leadership phenomena are missing. With regard to transformational and transactional

leadership in volunteering, "there is a need for more research on the role of transformational

leadership in nonprofit organizations" (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 54) as well as for transactional

leadership and their common interaction (Judge & Piccolo, 2004, p. 765). Most of the

existing literature focuses on transformational and transactional leadership having an

impact on followers' overall well-being. Additionally, research shows the role of trust and

commitment in leading volunteers (McMurray et al., 2010, p. 445f). Researchers also

identified volunteers' emotions, performance (Rowold and Rohmann, 2009, p. 51ff) and

involvement (Catano et al., 2001, p. 256ff) under transformational and transactional

leadership in NPOs, instead of investigating leadership perceptions or required leadership

behavior in NPOs.

For this reason, the main goal of this thesis is to explore what constitutes good leadership in

non-profit organizations, and how NPOs’ leaders manage to lead volunteers taking account

of transformational and transactional leadership. It is questioned what special treatment

people require or expect to engage voluntarily and to take a stand for a socially important

issue. Thus, a main focus is put on leaders’ behavior and leadership characteristics.

Specific patterns of thinking, personal attitudes and different contexts of meaning are

worthwhile investigating. Also differences in leading volunteers and paid employees are

explored, followed by general challenges leading volunteers might entail. Moreover, it is of

great interest, in which way leaders influence their voluntary followers to act according to

the organizational goals. Thereto, the balance between formal control and autonomy is

questioned and the role of continuous motivation and trust is scrutinized. Furthermore, it is

3

interesting how leaders manage to commit volunteers to the organization and how long-

term relationships and successful collaboration can be guaranteed.

As not all volunteers act purely altruistic, this master thesis additionally focuses on potential

incentives leaders provide their followers to keep going. Besides that, research is done on

whether leaders offer any considerations to volunteers for good or extraordinary work, or

impose sanctions to them in case of straying from the right path.

The findings should answer the following research questions:

What constitutes the leadership of volunteers in non-profit organizations?

How do leaders manage to lead volunteers in non-profit organizations, taking

account of transformational and transactional leadership?

In order to find an answer to these two research questions, this master thesis is structured

in a theoretical and an empirical part. In order to guarantee a common understanding, an

overview of the theoretical fundamentals of volunteering and non-profit organizations, with

the focus on Austrian NPOs, is presented first. What follows is a chapter about leadership

and existing leadership concepts, out of which the transformational and transactional

leadership behavior as contemporary leadership styles emerged. After having a detailed

look at both leadership phenomena, also the existing literature about the synergy and

interrelation between them is discussed in this thesis. Subsequently, section 2.4 deals with

the leadership of volunteers in NPOs. This part is then followed by special leadership

behavior as well as required leadership skills that should be taken into consideration when

leading volunteers. A special focus is also upon the role of trust and commitment. Finally,

particular attention is paid to transformational and transactional leadership in volunteering.

Afterwards, there is a shift to the empirical part, whereby a qualitative study was carried out.

By conducting six expert interviews with leaders of volunteers in non-profit organizations

throughout Upper Austria, Vienna and Salzburg, rich and deep data were ascertained.

Besides Aidshilfe, Krebshilfe, Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund, also Volkshilfe and Caritas

were interviewed, chosen due to their degree of awareness and publicity. All of these

organizations operate in the fields of social support, health care or rescue, and are different

in size. Then, an introduction to the methodology and research design as well as a brief

overview of the chosen NPOs and the selection of the interview partners follow. The thesis

also entails a detailed data analysis which is based on the qualitative content analysis by

4

Mayring. On top of that, the findings of the interview get compared to the general publicly

released material on volunteering that is officially provided by each interviewed institution. In

the end, this master thesis includes a strong discussion against the backdrop of the already

existing literature, followed by an outlook for possible future research and the limitations to

this study.

5

2 THEORETICAL FUNDAMENTALS

In this chapter, the relevant theoretical fundamentals on volunteering (see chapter 2.1),

non-profit organizations (see chapter 2.2) and leadership (see chapter 2.3) are covered,

which provide the basis for the following empirical research in this master thesis. Besides

coming up with the definitions and characteristics of these phenomena, also the boundaries

to related topics are clarified. Subsequently, the last subchapter (see chapter 2.4)

addresses the existing literature on leading volunteers, and combines the above

investigated data. Thereof, two main research questions are deduced from the rather spare

literature on the topic voluntary leadership in non-profit organizations.

2.1 Volunteering

Since the twentieth century, research on volunteering has gained in utmost importance. On

the one hand, this is due to increased awareness of governments that volunteers are

valuable and necessary labor, and based on a growing concern in social welfare and rising

identity politics on the other hand. Primarily the nature of volunteers has been of major

interest in order to get a lot of work-related information (Musick & Wilson, 2008, p. 3ff).

Despite the existing research, there is nevertheless no one single definition of volunteering.

Rather, a lot of paraphrases are available to describe voluntary work. 'Civic engagement',

'voluntary service' and 'social engagement' are often used as synonyms for volunteering

(Peglow, 2002, p. 7). According to this ambiguity, it is important to agree on a particular

phrase that is used in this thesis. That is why it is worth mentioning that in this thesis,

volunteering, volunteerism, voluntary work as well as voluntary engagement are equally

worded.

2.1.1 Definition and characteristics

Voluntary engagement is an autonomous activity out of a person's own free will that is either

self-organized or constituted by an organization having no private character. The activity is

independent and sense-oriented, focuses on a special motive and purpose, and creates

added value for the society without seeking after profit (Wehner & Güntert, 2015, p. 5f). In

addition, Mayerhofer (2003, p. 100) emphasizes that volunteers do not get any financial

rewards for their work and hence, do not receive a tangible payoff. As volunteers do not

work on an obligatory basis, it is the volunteers' own decision which targets they want to aim

for (Pearce, 1993, p. 4ff/p. 90). Thus, a volunteer is a person that is intrinsically motivated to

6

engage in an unpaid activity and to pursue the purpose of a non-profit organization to help

people in need (Winkler, 2011, p. 94f). In this regard, Pearce (1993, p. 9) argues that

volunteerism is a mixture of 'work' and kind of 'leisure activity'. On the one hand, people

work for organizations having a clear structure and formal character, whereas on the other

hand, it is the own intrinsic will of volunteers to do good for third parties. Social help and

self-help practiced in organizational institutions (Winkler, 2011, p. 95), as well as benefiting

third parties in general (Mayerhofer, 2003, p. 100) are therefore people’s main intensions to

volunteer. Volunteers 'give' instead of 'take' and bring along virtue and self-sacrifice

(Pearce, 1993, p. 10). In short, for this thesis it can be summarized that

"volunteering means conducting work for no pay. […] Another characteristic of volunteering

is that individuals give their time freely; they are not required to volunteer. And finally,

people who volunteer provide benefits to others, not simply to themselves or to their direct

family members and/or relatives." (Dekker & Halman, 2003, p. 38)

Aside from that, volunteers are regarded as important representatives of non-profit

institutions. They often overtake leading (Mayerhofer, 2003, p. 100), operating or auxiliary

activities in the public relations sector and "produce a 'public' good" (Wilson, 2000, p. 216).

Primarily, volunteers operate in six main branches that benefit the overall well-being,

comprising the human and health sector, arts, culture, religion, as well as the education and

youth development sector (Wymer, 1997a, p. 9). Furthermore, most voluntary activities

comprise part-time positions. As volunteers do not get any financial compensation, they

need another paid job besides in order to survive (Pearce, 1993, p. 10). Therefore, it is said

by Boezeman and Ellemers (2009, p. 911), that voluntary work is often a matter of unskilled

work, where it is difficult to evaluate people's performance.

2.1.2 Delineation of paid work

Volunteers can clearly be distinguished from paid employees who mainly work for

organizations that strive for making profit. Although some similarities between volunteers

and paid workers exist (Boezeman & Ellemers, 2009, p. 5), one of the main differences

comprises that employees get paid for their work performance, whereas volunteers do not

get any financial remuneration. When performing well, paid workers do have advancement

opportunities, can request higher payment and additionally, win lots of appreciation and

praise. In contrast, it is very difficult for volunteers to get a promotion or get better

7

positioned, not least because NPOs provide fewer opportunities, and volunteers simply rely

on their intrinsic motivation that encourages them to perform creditably (Shin & Kleiner,

2003, p. 65f). Another distinction that can be observed is that paid employees do their job in

order to survive and to enhance their livelihood or standard of living. Conversely, voluntary

employees primarily focus on intrinsic motives and "give their time and energy at their cost"

(p. 65) by putting their private goals in the rear (Shin & Kleiner, 2003, p. 65f).

2.1.3 Motives for and against voluntary engagement

Accordingly, volunteers have prudent motives which drive them to engage on a voluntary

basis and to support people in need. Mostly, they do not only act out of one single motive,

but have more than one incentive that varies individually (Redmann, 2015, p. 48; Badelt,

2002, p. 585). In general, people work voluntarily out of three main motives (Badelt & More-

Hollerweger, 2007, p. 514ff):

Altruistic motives

Intrinsic motives, and

Reciprocal exchange

First, volunteers who are driven by altruistic motives take a stand for socially important

concerns by benefiting others, without wanting to satisfy their own self-interests. In the

absence of any selfish thoughts, volunteers aim at pursuing a particular intuition or a

common idea. By all means, the well-being of a third party, comprising either a single

person in need or the general good, is in the foreground. The sense of duty of volunteers

with an altruistic motive often comes from political, ethical or religious attitudes (Badelt &

More-Hollerweger, 2007, p. 514). The latter mindset mainly comes from people's spiritual

nature and ideology (Bussell & Forbes, 2001, p. 252; Chacón et al., 2011, p. 50f). In short,

Badelt and More-Hollerweger (2007, p. 514) feel that the altruistic motive is simply about

'donating' help to others

Second, the intrinsic motive lies in the activity itself and is about pleasing personal needs.

Volunteers benefit from the working process, meaning the work itself, and less from the

output. Work satisfaction and social integration, as well as gaining prestige and social

recognition count to volunteers' intrinsic motives (Badelt & More-Hollerweger, 2007, p. 515).

Thereto Bussell and Forbes (2001, p. 248) found evidence that volunteers might sometimes

display a rather egoistic behavior.

8

In this connection, Redmann (2015, p. 48f) scrutinizes in more detail, which intrinsic motives

people drive to volunteer and points out that one significant motive for volunteers is the

personal desire to get recognition. This means that people appreciate constant and

personal feedback from the outside. Thus, volunteers appreciate other people’s positive

attitudes and perceptions towards their work. Especially gratefulness and praise, as well as

private or public appraisal, are attentions of popularity that convey a sense of personal

satisfaction. Additionally, also nonverbal encouragement can serve as appreciation. This

goes hand in hand with the motive to enhance the own prestige, which indicates to gain

appreciation of others for the social performance. Prestige-driven volunteers want

everybody to know about their voluntary engagement and want to stand out from other

people. They value an increased image and favor being in a special position (Redmann,

2015, p. 57ff).

What is more, social justice counts to the intrinsic motives to engage voluntarily. Volunteers

appreciate morally correct behavior and behave according to a special value system.

Supporting and helping the society by improving the overall well-being, has priority. Further,

volunteers pay attention to special values and norms that allow them to behave correctly.

For volunteers whose motive is social justice, it is primarily important to experience the

effects of their behavior (Redmann, 2015, p. 51f).

Beyond that, the desire to care about people in need and support them to make them feel

better is another major motive that could drive people to volunteer. Volunteers want to take

on responsibility and to help others who are incapable to meet their needs and wants by

themselves. The main incentive behind is the feeling of being needed by caring for and

looking after the needy, what also brings along a close contact to people. Volunteers feel

most comfortable when people in need value their effort and regard their work as important

(Redmann, 2015, p. 55f).

Following this, another intrinsic motive for volunteering is establishing personal relationships

in order to enjoy a sense of community and belonging. Volunteers appreciate a social

exchange and proximity to others, and commonly enthuse about a collective subject

(Redmann, 2015, p. 50). Thereto, Dwyer et al. (2013, p. 199) add that volunteers with the

motive of increasing their personal contacts are most satisfied "[…] when they have high-

quality relationships with other volunteers on their team." (Redmann, 2015, p. 50f).

9

Finally, volunteers might rely on reciprocal exchanges and expect a fair equivalent for their

work, despite the neglect of monetary compensations. Instead, volunteers appreciate a non-

financial consideration from the beneficiary. In NPOs, the obtainment of full information and

the gain of decision-making power represent such exchange components (Badelt & More-

Hollerweger, 2007, p. 515f). Moreover, volunteers often aim for getting and developing

additional occupational skills, which "reflects an interest in learning about and

understanding the world, in developing new perspectives and interpretations, and in

acquiring and strengthening skills" (p. 51). Beyond that, volunteers might be driven by the

hope of better career chances after their voluntary engagement in future (Chacón et al.,

2011, p. 50f).

In contrast, when having a look on the downside of volunteerism it is stressed by Keupp et

al. (2000, p. 247f) that even though volunteers appreciate these positive incentives of

engaging voluntarily, there are also some negative aspects why people might hesitate to

volunteer. First of all, volunteers often lack the public appreciation they anticipate. Second,

voluntary workers often feel over- or underworked. NPOs might prey on them as they are

cheap labor, whereas volunteers might need to protect themselves from too strong

engagement as well. Lastly, NPOs regularly just deploy volunteers for simple auxiliary

activities, meaning that they have to deal with undervalued tasks. As a consequence,

volunteers might be inhibited by the feeling of being exploited.

In summary, a lot of different motives contribute to an engagement in voluntary activities in

NPOs that comprise the altruistic, intrinsic or reciprocal needs of volunteers. However, it is

also important to beware of the restraints voluntary work could bring along, what might

impact on volunteers' satisfaction and their own will to work for an institution freely.

2.2 Non-profit organizations

Following the introduction to volunteering, also non-profit organizations (NPOs) play a vital

role nowadays, not only in the social and cultural sector, but in the environmental and

political area as well (Bruhn, 2011, p. 21). Due to the fact that volunteers are the major

resources of NPOs (Mayerhofer, 2003, p. 100), volunteering is seen as unpaid work in

NPOs in this master thesis, with the focus on the social non-profit sector. This sector

comprises social support and care, as well as health care, protection and rescue (Neumayr

10

et al., 2007, p. 4). In order to guarantee a general understanding what is understood by a

NPO, a definition and the fundamentals of NPOs are presented next. Subsequently, the

dissociation of for-profit organizations (FPOs) is elucidated, and specific characteristics and

types of NPOs in an Austrian context are elaborated.


In general, NPOs are legal institutions, of private, semi-governmental or public nature,

hallmarked by at least a minimum of formal self-administration, autonomy in decision-

making, and voluntariness. The primary organizational purpose of NPOs is the service

provision in the non-commercial or non-profit sector2 (Bruhn, 2011, p. 21). Harman and Rich

(1981, p. 28) add that NPOs are "formal groups that are non-governmental and not-for-profit

in their legal status and basic purposes", as well as non-compulsory (United Nations, 2003,

p. 18). NPOs’ main aim is at increasing the social welfare as well as the common good of

the organizational members (Bruhn, 2011, p. 21). Terms like the 'non-profit sector'3,

'voluntary sector', the 'intermediary sector' or the 'third sector' are often used as substitutes

for non-profit institutions (Neumayr et al., 2007, p. 2), also in this master thesis

Based on the system theory by Ulrich 1970, Schwarz (2005, p. 31ff) presents eight

elements that characterize a non-profit organization (see Fig. 1). In some cases, NPOs are

multi-stage institutions which often have historically developed and range from local to

national and federal levels. They have their own statute that entails necessary rights and

duties, where parts, tasks and responsibilities are clearly assigned to their institutional

members. Moreover, NPOs, focusing on specific fulfillment of demand and the

representation of interests of its institutional members or third parties, are both purpose-

and goal-oriented. Thus, they fulfill a special mission by having an enduring purpose.

However, due to the fact that organizational objectives are mainly worded in general terms,

the aims have to be constantly adapted to changing circumstances. Additionally, NPOs can

be regarded as an open and environmentally dependent system, meaning that the

organizations permanently rely on their stakeholders and act within the meaning of the

stimulus-contribution principle. Their social capital consists of the institutional members and

2 German original text: "Eine Nonprofit-Organisation (NPO) ist eine nach rechtlichen Prinzipien gegründete

Institution (privat, halb-staatlich, öffentlich), die durch ein Mindestmaß an formaler Selbstverwaltung,

Entscheidungsautonomie und Freiwilligkeit gekennzeichnet ist und deren Organisationszweck primär in der

Leistungserstellung im nicht-kommerziellen Sektor liegt."

3 The non-profit or third sector can briefly be defined as "the collection of private entities defined as nonprofit"

(Steinberg & Powell, 2006, p. 1).

11

voluntary workers as well as on voluntary functionaries. Also Harman and Rich (1981, p.

28f) found that volunteers make up a large part in Austrian non-profit organizations,

whereby most of the associations make use of “quasi-volunteerism” and hire both, paid

workers and volunteers. Thereto, Simsa and Patak (2008, p. 12) argue that NPOs have

highly emotional and close relationships to their stakeholders.

Beyond that, NPOs are service producers, meaning that they provide public and collective

goods for the overall society. Donations, subsidies, membership fees or other charges

serve to finance NPOs. Badelt et al. (2007, p. 7f) as well as the United Nations (2003, p. 18)

add hereto that some voluntary institutions nevertheless might make a profit, but are strictly

urged to not distribute profits among their stakeholders.

Fig. 1: System theory of NPOs (based on Schwarz, 2005, p. 33ff)

2.2.2 Delineation of for-profit organizations

NPOs can clearly be distinguished from for-profit organizations (FPOs), wherefore it is

essential to demonstrate NPOs’ boundaries. In contrast to NPOs, FPOs are commercial

12

and acquisitive companies which strive after profit and return, build on own capital, and

measure their overall performance via their turnover and market share. Thus, they are

market-oriented and aim at satisfying customer needs. Additionally, NPOs produce public

goods, whereas FPOs mainly pay attention to individual goods. Also the personal structure

is different, as FPOs do generally not employ voluntary workers, but rather fulltime

employees who get financially rewarded for their performance. Into the bargain, FPOs aim

at profit distribution among their shareholders, whereas NPOs put their focus on the

fulfillment of their societal goals (Schwarz, 2005, p. 38).

2.2.3 NPOs in an Austrian context

After giving some theoretical inputs about NPOs in general, NPOs get scrutinized in an

Austrian context now. For the past two centuries, NPOs have gained increased importance

in Austria. Especially after World War II political parties stimulated the non-profit sector and

lots of registered associations were incorporated. Self-help groups, charity associations, as

well as non-profit service providers have increased steadily, and so volunteerism.

Nowadays, NPOs make up a large part of Austrian companies in the public sector, not least

because they positively contribute to the society and economy, as well as to the welfare

state as a whole (Neumayr et al., 2007, p. 1f; Heitzmann & Simsa, 2004, p. 713f). Following

Norway, Austria is second leader in voluntary engagement in NPOs and other associations,

as measured by the European Union recently (Plagnol, 2014, p. 6975).

In Austria, NPOs are largely characterized by their federalism and lots of large NPOs, such

as Caritas, deal with a high degree of self-administration and autonomy. Most of them can

be found on the national or federal level, as the state manages the legislation for branches

like health or social services. However, a lot of these NPOs "have sub-organizations on the

regional or municipal level as well" (p. 16), also called 'umbrella organizations'. These, on

the one hand, are less autonomous, but on the other hand, have the advantage to be closer

to the society (Neumayr et al., 2007, p. 16).

In general, associations and cooperatives, as well as corporations and foundations can be

found in Austria (see Tab. 1). The largest number of NPOs in Austria is incorporated as

associations, needing less administrative effort. The second largest NPOs are public

foundations, or in rare cases, private foundations which deal with health, education or other

social services. As third organizational type, Austrian NPOs embody cooperatives, whereby

13

nowadays the majority of them is profit-oriented (Heitzmann & Simsa, 2004, p. 713ff;

Neumayr et al., 2007, p. 13f). Lastly, Neumayr et al. (2007, p. 2ff) came up with NPOs as

corporations, but only if they can be clearly separated from those aiming at making profit.

However, the number of NPOs as registered associations, "representing the vital life of civil

society" (p. 3), has grown over the years, whereas cooperatives decline and become

corporations instead. Although these terms do have different understandabilities,

‘associations’, ‘institutions’ and ‘corporations’ are used as synonyms in this master thesis.

Types of NPOs in Austria

Associations

Public and private foundations

Cooperatives

Corporations

Tab. 1: Types of NPOs in Austria

Besides the organizational types, NPOs can also be distinguished according to their

‘orientation towards social systems’ (Simsa & Patak, 2008, 23f). In this regard, NPOs get

divided into 'state- and administration-oriented', 'economy-oriented' or 'society- and

community-oriented' (Mayerhofer, 2003, p. 103). NPOs, close to the economy, such as the

industrialists' associations or cooperatives, often evolved out of economic backgrounds.

They are mainly financed by the economy itself, have clear structures and just a few values.

Decisions are mainly oriented towards the money of the economy and volunteers only

represent the minority of the organizational social capital. In general, it is mentionable that

the nearer NPOs are to the economy, the more likely the question arises whether such

organizations can still be counted as 'non-profit institution' (Simsa & Patak, 2008, p. 24ff;

Mayerhofer, 2003, p. 103). Based on historical development, Austrian NPOs that highly

contribute to the economy are mainly influenced politically. These institutions work closely

together with the legislature, what might be useful for interference (Neumayr et al., 2007, p.

1ff). Aside from that, state- and administration-oriented NPOs have formal structures, but

are often less autonomous, as decisions are mainly oriented towards politics. In contrast to

the former mentioned NPOs, volunteers can be found much more often in state- and

14

administration-oriented intuitions. Finally, the main intention of society- and community-

oriented NPOs is social movement, such as protection, environmental policy, or benevolent

society. Whereas there is not too much importance attached to power and gaining money,

solidarity and ideological values have priority. Further key characteristics encompass a high

member-orientation, diffuse structures, and a strong goodwill to contribute to the social

welfare (Simsa & Patak, 2008, p. 24ff; Mayerhofer, 2003, p. 103).

On top of that, there are several different typologies (Heitzmann & Simsa, 2004, p. 724ff)

Austrian NPOs follow, often even simultaneously. According to the researchers, NPOs

might be 'member- or customer-oriented'. Whereas member-oriented NPOs, like

cooperatives or unions, primarily focus on benefiting their institutional members, the in

Austria most dominant customer-oriented institutions pay particular attention to third parties

and non-members. What is more, NPOs can be distinguished with regard to their 'systems

of society', meaning "according to their links to the public sector, the private market sector,

or informal grassroots groups" (p. 724). This indicates that NPOs differ in terms of their

organizational culture, as well as how they operate and make decisions. Aside from that, a

classification in terms of the 'influence on the society' can be made, as different NPOs

follow different strategies, comprising "parallel provision of services, cooperation,

confrontation, and damage control" (p. 724). The service provision in the educational,

cultural, health as well as social sector represent the most prominent sector in Austria

(Heitzmann & Simsa, 2004, p. 724ff; Neumayr et al., 2007, p. 5ff).

2.3 Leadership

Having explained the theoretical groundwork of volunteers and NPOs, as well as

introducing the Austrian non-profit sector in the previous chapter, this section sheds the light

on leadership. Before elaborating on leading volunteers, the general framework of

leadership is demonstrated in order to give an understanding of what is meant by leadership

in this thesis. After distinguishing leadership from management, the emergence of

transformational and transactional leadership is demonstrated, deduced from former

leadership concepts.


Leadership has already been explored since the beginning of the twentieth century

(Robbins & Coulter, 2012, p. 460). The same as in volunteering, it is very difficult to find one

15

single definition for leadership, which is why there are hardly congruent definitions existing

(Ridder, 2009, p. 299f; Lussier & Achua, 2013, p. 5). Thus, researchers who define

leadership put their field of interest at the ‘heart’ of their definitions and only seldom provide

a general definition. However, generally speaking, “leadership is the natural and

spontaneous ability to encourage employees to open up and implement new possibilities

and to inspire them to freely and enthusiastically aim at realizing common organizational

goals”4 (Hinterhuber & Krauthammer, 2015, p. 13), In other words:

"Leadership is the process of helping individuals, teams, and organizations to become more

and achieve more than they ever thought possible." (Thornton, 2004, p. 1)

Ridder (2009, p. 299f) determined two important aspects of leadership. Firstly, leadership

can be understood as function, comprising planning, coordination and control of

organizational tasks. The main idea is that organizations have to fulfill a complex task,

which is accomplished by hierarchical labor division. The leaders in charge make decisions

in order to achieve the goals and are responsible for successful outcomes. Secondly,

leadership is about boosting the performance of employees and increase the overall

efficiency. By making use of different incentive systems, organizations expect a special

behavior of their organizational members that are either positive or negative sanctioned,

depending on the level of goal attainment. This goes hand in hand with motivating and

encouraging employees to work for the purpose of the organization by choice (Ridder,

2009, p. 299f; Schreyögg & Koch, 2010, p. 264; Steinle, 2005, p. 561; Hinterhuber &

Krauthammer, 2005, p. 17).

In addition, Steinle (2005, p. 561) defines leadership as a goal-oriented and forward-looking

process of impacting on organizational members' behavior, focusing on performance

induction and the generation of satisfaction. In short, the core of leadership is to develop a

common vision of presence and future that should positively influence third parties and

allows thinking and acting on one's own responsibility to collectively realize the

organization's vision (Hinterhuber & Krauthammer, 2005, p. 14).

4 German original text: "Leadership ist die natürliche und spontane Fähigkeit, Mitarbeiter anzuregen, zu

inspirieren und sie in die Lage zu versetzen, neue Möglichkeiten zu erschließen und umzusetzen sowie sich

freiwillig und begeistert für die Verwirklichung gemeinsamer Ziele einzusetzen."

16

2.3.2 Delineation of management

Aside from that, a framework by Haber (2011, p. 313) presents the difference between

leadership and management (see Tab. 2). On the one hand, being a leader is a long-term

function, prioritizing the fulfillment of the organizational mission and goals by motivating and

inspiring employees. Leaders set the necessary agenda and delegate tasks. On the other

hand, management is responsible for the completion of the tasks and pays particular

attention to planning, budgeting, staffing, organizing and controlling. However, leadership

and management often interlink in real life, as for instance "without the function of staffing

(management), there would be no people to align (leadership)" (p. 313).

Leadership Management

Time focus Long-term Short-term

Goals

(Northouse, 2007)

Envisioning and creating

change

Influencing others

Reducing chaos

Completing tasks

Mastering routines

Functions

(Kotter, 2001)

Providing direction

Aligning people

Envisioning

Motivating and inspiring

Planning and budgeting

Staffing

Organizing

Controlling

Nature of relationship

(Rost, 1991)

Influence relationship

Reciprocal

Authority relationship

Top-down

Tab. 2: Leadership vs. management (adapted from Haber, 2011, p. 313)

2.3.3 Leadership concepts over time

Over the course of time, lots of different leadership theories and leadership styles have

evolved. It has become clear that it is impossible to develop 'the one theory', which is why

former researchers put a lot of effort into that topic by scrutinizing leadership in connection

with special traits, ways of behavior as well as in different contexts and situations (Ridder,

2009, p. 302).

Trait theories

One of the earliest theories that was investigated by researchers is the trait theory. This

approach is based on the idea that leaders differentiate themselves from subordinates by

17

having "special personal attributes (or traits) […], such as physical and personality

characteristics, competencies, and values" (p. 830). It is argued that, in contrast to non-

leaders, leaders seem to be more intelligent, extraverted, and more self-confident. Also

dominance and ambition are mentioned in connection with leaders (Fleenor, 2011, p. 830f).

This indicates that out of a leader's traits, which are enduring and comprise a person's

worldview, perceptions and interpretations (Ridder, 2009, p. 302f), meaning a situation-

independent behavior, evolved. In short, "no matter what the situation, there was a set of

characteristics that made a leader successful" (Fleenor, 2011, p. 830).

Over time, the trait approach quickly reveals some limitations and problems. On closer

consideration, researchers found that good leaders have to bring along more than solely

special traits in order to be successful (Robbins & Coulter, 2012, p. 461). There were hardly

crucial differences in characteristics between leaders and followers and therefore, the

effectiveness of the approach has been challenged in time. As a consequence, the time had

come to not only examine traits, but also the leaders' behavior, from which the behavioral

theory of leadership evolved (Fleenor, 2011, p. 831).

Behavioral theories

Thus, the critique of the trait-oriented approach stimulated researchers to explore

behavioral approaches. In contrast to the former theory, which solely focuses on the

personality of the leader, the behavioral approach mainly pays attention to leaders’ patterns

of behavior. Behavior is no longer seen as a strict manner, but rather as a changeable and

adaptable way of behaving (Ridder, 2009, p. 310). Especially leadership functions as well

as leadership styles were explored (Kanji, 2008, p. 418). These behavioral approaches

encompass, among others, the University of Iowa Studies, which developed three

leadership styles, comprising the autocratic (authoritarian), democratic and laissez-faire

leadership styles (Robbins & Coulter, 2012, p. 462), which focus on the connection between

performance and satisfaction. Due to their generality and continuum's turning points

(Schreyögg & Koch, 2010, p. 275), and as they provide the basis for subsequent leadership

styles explorations (Ridder, 2009, p. 311), they are chosen to be treated in more detail

below.

The autocratic leader predetermines concrete goals, stipulates and controls activities, and

makes unilateral decisions (Ridder, 2009, p. 311). Those leaders want their subordinates to

adhere to specific rules and procedures, and enjoy their power by expecting strict

18

obedience of their followers. In case of noncompliance, autocratic leaders make use of

sanctions and punishments (Goodnight, 2004, p. 821). In contrast, democratic leadership is

about encouraging employees to work more autonomously and to keep social distance

between employees and leaders low. It is characterized by personal appreciation, active

involvement in the group and by making decisions together within the team (Ridder, 2009,

p. 311; Schreyögg & Koch, 2010, p. 275f; Robbins & Coulter, 2012, p. 462). Additionally,

empathy, mutual respect as well as openness are prioritized in democratic leadership. Also

constant feedback and rewards are part of democratic behavior, what creates a pleasant

working atmosphere (Goodnight, 2004, p. 821). On the contrary, leaders with a laissez-faire

attitude play a quite passive role and give subordinates full autonomy. Also the authority to

decide is passed on to the group, and work stages are not dictated (Ridder, 2009, p. 311;

Robbins & Coulter, 2012, p. 462). Laissez-faire leaders have a 'hands-off' mentality and do

not place value on involvement and participation. Rather, they are convinced of the self-

reliance of followers (Goodnight, 2004, p. 820ff).

However, according to Ridder (2009, p. 311), the democratic leadership shows highest

satisfaction among employees in general, whereas autocratically led people are more

dissatisfied and hostile. The laissez-fair style brings along rather low productivity and a

lower satisfaction compared to the democratic leadership. Thereto, Goodnight (2004, p.

821f) states that whereas autocratic leadership behavior negatively contributes to

organizational and personal growth, as well as impedes commitment, laissez-faire

leadership behavior brings along inefficiency and a general negative effect. However, the

democratic style results in high employee involvement and organizational commitment.

Situational theories

Having recognized that different situations and complex contexts are in need of different

leader behavior, the contingency or situational approaches have been developed over

times. The essence of these theories include that leading processes are too complex to

explain them by cause and effect relationships, wherefore the leader has to adapt the own

behavior in consideration of the constantly changing situation and environment (Ridder,

2009, p. 314). Therefore, leadership styles in the context of 'if-then contingencies' were

analyzed, "that is, if this is the context or situation, then this is the best leadership style to

use" (Robbins & Coulter, 2012, p. 464), what leads to a following phenomena, called

ambidextrous leadership.

19

However, each of the former mentioned theories and leadership styles have pros and cons

as well as limitations, for what reason researchers investigate, among others,

transformational and transactional leadership as contemporary leadership approaches.

Instead of focusing solely on the leader itself, the following leadership styles prioritize the

relationship, interaction and reciprocity between leaders and followers (Robbins & Coulter,

2012, p. 469f). What is meant by transformational and transactional leadership, and which

special characteristics they possess, is scrutinized in the following.

Transformational leadership

The concept of transformational leadership was originated in the late 1970s by James M.

Burns, who explored this leadership phenomenon in the context of political issues. He was

the first recognizing that successful leaders transform their followers’ mind and encourage

them to reach the organizational goals with their intrinsic will. Thereupon, Bernard Bass

extended this groundwork and started to build upon the concept of transformational

leadership (Judge & Piccolo, 2004, p. 755).

In general, the main focus of transformational leadership is on 'transformation', which

means that leaders motivate and encourage their followers to bring extraordinary

performance by arousing their intrinsic will. Transformational leaders, also called visionary

leaders, positively transform the subordinates' inner attitudes and behaviors, and ensure a

common sense towards reaching the organizational goals (Pundt & Nerdinger, 2012, p.

28ff; Ghasabeh et al., 2015, p. 464). Thus, followers’ awareness of contributing to the well-

being of the company is raised constantly (Bass, 1985, p. 31ff; Ridder, 2009, p. 304;

Schreyögg & Koch, 2010, p. 277). Transformational leaders pay particular attention to build

and develop close relationships. The leaders are able to "stir their employees to look

beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group" (Bass, 1990, p. 21). To put it in a

nutshell, transformational leadership involves:

"the motivation of employees and members to perform normal expectations for meeting the

organization’s mission and for achieving organizational goals. It inspires staff and members

to put aside personal self-interest for the common good of the organization and to have

confidence in their ability to achieve the “extraordinary” challenges before them." (Anheier,

2005, p. 163)

20

In addition to that, transformational leaders pay particular attention to set and communicate

attractive goals as well as a clear vision to followers. Both means and ends are prioritized in

transformational leadership, whereas the leaders pay higher attention to the means and the

accomplishment of the ends follows automatically (Kirkbride, 2006, p. 26; Rao, 2014, p.

151). Furthermore, subordinates enjoy a moderate degree of autonomy and have the

freedom "to do things in their own way", while the leader is just in an advising position (Rao,

2014, p. 153; Breevaart et al., 2014, p. 142f). In this connection, Kovjanic et al. (2013, p.

545) found in a study that transformational leadership has a positive impact on work

engagement by meeting followers’ need for competence and relatedness. Also Breevaart et

al. (2014, p. 143f) explored that transformational leaders meet the expectations of their

followers and pay particular attention to the individuals themselves. This means,

transformational leaders not only cater for people’s individual needs, but also strengthen the

team integration to act jointly towards the organizational goals.

With regard to a study by Bass (1985, p. 31ff), transformational leaders are perceived as

fair and supportive, and have a sympathetic ear in every concern. Also trust and loyalty are

traits that constitute a successful transforming leader. By caring for followers, also moral

and ethical values get focused. This indicates that transformational leaders "believe in their

people and their potential" (p. 151) (Rao, 2014, p. 151ff).

Aside from that, Bass (1985, p. 33ff) came up with the following key characteristics which

constitute transformational leadership:

charisma including inspirational motivation and idealized influence

individualized consideration, and

intellectual stimulation

These characteristics are also called the ‘4 Is’. Whereas the charismatic component,

including inspirational motivation and idealized influence, encompasses that transforming

leaders are able to delight and enthuse followers to work towards a common vision, as well

as make them committed and proud to work together, individual consideration implies that

the leaders care about followers' interests and hence, contribute positively to followers’

satisfaction. Additionally, transforming leaders have the ability to make subordinates rethink,

to make them look at an issue from different perspectives and give them inputs for new

thoughts via intellectual stimulation. In this way, leaders want employees to develop further

and to make people feel totally committed to the organization. A main focus is also put on

21

challenging existing approaches and simultaneously creating new working environments

(Bass, 1985, p. 33ff; Dartey-Baah, 2015, p. 102f). In short:

"the transformational leader uses charisma, individualized consideration, and intellectual

stimulation to inspire employees to make extraordinary efforts." (Bass, 1985, p. 26)

Transactional leadership

In common with the transformational leadership behavior, also the transactional leadership

approach was devised by James Burns in the 1970s. In contrast, the transactional

leadership style is kind of an ‘exchange deal’, a ‘balance of interests’ and a ‘reciprocal

relationship’ between leader and followers. "Play my rules and you get, what you want" (p.

277) is the main idea behind this approach, argue Schreyögg and Koch (2010, p. 277).

Transactional leaders "lead primarily by using social exchanges (or transactions)", add

Robbins and Coulter (2012, p. 469). This means that transactional leaders know what

followers expect in return for their work and are prepared to please the subordinates' needs

and requirements, only if they perform appropriately and aim at achieving the

predetermined goals. Simultaneously, the leaders give incentives for extraordinary

performance or, conversely, impose sanctions to followers in case of straying from the track

by not pursuing the common aims anymore (Ridder, 2009, p. 304). Thus, transactional

leadership mainly focuses on the ends rather than the means. Therefore, the

communication and control of accomplishing the goals as well as simultaneously fulfill the

needs of followers in return, can be counted among the main characteristics of transactional

leaders (Grunau, 2014, p, 10). In short, transactional leadership:

"[…] is about maintaining an alignment between the organization’s mission and

goals on the one hand, and the motivation and interests of employees and

members in achieving set objectives on the other." (Anheier, 2005, p. 163) It

"comprises the vast majority of exchanges between leaders and followers. This

kind of leadership is based on mutual reward for both leader and follower."

(Michell, 2005, p. 24)

This is again explained in more detail by Bass (1985, p. 33ff) who identified two behaviors

to influence followers that constitute a transactional leader:

Contingent rewards, and

Management by exception

22

The former approach, contingent rewards (CR), comprises ‘praise’ on the one hand, which

is given to followers to appreciate their competent and good work. On the other hand, it

includes recommendations for employees to advance and get promoted as well as any

other special honors. Also harmless punishments like negative, constructive feedback are

used by transactional leaders to get employees back on the right path.

What is more, transactional leaders can have a disposition to only intervene in case of

"failures, breakdowns, and deviations" (p. 34), called management by exception (MbE)

(Bass, 1985, p. 31ff). In further detailed investigation, MbE is separated into an active (MbE-

A) and a passive (MbE-P) part. Whereas the active MbE "arranges to know when things go

wrong" (p. 21), MbE-P "subscribes to the belief that if it 'ain't broken, don't fix it" (Bass,

1999, p. 21). However, although active MbE in comparison with passive MbE contributes to

higher effectiveness, penalties and MbE in general have negative impacts on outcomes

tough (Bass, 1985, p. 31ff; Bass, 1999, p. 21).

Transformational and transactional leadership in an ambidextrous context

In this section, the interrelation between these phenomena is illustrated. In relation to the

above mentioned literature, it is especially interesting, how transformational and

transactional leadership collaborate, whether both styles can be used simultaneously, or

whether they supplement or complement each other.

In his research process, Bass started to develop the so-called 'Full-Range-Leadership

Development Model' (see Fig. 2). The FRLD paradigm shows that leaders either use more

active (transformational) or passive (transactional) leadership behaviors that range from

laissez-fair (LF) or non-leadership to the '4Is' of transformational leadership. Whereas active

behavior brings along more satisfaction and effectiveness, passive forms like the LF or

MbE-P style seem to be rather ineffective and far away from satisfactory. Although it is

argued by researchers that leaders principally draw on all of these leadership styles in their

leadership position, the most successful leaders use more active and transforming

approaches and only rarely make use of laissez-fair and MbE leadership (Sosik & Jung,

2010, p. 9ff; Kirkbride, 2006, p. 25ff). Aside from that, the CR approach of the active

transformational perspective is viewed as skeptical. It is argued that it is no longer

contemporary, due to the fact that people need not only extrinsic, but also intrinsic

motivation in order to reach highest performance. In contrast, Bass (1990, p. 30) is

convinced that transactional leadership behavior can indeed be successful in organizations

23

being in stable environments, whereas in contrast, constantly changing settings such as

uncertain and complex situations ask for transformational leadership.

Fig. 2: FRLD model (adapted from Kirkbride, 2006, p. 28)

In short, Bass (1999, p. 11ff) was the first acknowledging that transformational and

transactional leadership are indeed separate concepts, but are not totally contradictory. He

states that "every leader displays a frequency of both the transactional and transformational

factors, but each leader's profile involves more of one and less of the other" (p. 11). This

indicates that leaders combine these two leadership styles in different forms and intensities.

Leaders who make use of both leadership styles are according to Bass (1999, p. 21) most

successful. Thereto, also Sarros and Santora (2001, p. 391) hold the view that the usage of

both styles contribute to successful behavior. Whereas transactional leadership is more

about organizational and managerial behavior, the transformational style focuses on people

and the leading process, what makes up a good mix in leadership.

In addition, Bass is convinced that "transactional leadership can be reasonably satisfying

and effective but transformational leadership adds substantially to the impact of

transactional leadership" (p. 12) (Bass, 1999, p. 11ff). This so-called 'augmentation effect'

implies that the transformational approach augments transactional leadership effects in

terms of effective performance and satisfaction (Bass, 1985, p. 27ff; Bass & Avolio, 1993, p.

69ff). This indicates that the transactional approach is the basis of transformational

leadership that can be seen as 'role model' for successful leaders (Sosik & Jung, 2010, p.

9ff). As Judge and Piccolo (2004) put it: "without the foundation of transactional leadership,

24

transformational effects may not be possible" (p. 756). Thus, transformational leadership

can be seen as supplement or complement to the transactional style (Howell & Avolio,

1993, p. 891ff), whereas a substitution effect between those two leadership styles should be

excluded (Bass, 1999, p. 21).

When we take a closer look at the research of Zacher and Rosing (2015, p. 55f), Jansen et

al. (2009, p. 5ff) as well as of Rosing et al. (2011, p. 957ff), another view to those two

leadership styles and how these interact is presented. The research implies that successful

leaders have to pay particular attention to both opening and closing behavior. In this

connection, Rosing et al. further outline the term of ambidexterity and describe this

approach as “the ability to use both hands with equal ease” (p. 957). In other words, they

relate the transformational and transactional leadership style to opening and closing

leadership and summarize the simultaneous usage under the term of ambidexterity (see

Tab. 3).

In their research it is argued that leaders have to be in the position to foster new ideas and

to encourage learning from mistakes, while simultaneously retain routines and monitor the

achievement of objectives. Their outcome shows a positive relation between

transformational leadership and the encouragement of followers to behave in a new way, to

bring in ideas and to scrutinize existent processes (Rosing et al., 2011, p. 967). Thereto,

Jansen et al. (2009) explored that transactional leadership tends to a more exploitive and

closing behavior, meaning that leaders limit followers’ independent behavior by predefined

routines and guidelines and focuses on the achievement of goals and efficiency (Rosing et

al., 2011, p. 967). Compared with earlier times, March (1991, p. 72) came up with these two

models as exploration and exploitation and described the phenomenon in an organizational

learning approach.

Tab. 3: Transformational and transactional leadership as opening and closing leadership (adapted from Rosing et al., 2011, p. 971)

25

With reference to Bass, Rosing et al. (2011, p. 968f) take the view that not only the balance

of both leadership styles lead to success, but that a good leader should also have the ability

to switch between closing and open behaviors. It is also argued that it is the leaders' choice

how active or passive they practice their leadership style. However, “behavioral as well as

cognitive complexity may be important prerequisites for leaders […]” (p. 968) in order to

manage ambidextrous leadership. This is because the ability to switch between both

leadership styles requires a lot of flexibility in behavior. Also important is the cognitive

complexity, implying that an ambidextrous leader needs to know, when it is right to use

which leadership approach. The leader is responsible for constantly keeping the

organization’s strategy in mind.

Thereto, also Bledow et al. (2011, p. 41) argue that "[…] effective leaders alternate between

a broad range of behaviors […]". In ambidextrous leadership "strategies of providing

autonomy and being directive can be combined in an overall leadership approach" (p. 41).

Dependent on the task or employee, the leader can switch between different behaviors and

can draw upon his or her either more directive or more autonomy-based behavioral

repertoire (Bledow et al., 2011, p. 44ff).

When considering the approach of Dartey-Baah (2015, p. 99ff), companies should be able

to deal with high organizational performance and simultaneously meet environmental

changes. This new theory (see Fig. 3), called resilient leadership, combines according to

the researcher transformational and transactional leadership behavior to a “transfor-

sactional leadership” approach. The core statement of Dartey-Baah comprises that leaders

must be able to adapt their leadership behavior to whatever situation. Thus, resilient

leadership combines strategic thinking with emotional intelligence to guarantee high

performance.

26

Fig. 3: Resilient Leadership (adapted from Dartey-Baah, 2015, p. 107)

Further careful investigation by Klages (2002, p. 185) reveals another view that can be put

under the term of ambidexterity. He is convinced that leaders have to adapt 'hard'

leadership styles that are primarily hierarchy-based as well as 'soft' behaviors that try to

prevent strict command structures. Due to the organizations’ dynamic environments that

bring along major challenges, common leadership styles that focus on both hard and soft

characteristics will more likely lead to success. Only the organizational rationality and the

motivation of employees can be followed up. In addition, Bruch and Kunz (2013, p. 453)

emphasize the need of leaders not to be only inspirational, but also increase the

consciousness for problem-centricity. What they mention is that these two leadership

behaviors cannot be seen as contradictory. Rather context and situation are crucial again

for making use of the right leadership behavior. It is argued that the simultaneous usage of

both leadership behaviors could lead to success and the fulfillment goals.

To sum up, both the transformational and the transactional leadership approach are useful

contemporary leadership styles. Whereas the former focuses on the transformation of

people's attitudes and the motivation of followers, the latter represents leadership as a

27

balance of interests between leader and subordinates. Despite their different core

messages, they intertwine. On the one hand, researchers argue that "effective

transformational leadership is built upon a foundation of transactional contingent reward

leadership, an exchange relationship between the leader and follower that sets well-defined

roles and expectations and uses extrinsic rewards to achieve desired performance." (Sosik

& Jung, 2010, p. 18). On the other hand, others investigated in an interrelating approach.

2.4 Leading volunteers

After having introduced the importance of leadership in organizations, the following chapter

sheds the light on the leadership of volunteers. As it is the own free will of volunteers to

work for a non-profit organization, without getting any financial reward (see chapter 2.1.1),

special leadership behavior might be necessary. Especially regarding compensations, "[…]

a leader in a for-profit organization might reward employees based on profit-related targets

(e.g.) sales, while a leader in a non-profit organization is more likely to reward employees

based on the extent to which the social mission is achieved" (McMurray et al., 2010, p.

437). According to Horch et al. (2014, p. 328), it is always a challenge to commit volunteers

to the organization and to make them engage voluntarily. Therefore, a thorough look at the

existing literature about how volunteers should be led is presented, although the literature

on leadership in the voluntary sector is rather rare (Redmann, 2015, p. 70; Jäger et al.,

2009, p. 80). It is described which special behavior leaders of volunteers have to apply to

lead successfully, and also the role of trust and commitment is discussed. Following this,

the transformational and transactional leadership approach get linked to the leadership of

volunteers.

2.4.1 Leading without formal power

As there is no contractual or legal obligating relation between volunteers and the institution,

volunteers are solely committed to the organization via good leadership. Although

leadership is often linked to formal power, the term 'leadership' is only seldom used in the

context of volunteerism. In voluntary work, authority and power are not well-received, as

people, working on a voluntary basis, want to act autonomously and do not want to subject

to a power-mad leader's rule. Moreover, power indicates that the leader would be in a

position to influence followers involuntarily and give instructions against their will, what

definitely contradicts the principle of volunteering (Redmann, 2015, p. 70ff). Rather, values

and trust play a particular role in non-profit organizations, whereas not only the achievement

28

of goals, but also "personal commitment and expectations" have priority (Anheier, 2005, p.

160).

That is why people with special skills and qualifications have a superior position in voluntary

organizations and those are responsible for fixing targets, decision-making, and act as

spokesmen. Because of this upgraded position, the superior people kind of 'lead' the other

members. However, this relation only works if it is accepted by followers. The leader needs

a lot of sure instinct to recognize what behavior followers expect in order to preserve a

sense of satisfaction that positively contributes to a good collaboration as well as to an

overall optimum achievement (Redmann, 2015, p. 70ff).

Taken as a whole, this implies that leadership in voluntary work is important for the whole

organizational performance, but is exercised by neglecting strict authority and power.

Neither hierarchy, nor any top-down notion or extensive control bring along satisfaction in

leading volunteers, but rather generate resistance. Leaders of volunteers can solely use

their persuasiveness and sure instinct instead of power to direct people (Jäger et al., 2009,

p. 87ff). "Without the traditional forms of authority and motivation inherent in paid positions,

volunteer leaders must connect with followers in other ways in order to be successful."

(Bowers, 2014, p. 71).

2.4.2 Leadership behavior

Due to the fact that formal power is neglected in voluntary organizations, the question

arises, which behavior is appropriate and conduces to success in leading volunteers. First

of all, it has to be stated that there is no one best way for successful leadership in

volunteering, as multiple factors interact and a lot of differences in NPOs such as

organizational size or areas of activity call for different behavior. However, it is primarily

crucial that volunteers accept the leaders' behavior and that the leaders are able to prevail

upon them to voluntarily follow the institutional goals (Redmann, 2015, p. 77ff). Thereto, the

leaders have to believe in the mission and core values of the non-profit organization by

themselves (Hoefer, 2011, p. 321). Volunteer leaders have to maintain the right balance

between 'give' and 'take' (Redmann, 2015, p. 75), and between relating "to volunteers on a

personal level while maintaining professionalism" (Shin & Kleiner, 2003, p. 69). Beyond that,

"volunteer leaders must clearly understand the differences between their professional

leadership and their volunteer leadership and develop practices that meet the needs of

29

followers while also contributing toward the mission of the organization." (Bowers, 2014, p.

85).

In this regard, Jäger et al. (2009, p. 85ff) came up with the following five approaches that

contribute to successful leadership in volunteering (see Fig. 4):

Fig. 4: Successful leadership in volunteering (based on Jäger et al., 2009, p. 86ff)

Leaders of volunteers should mainly prioritize a close relationship to their followers, should

respect and consider their 'free will' and good intentions, and should get a feeling for

directing them. It is paramount that the leaders value their followers (Jäger et al., 2009, p.

86) as well as their performance, and constantly praise and appreciate their work (Shin &

Kleiner, 2003, p. 70). Only when volunteers are valued as important and part of the team,

and are included in decision-making, they will be able to establish commitment. Leaders

should also give volunteers enough autonomy and be open for their opinions (Shin &

Kleiner, 2003, p. 69). In a study, Oosterlander et al. (2014, p. 1379) found that the usage of

an 'autonomy-supportive leadership', indicating to give space to volunteers, leads to higher

autonomous motivation and satisfaction. That is why leaders should establish a good and

direct working atmosphere as well as cater for a non-formalized climate. What is more,

Jäger et al. (2009, p. 88) states that a leader of volunteers directs people by an 'invisible

hand' and believes in volunteers' strengths to reach the organizational goals.

Successful leadership in volunteering

Focusing on people first

Awakening a volunteer's strengths

Leading by recognition

and selective non-

recognition

Cautiously balancing 'free

wills'

Leading by immediacy

30

In a nutshell, a balance between these approaches and the simultaneous adherence to the

organizational goals seem to be successful in leading volunteers (Jäger et al., 2009, p.

85ff). Leading volunteers means to constantly encourage people, "be supportive,

knowledgeable, understanding, enthusiastic, practice empathy, give feedback […]", and

value communication (Shin & Kleiner, 2003, p. 69).

2.4.3 Leadership skills

In order to be able to implement these practices and to lead volunteers successfully, special

leadership skills and qualifications are needed. On the one hand, leaders need professional

competences and on the other hand, the ability to encourage and inspire people to have fun

in doing something good for third parties. In general, the acceptance of the leadership

personality as well as hard and soft skills, are essential requirements for leading volunteers

(Redmann, 2015, p. 77ff). Some of these required personal core competences include

organizational skills, goal-orientation, strategic thinking, capacity for enthusiasm, the ability

to establish contacts and finally, communication skills (see Fig. 5).

Leading volunteers indicates to enthuse and inspire followers by using the personal

persuasiveness. Without any pressure and coercion, volunteers should be motivated to

Personal core

competences

Organizational

skills

Goal-orientation

Strategic

thinking

Capacity for

enthusiasm

Communication

skills

Ability to establish

contacts

Fig. 5: Personal core competences (based on Redmann, 2015, p. 126)

31

work voluntarily, which in turn enhances productivity (Camplin, 2009, p. 36). Regardless of

whether volunteers should be attracted or retained, it is paramount that leaders get their

subordinates enthusiastic about the organizational undertakings. Therefore, volunteer

leaders need to entirely support the organization and radiate joy by themselves, in order to

be able to give the joy further (Redmann, 2015, p. 126ff). That also includes having good

motivation skills. Volunteer leaders not only have to be motivators themselves, but they

should also know "how to get members to motivate themselves or each other" (Camplin,

2009, p. 41).

Beyond that, strategic thinking is another essential core competence for leadership in

volunteering. In order to assure success in reaching organizational goals, holistic thinking

as well as constantly keeping the vision in mind is important. Not only in attracting

volunteers, but also in retaining them, key positions can be recognized and resources can

be divided wisely (Redmann, 2015, p. 128ff).

It is further crucial to constantly keep the institutional goals in mind, as NPOs solely aim for

realizing ideas to reach the common goals. Goal-orientation goes along with strategic

thinking, as strategies are procedures that contribute to goal attainment. Therefore, it is

especially necessary to know, which goals should be reached and how success can be

ensured. Leaders have to make clear that they are collectively responsible for the whole

organizational success and that the goals get clearly formulated and imparted (Redmann,

2015, p. 130ff).

Another core competence is the ability to organize appropriately and to establish a clear

structure. Leaders have to coordinate people and processes, and properly divide tasks to

volunteers in order to preserve the overall productivity. Thereby, clarification is established

and priorities can be set, what positively contributes to the organizational success.

However, it might be a challenge to consider every volunteer individually on the one hand,

while simultaneously follow the organizational requirements on the other hand (Redmann,

2015, p. 133ff).

Also the ability to establish contacts counts among the main personal core competences of

a volunteer leader. Especially in volunteering it is paramount that the leaders stay in

constant contact with their followers, which is why it is necessary to be outgoing with

potential volunteers. Leaders have to maintain close and high-quality contacts and interest

32

in others, as well as a valuable and respectful relation (Camplin, 2009, p. 38) to volunteers.

Additionally, the exhibition of empathy makes volunteer leaders value and understand

volunteers' feelings and needs. Both appreciation and attentiveness should be given to

volunteers in order to motivate and enthuse them. Despite the intensive contacts, the role

allocation and perceptions have to be clearly stated in order to prevent any conflicts

(Redmann, 2015, p. 136ff).

Into the bargain, communication is a major personal competence that implies to constantly

hand on important information to followers. Especially in voluntary work communication is

essential, as leaders solely use their persuasiveness to induce volunteers to perform

according to the organizational goals. Also when motivating volunteers, leaders do not only

make use of creativity and enthusiasm, but rather need high communication skills. Leaders

have to be aware of miscommunication and misperceptions as possible communication

obstacles (Redmann, 2015, p. 138ff).

2.4.4 The role of trust and commitment

Apart from the functional and personal competences a volunteer leader should bring along,

it is also crucial to pay particular attention to the commitment of volunteers to the institution.

Only with good leadership, commitment to an institution can emerge (Redmann, 2015, p.

78). To feel committed, acceptance and trust play an important role for volunteers. It is

pivotal that volunteers primarily accept and further trust their superior, in order to guarantee

a long-term collaboration (Redmann, 2015, p. 83). Especially in voluntary organizations,

where the focus is not on financial gains, commitment is crucial as it impacts on the

performance quality of volunteers and consequently, on the organizational effectiveness.

This means that NPOs "are the most to gain (or to lose) from changes in their members'

commitment" (Leviatan, 2003, p. 141). However, trust develops and does not emerge at a

first glance. Hence, volunteer leaders are responsible for creating trust – but how

(Redmann, 2015, p. 83)?

First of all, it is important for volunteer leaders to be authentic and act credibly. Keeping

promises, turning rhetoric into action, as well as being fair and honest, positively contribute

to a trustful togetherness and thus, to commitment. What is more, volunteer leaders have to

act reliably and deliver what they promise in order to keep followers committed. Leaders

should also act as inspiring examples by observing the rules that are also expected by

33

followers, and by self-reflecting whether they could be regarded as role models. Moreover,

valuable behavior, lots of experiences and self-awareness contribute to gaining trust

(Redmann, 2015, p. 83ff).

With these attitudes, leaders have to make sure a 'person-environment fit', which indicates

that the needs of people can be satisfied by the offerings of the organization. Moreover,

also the personal values have to go hand in hand with the organizational goals. When

people are additionally able to express their self-identity, organizational commitment is

guaranteed (Leviatan, 2003, p. 142f).

2.4.5 Transformational and transactional leadership in volunteering

Having explained how leaders should treat their voluntary followers in general, and how

they could guarantee trust and commitment, a closer look at transformational and

transactional leadership behavior in leading volunteers follows. According to Ronquillo

(2011, p. 348f), both transformational and transactional leadership can be found in

volunteering, although rather little literature is available with regard to the voluntary sector.

In a study with religious NPOs, McMurray et al. (2010, p. 445f) found that the simultaneous

usage of transformational and transactional leadership behavior has a positive impact on

the overall well-being of volunteers in NPOs. What is more, both leadership styles have also

a positive effect on trust as well as on the commitment to the organization. In this context,

also Leviatan (2003, p. 145) found that transactional leadership contributes to the

commitment via the exchange process between leaders and followers. The leaders fulfill the

requirements of the volunteers, what consequently enhances their commitment. In contrast,

transformational leaders mainly focus on the fit between values and organizational goals,

and enable volunteers to express their self-identity. In contrast, Gillespie and Mann (2004,

p. 601) explored that whereas transformational leadership behavior brings along higher trust

in leaders, the usage of transactional leadership, especially LF, has a negative effect on

trust.

Beyond that, Catano et al. (2001, p. 256ff) scrutinize the effects of transformational and

transactional leadership on subordinates' organizational and psychological involvement,

meaning the personal identification with the voluntary work in NPOs. In their study, they

come to the conclusion that the transformational leadership style is often used by leaders of

34

volunteers, who positively contribute to the followers' involvement as well as to the

participation in the voluntary organization. It is argued that the more leaders behave

according to the transformational style, the more volunteers will participate in the

organization. In contrast, transactional leadership was found to have a negative impact on

volunteer participation. Hence, it is argued that "a greater emphasis must be put on

developing transformational leaders in […] voluntary […] organizations to improve member

involvement, commitment and participation" (p. 260).

Furthermore, Rowold and Rohmann (2009, p. 51ff) explore how these two leadership

behaviors impact on followers' performance and emotions in non-profit organizations,

focusing especially on orchestras. It was found that transformational as well as transactional

leadership are "positively related to performance" (p. 51) and emotions. As transformational

leaders succeed in transforming their followers to get highly intrinsically motivated, this

leadership style induces positive emotions. Surprisingly, also transactional leadership,

including more passive CR and MbE, is proven to generate positive emotions, what might

be due to the fact that followers believe in the fairness of both leadership styles. In contrast,

negative emotions are negatively related to performance, indicating that "for leaders of

nonprofit organizations who intend to foster performance, it seems more important to

prevent negative emotions than foster positive emotions" (p. 53). However, it is highlighted

that "applying transactional and transformational leadership styles can help leaders of

nonprofit organizations optimize their leadership role." (p. 52).

In summary, leaders of volunteers need a lot of sure instincts. Neither formal power and

rigorous authority, nor strict control conduces to success. Rather, it is important to pay

particular attention to volunteers individually and perceive them as important social capital

of the organization (Jäger et al., 2009, p. 86). Whereas on the one hand, professional

behavior is in demand, personal closeness should be central on the other hand (Shin &

Kleiner, 2003, p. 69). In this regard, mutual trust plays an essential role not only in

volunteers' satisfaction, but also in establishing commitment. Especially transformational

and transactional leadership contribute positively to the well-being of volunteers (McMurray

et al., 2010, p. 445f). However, how leaders manage to simultaneously use both leadership

approaches, is scrutinized in the following sections.

35

3 RESEARCH GAP

Following this literature, I come to the conclusion that there is a research gap concerning

the leadership of volunteers, especially regarding whether and how volunteer leaders

manage the simultaneous usage of transactional and transformational leadership behavior.

As lots of researchers are surprised that only little literature on leading volunteer exists

(Dwyer et al. 2013, p. 184; Jäger et al., 2009, p. 80; Redmann, 2015, p. 70), and that hardly

research about the role of transformational and transactional leadership behavior (Riggio et

al., 2004, p. 54; Judge & Piccolo, 2004, p. 765) in voluntary organizations is available, there

is capacity to conduct further research on that topic.

As the theoretical part shows, most of the existing literature presents rather general and

superficial findings. There is hardly data existing that was extracted from real life cases or

any other empirical research. Neither literature about the difference between leading

volunteers and paid staff, nor deep required leadership skills that do not only cover the

superficial level but are empirically scrutinized, can be found. Furthermore, behavioral

patterns, attitudes as well as special phenomena are missing.

Beyond that, regarding transformational and transactional leadership, most of the literature

emphasizes the impacts these leadership styles have on either the overall well-being of

employees, their commitment to the organization, their involvement, or how these contribute

to subordinates' performance. However, their interaction in leadership behavior and also the

leadership perceptions are missing. What is more, there is hardly research available

concerning voluntary work and how these leadership styles work in non-profit organizations.

Therefore, it is of great interest, how executives lead volunteers in reality, how they manage

the challenge of leading people without giving them any financial remuneration, and

whether also leaders perceive a difference in working together with volunteers or paid

workers. Specific patterns of thinking, personal attitudes and different contexts of meaning

are worthwhile investigating. Additionally, the balance between control and autonomy would

be worth investigating as well as the role of trust, which could be scrutinized far more. It

would be further exciting to explore how leaders manage a continuous motivation of

volunteers without rewarding them financially for their performance. Are there any other

considerations or incentives leaders provide to their volunteers? Besides, also the

challenges of leading volunteers could be of research interest and how these could have

changed due to certain trends or variances over the last while.

36

As a result, investigation on that topic is truly necessary, for what reason the next main part

entails a qualitative study about leading volunteers by focusing and answering the research

questions:

What constitutes the leadership of volunteers in non-profit organizations?

How do leaders manage to lead volunteers in non-profit organizations taking account of

transformational and transactional leadership?

37

4 METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN

The next parts of the thesis entail an in-depth empirical research in order to answer the

research questions. Thereto, in this chapter the methodology and research design of the

present study are described in more detail. To find the most suitable research approach, the

main aim of the thesis, the explicit research questions and also the theoretical framework

were taken into account. As a result, a qualitative research method was chosen, whereby

expert interviews based on a semi-structured interview guideline were conducted. Thus, the

qualitative research design is described in detail, followed by a short distinction to

quantitative research. Subsequently, the principles of expert interviews as well as the

characteristics of the semi-structured interview guideline are stated, before the next

subchapter sheds the light on the interviewed non-profit organizations.

What is more, as a second source of gathering data, publicly released material like

homepages, folders and position papers got examined on the topic of volunteering. This

additional approach aims at finding out whether official requirements and the general

attitude towards volunteers coincide with what was said in the interviews in the end. As

there was no defined procedure used, the results still got worked into the findings.

4.1 Qualitative research

In the last centuries a lot of time was invested in social science and research, with the main

focus on methodical standards. Besides the quantification and measurability of phenomena,

these quantitative theories aim at a clearly separated cause-and-effect relationship (Flick,

2009, p. 24) as well as on the production of data and findings. Quantitative research ignores

the social reality and subjectivity, but rather approves or discounts an already existing

theory (Lamnek, 2005, p. 6ff). By testing hypotheses, quantitative research counts to the

deductive research approach (Lamnek, 2005, p. 249).

In contrast to the former research method and to overcome its limitations, qualitative

research focuses on understanding a phenomenon from within (Flick, 2009, p. 95). It

pursues the goal of exploring new approaches to generate unprecedented hypotheses, if

only little literature on a specific topic is available. This method consciously goes away from

standardized approaches with predefined answers, but rather focuses on gaining as much

new constructive insights and knowledge as possible through interpretative communication.

That is why one of its main principles is openness to the examined people on the one hand,

38

and to the examined situation and investigative approach on the other hand (Lamnek, 2005,

p. 20f).

In communication, behaviors, experiences and social contexts can be best explored that

help to better understand backgrounds and perceptions (Flick, 2009, p. 114). Qualitative

research asks how and why things happen, how and why people behave in a certain way,

and focuses on interactions, social processes, decisions and rituals (Strübing, 2013, p. 23;

Reinders, 2012, p. 21). Also processuality of social phenomena as well as the flexibility and

reflexion in interpretation characterizes qualitative research (Lamnek, 2005, p. 23f).

Summarized, qualitative research is open for the unknown and presents a more concrete

picture from the interview subject. Not only the meaning, reconstruction and reflexivity of the

social reality and its processes can be constituted best (Lamnek, 2005, p. 32), but also

objective data can be substituted with subjective perceptions (Flick, 2009, p. 83). Other than

quantitative research that focuses on getting a high number of collected data to proof

existing hypotheses, qualitative research highlights the generation of hypotheses to find out

something new and to establish a theory (Flick, 2009, p. 26ff). Although it is argued by

quantitative critics that qualitative research is often too subjective, difficult to generalize and

relies a lot on interpretations, the researcher nevertheless gets rich and deep data, from

which theory emerges and unexpected, instructive phenomena can be explored (Bryman,

2004, p. 287).

As the main goal of the present master thesis is to gather lots of information, experiences

and patterns of behavior with regard to leading volunteers, a qualitative research method

was chosen. This method brings out the best of knowledge and data by constructing

hypotheses and theory in order to extend the existing literature.

4.2 Data collection: Expert interviews

More precisely, the research question was answered by conducting qualitative interviews,

which can be counted to the most popular methods in qualitative research. Qualitative

interviews allow a lot of open communication by letting people talk. That means that

motivations for actions in different situations as well as day-to-day behaviors can be

explored (Hopf, 2007, p. 349f). As there is not much literature on the topic of leading

39

volunteers and which leadership style is applied or most appropriate (Dresing & Pehl, 2013,

p. 6), this method seemed to be most qualified to get deep and rich data.

In order to get high-quality information, expert interviews with people who lead volunteers in

such associations were conducted. Based on research, an expert is characterized as a

person having special knowledge and deep expertise about the investigating topic and

helps to explore new horizons (Gläser & Laudel, 2010, p. 12). With their specific knowhow,

the experts embody and represent the social reality and are in the center of attention, not by

themselves as a person, but rather as functionaries. Conversely, without having enough

experience and professional competence, a person cannot be regarded as an expert, argue

Mieg and Näf (2005, p. 10). Rather, experts possess knowledge that only selected people in

specific roles have (Meuser and Nagel, 2009, p. 467). With regard to Kaiser (2014, p. 36),

experts clearly differentiate from laymen who do have a good general knowledge, but no in-

depth knowhow. He also highlights the difference to specialists who have specialized

knowledge, which is not necessarily restricted to a profession or a function.

In addition to that, Kaiser (2014, p. 29) points out the distinction of expert interviews in three

different types (see Fig. 6). Firstly, explorative expert interviews aim at the generation of

hypotheses to a rather unexplored topic, and focus on the overall generation of data. This

interview form is most suitable when hardly empirical literature exists and the collection of

overall or more detailed data has priority. Another characteristic of explorative expert

interviews is that there is no need for a systematic sampling, but interview partners serve as

a subject group who activate other people that could give completely new information.

Thereto, also Bogner et al. (2014, p. 23) agree and describe explorative expert interviews

as “a first orientation in the field of research”.

As opposed to this, Kaiser describes the guided interview as second method of the expert

interviews. Guided interviews show a more structural way of interviewing and have the clear

goal of gathering specific knowledge to a well-defined, concrete research question. Owing

to the predefined structure, these interviews show a more analytical procedure that allows

for the usage of mixed methods. This approach is according to Kaiser the most systematic

and methodic one. Bogner et al. (2014, p. 23f) count the guided interviews among

foundational expert interviews which also relate to a systematic theory generation. As third

method Kaiser comes up with the plausibility of already existing research data. This implies

40

that the relevance of the empirical data is proofed as well as the general intelligibility

(Kaiser, 2014, p. 30ff).

Fig. 6: Different types of expert interviews

Summarized, an expert possesses the knowhow of all processes, routines and decisions in

an organization through its functionary role and is able to evaluate the different contexts

operating in. Additionally, experts are in the position to substantiate this knowledge with

their own interpretations and subjective opinions (Kaiser, 2014, p. 42ff). As a result, leaders

of volunteers in non-profit organizations have been interviewed in this master thesis as they

fulfill these criteria and have the expert knowledge that is needed to answer the present

research question. What is more, expert interviews rely a lot on the context and dynamic of

the interview situation (Kaiser, 2014, p. 34), which asks for structure and a systematic

method from my point of view. Therefore, the interviews in this master thesis were based on

a before drafted guideline.

4.3 Interview guideline

In order not to be bounded in the flow of conversation, a semi-structured interview was

chosen. In contrast to the fully structured interview, the semi-structured interview allows to

deviate from the strict sequence of questions and to ask additional questions that arise from

the interviewee's answers (Bryman, 2004, p. 109ff; Mayring, 2002, p. 66). According to

Bogner et al. (2014, p. 27), expert interviews are mostly semi-structured no matter what the

• Generation of hypotheses

• Little literature

• Aims at generating general data

• No need for systematic sampling

Explorative expert interview

• Generation of hypotheses

• Aims at gathering specific knowledge to a clearly defined research question

• Structured and systematic interview method

Guided interview

• Validation of empirical data and its general intelligiblity

Plausibility conversations

41

research process is about. Although it is mentioned by Myers (2009, p. 124) that structured

interviews have more consistency, the advantage of semi-structured interviews is the

possibility to adapt and tailor the order and formulation of the questions according to the

flow of conversation. What follows is a flexible dialogue, where new facts can be explored.

The questions in guideline-based interviews are kept openly, to not limit the interview

partners in their talking and allow them to digress. What is more, possibilities for certain

answers were not given in advance, so that the interviewees could feel free to answer and

describe their experiences. This allows for "exploring new areas or ones in which the

researcher has limited knowledge" (Bryman, 2004, p. 145).

The interview guideline was established in constant alignment with the research question

and existing literature, and was structured in main- and sub-questions. When establishing

the guideline, the questions were tested with friends and family members in respect of full

comprehensibility and to get a feeling of the complexity of the questions. After this ‘pretest’,

the guideline was slightly revised and finalized in the end. All conducted interviews follow

the same interview guideline in order to easily analyze the data afterwards (see chapter 10).

Beyond that, all main questions were asked in the context of the interview, whereas sub-

questions were often already answered by the interviewee during the conversation.

The questions asked referred to the acquisition and socialization of volunteers as well as to

treatment of volunteers in NPOs. What is more, leadership was the main topic, whereas

especially values, behaviors and attitudes were elaborated. Following this, questions about

characteristics and challenges in voluntary leadership were asked. Because of the

persistent refugee challenge5 that keeps not only Europe, but also Austria on the run,

responsible interview partners were asked additionally, how such extreme situations change

the way of leading volunteers and what behavior is required as necessary in such

unpredictable situations. Furthermore, it was in my interest whether the leaders believe in

the benefit of volunteering, and what’s their approach in motivating volunteers. Besides that,

trust and commitment were addressed.

5 For more detailed information to the refugee crisis in Europe, especially in Austria, I refer to the homepage of

the Austrian 'Bundeskanzleramt': http://www.bundeskanzleramt.at/site/3426/default.aspx and the website of the

'Bundesministerium für Inneres': http://www.bmi.gv.at/cms/BMI_Asylwesen/statistik/start.aspx

42

4.4 Theoretical sampling

In order to find the most suitable interview partners, the theoretical sampling method was

implemented. "Theoretical sampling is the process of choosing a research sample in order

to extend and refine a theory." (p. 92), indicating that new in-depth data is ascertained and

different situations and contexts are taken into consideration. In contrast to random

sampling, where the achievement of generalizability has priority, theoretical sampling aims

at getting rich and new information about a phenomenon from consciously chosen interview

partners (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003, p. 92f).

Before presenting each organization at a glance (see Tab. 4), the reason for choosing the

voluntary institutions will be elucidated. Primarily, the NPOs stated below were chosen due

to their non-profit and nongovernmental character as well as concerning their popularity and

awareness in Austria. Each of them is organized as beneficial association that contributes

to the well-being of third parties. With the conscious focus on the social sector, ranging from

health care, protection and rescue, as well as social support and care, the validity can be

increased. Besides the social activity, the number of volunteers as well as the

organizational size and branch were considered for the selection, as bigger organizations

might bring different findings than smaller ones.

In order to guarantee more diversification and a better validity, representatives of the

chosen NPOs in Vienna, Salzburg and Upper Austria were interviewed. Thereby the risk of

differences among provinces could be avoided. The NPOs themselves have been divided in

pairs two by two, so that organizations in the same branch can be compared as well.

43

Date NPO Branch

Rough number of

volunteers in

Austria per NPO

Rough number of

volunteers working in

the interviewed NPO

22.09.2015 Aidshilfe Health Care

180 14

23.09.2015 Krebshilfe 100 15

28.09.2015 Rotes Kreuz Rescue

73,000 80

30.09.2015 Samariterbund 7,200 500

21.09.2015 Caritas Social Support

40,000 21

23.09.2015 Volkshilfe 25,000 several 100

Tab. 4: List of interviewed NPOs6

The interviewees were chosen according to their expert position in the voluntary

organization. Either leaders or coordinators of volunteers, or people responsible for

personnel affairs were selected, irrespective of their gender or other demographic group.

Mainly important was to guarantee the dealing with volunteerism, albeit the interviewees

were either volunteers themselves or paid employees who solely lead and coordinate

volunteers.

Altogether, six interviews were conducted in non-profit organizations throughout Upper

Austria, Vienna and Salzburg. All interviews were done face-to-face in the respective NPOs

and were recorded for further processing. The interviews lasted from half an hour to more

than a full hour and were done in German, in order to prevent language barriers and to

avoid misunderstandings and misinterpretations. Following Kaiser’s (2014, p. 46ff) and

Flick’s (2009, p. 63ff) ethical aspects, the interview partners remain fully autonomously,

meaning that no personal data is mentioned about them in this master thesis. Moreover, all

interview partners were informed in advance, what the purpose and goal of the master

thesis is, so that they had the chance to decide whether they want to be interviewed or not.

However, before elaborating on the data analysis and the findings, a brief overview of the

chosen NPOs is given in the following.

6 As the correct number of overall volunteers at Aidshilfe and Krebshilfe in Austria could not be found, these

were estimated by the author based on an inquiry by phone at the respective NPOs.

44

4.4.1 Volkshilfe

Founded 1947 in Vienna, Volkshilfe Austria is a non-party, ecumenical non-profit

organization that emerged two years after the Second World War (Volkshilfe Österreich,

n.d. a). The organization mainly came out of the voluntary engagement of people in the

labor movement. Since then, the main aim of the organization is to help all people in need

and to enhance people’s life situation sustainably, regardless of their religious or political

ideology. At the time, Volkshilfe took a stand for cleaning-up operations in the post-war era,

whereas nowadays, the NPO helps people by providing social services and by protecting

their interests in the range of humanitarian aid. What is more, Volkshilfe supports disabled

people, works with asylum seekers and migrants, and supports people regarding labor

market policy (Volkshilfe, 2014, p. 3ff). Meanwhile, Volkshilfe is available in all nine federal

states of Austria. Besides 9,000 full-time employees, also a high number of volunteers,

namely 25,000, engage socially and espouse solidarity and equality (Volkshilfe Österreich,

n.d. a & b).

4.4.2 Caritas

Even before World War I, Caritas associations in Austria were founded. In the first

centuries, Caritas took a stand for people in need during the First and Second World War

and provided emergency relief (Caritas&Du Österreich, 2015a). Nowadays, Caritas Austria

aims for helping and protecting people in need at more than 1,600 locations among Austria.

Both the nearly 16,000 paid employees and about 40,000 voluntary workers work in the

fields of care, hospice and social support, as well as support for handicapped and elderly

people. Additionally, Caritas engages in refugee relief and various international aid projects.

What is more, Caritas aims for solidarity and equality, as well as for respecting everybody's

rights. Also capacity building and meeting the population's concerns and requirements,

belong to the organizational aims (Caritas&Du Österreich, 2015b).

4.4.3 Krebshilfe

Since its foundation in 1910 in Vienna, 'Krebshilfe Austria' is organized as friendly society

and association, representing a competence center on the subject of cancer. The Austrian

Krebshilfe is composed of autonomous associations in the federal states as well as regional

advice centers (Österreichische Krebshilfe, n.d.). Due to the fact that about 30,000 people

develop cancer in Austria per year, and already 300,000 Austrians have to strive against

this disease (Österreichische Krebshilfe Wien, n.d.), the main focus of this organization is

45

on the one hand to best inform the population about cancer, about measures to prevent and

early recognize this disease, and on the other hand to provide professional help for people

already affected. Moreover, the Austrian Krebshilfe put a lot of effort into cancer research

(Österreichische Krebshilfe, n.d.). As in this business special competences and skills are

essential to provide people with the best support (Österreichische Krebshilfe Wien, n.d.),

only the executive board as well as some supporting staff work in a voluntary capacity in the

institution.

4.4.4 Aidshilfe

The Austrian Aidshilfe operates in seven federal states of Austria, indicating except Lower

Austria and Burgenland. The main intention of this organization is to prevent AIDS and

Hepatitis as well as alleviate their suffering. Besides prevention, also consulting and care

belong to the range of duties of the Aidshilfe. What is more, the solidarity with Human

Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) positive diseased people is tried to established or preserved,

by paying particular attention to information campaigns (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit,

n.d.). Especially the Aidshilfe of Upper Austria is an association based on voluntary and

altruistic help and can therefore count on lots of volunteers. Beyond that, also Aidshilfe

relies on donations from people who want to provide financial support (Aidshilfe

Oberösterreich, n.d.).

4.4.5 Rotes Kreuz

'Rotes Kreuz' Austria was founded in 1880 and counts to the largest humanitarian voluntary

organizations in Austria. It employs apart from 8,250 paid employees about 73,000

volunteer workers in more than 1,000 locations throughout Austria. It is a federalist system

and is operating in all nine Austrian federal states. This means that there are nine state

associations, having their own legal personality and financial sovereignty. What is more,

also local and regional associations can be found as seen as subdivisions of the state

associations. Ambulance and rescue service, health and social care, as well as blood

donation and development assistance belong to the core tasks of this organization. The

mission of Rotes Kreuz is to help and support people in need and the socially deprived

population. The seven principles of the organization include 'humanity', 'neutrality',

'impartiality', 'independence', 'voluntariness', 'entity' and 'universality' (Österreichisches

Rotes Kreuz, 2015 & 2017).

46

4.4.6 Samariterbund

'Samariterbund' Austria is a more than 80 years old non-profit organization, aiming for the

support of elderly people, violators, and people at need. Ambulance service and emergency

medical services, or other health care services that range from care, the ministry of asylum

seekers and the homeless, as well as emergency aid and development cooperation, count

to the core tasks of this NPO (Samariterbund Österreich, n.d. a). The Samariterbund Austria

is separated in local and regional state associations in the nine federal states, most present

in Upper and Lower Austria, as well as in Tyrol and Vienna (Samariterbund Österreich, n.d.

b). All in all, out of about 8,200 employees, 7,200 volunteers work in the field in Austria and

constitute an essential part for the organization (Samariterbund Österreich Jahresbericht,

2014).

4.5 Data analysis and evaluation method

In this chapter, the procedure of the data analysis as well as the evaluation method is

described in detail. Besides a brief introduction to the transcription process, including the

used transcription rules (see chapter 10), this section sheds the light on different evaluation

methods, with a closer look at the qualitative content analysis. As "the method used for data

collection and the nature of the data collected depend on the research goal […]" (Gibbs et

al., 2007, p. 543), possible methods and approaches were considered and weighed first.

Subsequently, the exact procedure of systematically analyzing, categorizing and

interpreting the empirical data according to the qualitative content analysis by Mayring

follows, before the findings will be presented in the next chapter.

4.5.1 Data transcription

The first step after conducting and simultaneously recording the interviews was to transcribe

each conversation. According to Dresing and Pehl (2013, p. 17) as well as Mayring (2002,

p. 89), transcribing means to turn a spoken text, recorded by a video or audio, into a written

form7. The basic idea here is to overcome the obstacle of total recall and fleeting memory

and rather typewrite what was said in a conversation, in order to have a good starting

position for the upcoming analysis.

7 German original text: „Transkription […] bedeutet das Übertragen einer Audio- oder Videoaufnahme in eine

schriftliche Form.“

47

The present interviews were transcribed verbatim by using the VLC player and under

specific predefined transcription rules (see chapter 10). Each interview was transcribed in a

Word-Document with line numbers alongside. Dialects were converted into standard

language, except phrases or words that do not have a precise translation. In order to record

also non-verbal communication aspects, also breaks, word emphases and emotional

expressions were highlighted. Beyond that, incomplete words or sentences got marked and

incomprehensible passages were noted. Both men and women are treated equally in the

transcriptions.

4.5.2 Evaluation method: Qualitative content analysis

Having available all transcribed interviews, the most suitable evaluation method was

deliberated due to the four classifications of Gläser and Laudel (2010, p. 44) (see Fig. 7).

These comprise the approach of free interpretation, sequence-analytic methods, the

method of coding and finally the qualitative content analysis.

Fig. 7: Evaluation methods (based on Gläser & Laudel, 2010, p. 44)

Research method

Free interpretation Sequence-analytic method Coding Qualitative content analysis

Explanation

Analysis Analysis

Sequence-analysis

Codes

E x t r a c t i o

n

48

In this thesis, the qualitative content analysis was chosen. According to Mayring (2015, p.

49ff) and Kuckartz (2012, p. 39ff), the qualitative content analysis focuses on understanding

and interpreting the data from within by systematically summarizing the text. Thereby it

draws on building categories in an inductive way, which should help to structure the data.

What is more, the text is evaluated by constantly considering the communication context,

what brings along the advantage of keeping the meaning and preventing misinterpretations.

Every argumentation and conclusion is captured. Another positive aspect of this approach

compared to others is the transparency and verification, constituted by a step by step

interpretation process (Mayring, 2015, p. 61).

Aside from that, Mayring (2015, p. 67) breaks the analysis down into three different

techniques of text interpretation that comprise

summarizing,

explication, and

structuring.

Summarizing means to reduce the text, but with the main goal of keeping the essential

material and contexts by abstracting a framework. This framework still represents the raw

material and works with all research details. In contrast to that, explication says that

additional material can be used in case of doubtful or unclear text passages. As a third

technique, Mayring explains the method of structuring, which aims at filtering the data,

based on predefined criteria in order to get a representative cross section.

As according to Mayring (2015, p.76) also a mixed method of these analyses is possible,

the rough predefined categories of the interview guideline, were refined and optimized by

the summarizing method, whereby categories are inductively built. Kuckartz is convinced

that in the case of inductive category building, the summarizing content analysis of Mayring

is most suitable (Kuckartz, 2012, p. 59). With an additional inductive category building,

limitations were tried to get prevented. These could have occurred in the first category

building procedure. The limitations include besides the challenge to define precise

categories that do not overlap, also the obstacle of guaranteeing complete and most

relevant categories, where not too much text is put under “the other”(Kuckartz, 2012, p.

61f). Although it is not reprehensible to modify deductive categories during the analysis, I

decided to circumvent this action by building the categories in the course of the systematic

evaluation of the text.

49

In order to get a good overview, the procedure is summarized graphically in Fig. 8:

Fig. 8: Process of the Summarizing Content Analysis (based on Mayring, 2015, p. 70)

The summarizing analysis itself has been adjusted to the material and research questions,

and is now presented in its procedure. To give a better understanding of the data analysis

procedure in this master thesis, a short extract of the applied approach is presented in the

following (see Tab. 5).

Step 7

Review of the summarized category system with regard to the original material

Step 6

Constellation of the new statements as category system

Step 5

Second reduction through pooling, construction, integration of paraphrases on the intended level of abstraction

Step 4

First reduction through selecting and striking of synonymous paraphrases

Step 3

Determination of the intended level of abstraction and generalization of paraphrases under this level of abstraction

Step 2

Paraphrasing the content

Step 1

Determination of the analysis unit

One step in

case of lots

of material

50

In a first step, the analysis units were determined, which include

the coding unit: determining the smallest text part that can be evaluated and counted as

a category

the context unit: defining the maximum text part that come under a category

and, the evaluation unit: deciding which text parts will be evaluated successively.

In this thesis the analysis units have been determined as follows:

Coding unit (min.): One word

Context unit (max.): A full answer to an interview question

In a second step, the coding units got paraphrased, which means that the content is put in

other words or in a grammatical short form, without embellishments and without nondescript

text (see column 3). The aim of this action is to put the text on one level of language. The

third step entails the determination of the abstraction level of the first reduction. All the

established paraphrases had to be generalized, even though with theoretical

presuppositions. In a fourth step, paraphrases which were identical in content, unnecessary

or meaningless, were removed (see column 4). Afterwards, the fifth step was again a

reduction, as correlative paraphrases got summarized, and new statements were built in a

sixth step (see column 5 and 6). After the overall reduction phase, it was paramount to proof

whether the statements in the category system indeed represent the meaning of the original

raw material. It was important that all paraphrases could be illustrated in the category

system. Otherwise a second summarizing would have been necessary by putting the

abstraction level to an even higher level and pass through the interpretation steps again

(Mayring 2015, p. 71).

What is more, each category was assigned to a color in order to highlight statements that

belong together. One the one hand, this made the reduction phase easier because one

could see immediately whether there is already a similar statement that can be crossed out.

On the other hand, the colors helped to see at a glance what the interviewee said about a

specific topic.

51

No. Line-No.

Interview Paraphrase

Reduction

Category

Reduction

Category

Main category

(still higher level

of abstraction

29 179f

Simply to make people feel valuable,

not as ‘carpet or coffee aunt’.

Valuable

tasks

Tasks Personnel

Mgmt.: Tasks

30 184

Right, truly independent, responsible

tasks.

Valuable

tasks

45 387f

For lots of people it is a win-win

situation.

(Mutual)

Benefit

Benefit

48

452f

The whole association of Aidshilfe

Upper Austria would not be possible

without volunteers.

Benefit

Tab. 5: Data Analysis Example (based on the interview evaluation of Aidshilfe)8

As a result, the below stated (sub-)categories were filtered out (see Fig. 9):

Fig. 9: Categories

8 For the original evaluation in German language please see chapter 10.

Benefit

Personnel management

- Tasks

- Onboarding

-Further training

- Long-term concept

Leadership characteristics

- Values and behavior

- Distinction to employees

- Challenges

- Consideration of needs

Feedback

- Positive rewards - Sanctions

- Conversations

Motivation

- Instrinsic / Motives

- Extrinsic / Incentives

Trust and commitment

Goals

- Communication

- Co-Determination

- Means / ends

Power and control

- Hierarchy

- Control / autonomy

- Structure

52

5 FINDINGS

This chapter sheds the light on the findings, resulting from the interviews. First of all, each

pair is compared against each other in order to find similarities and differences between

NPOs with the same social background. Thereby, every category is examined in detail and

treated separately. Subsequently, the findings got summarized to an intermediate outcome,

to get an overview of the main key points of each organizational pair. Thus, a contrasting

juxtaposition is presented at a glance. Into the bargain, all interviews get compared to the

NPOs’ publicly released material on volunteering. Therefore, the organizations’ homepages,

folders and position papers get elaborated in order to compare, whether the outlined

expectations, attitudes and requirements meet the interviewees’ statements. Finally, the

overall findings are highlighted, which show a contrasting juxtaposition of the NPOs’

leadership behavior with regard to the transformational and transaction leadership style. In

the end, indications for and patterns of differences in branch and size are examined.

In order to verify and illustrate the findings, distinctive statements are added in the text. As

the original quotes have been translated into English language, the original German quotes

can be found listed in the Annex (see chapter 10).

5.1 Volkshilfe and Caritas

In a first step, Volkshilfe Vienna and Caritas Linz are scrutinized in order to get a good

understanding how these NPOs lead their volunteers. In other words, research was done on

the leaders’ attitudes and behaviors, as well as on the motivational factors which might

contribute to commitment. Following this, a brief summary of the findings is given, which

also show the relation to the transformational and transactional leadership style.

5.1.1 Benefit

Primarily, it has to be mentioned that both Caritas and Volkshilfe consider their employees

as absolutely necessary, even though from different viewpoints. Volkshilfe highlights that

voluntary workers are not only a huge benefit for our society, but that the organization itself

benefits a lot, thanks to an optimization and extension of its social contribution portfolio.

Volunteers create an added value for the organization, whereby also voluntary workers

derive a benefit.

53

„We definitely profit from it, because we are able to optimally extend and optimize our social

benefit portfolio […]. For sure, volunteers benefit as well […].” (I4V, p. 19, L 646ff)

Thereto, Caritas’ interviewee emphasizes that volunteers positively contribute to the

organizational success and will become more and more important in future. It is argued that

volunteers take the pressure off full-time employees, meaning that voluntary workers lighten

the employees’ workload and thus, provide incredible support to the association.

“Well, volunteers contribute a lot to the success, as they take the pressure off full-time

employees.” (I1C, p. 7, L 200ff)

5.1.2 Personnel management

Having in mind the importance of volunteers, it is also crucial to get the right volunteers for

the right tasks into the organization. In order to acquire people, Volkshilfe and Caritas make

use of different search strategies. Volkshilfe searches for volunteers via platforms, where

employment ads are published that refer to a special event or activity. As a second search

channel, Volkshilfe is present at voluntary fairs, where people directly show their interest at

the exhibition stand. A lot of people also send blind applications with the inquiry of taking

action as volunteer at Volkshilfe. However, the interviewee stated that it is often very difficult

to find the right volunteer for the right position, due to the fact that it could be an activity that

is not appreciated that much.

Further on, after having received the application, people get invited to a job interview in

order to clarify the personal fields of interest and expectations, as well as the potential area

of activity. As part of that, not only the association itself, but also the organizational values

are mentioned. If it is the case that someone applies although there is no vacancy at the

moment or the applicant does not fit to a specific team, then another area is tried to be

found where the potential volunteer can be deployed. Moreover, Volkshilfe also appreciates

voluntary workers who only support once, especially in times of lacking human resources.

54

Areas in which volunteers at Volkshilfe are employed are various, and include beyond

others:

visiting services

tutoring

supporting child minders

refugee care

childcare

collecting activities or

administrative stuff

Having found the most suitable area of responsibility that is clear to both parts, volunteers

are allowed to start working. A completely defined enrollment phase is not provided, as in

most working areas no special qualifications for doing the job are necessary. As the jobs

are not that professional, as it is argued by the interviewee, an on-boarding process or

socialization training could be entitled as superfluous. However, if volunteers need and

demand special information or enrollment, this is done by a one or two hours’ conversation.

“There are areas for sure, where an introduction phase takes place, but this can also be a

two hours conversation. […] But we do not have preparatory trainings, as we do not have

such professionalism in volunteering.” (I4V, p. 6, L 160ff)

Further training is not provided to volunteers, as the areas of responsibility do not ask for

further education or training. Although Volkshilfe provides a wide range of different activities

volunteers can overtake, opportunities to ascend to a higher rank or climb up a career

ladder is not mentioned.

In comparison, Caritas makes use of different search strategies as well. On the one hand,

the interviewee declares that employment ads are published either on the organization's

website or on Facebook, whereas on the other hand, a lot of people want to take action by

themselves and try to get in contact with the volunteer coordinators by themselves. Also

within the teams, employees keep their eyes open for people who want to engage

voluntarily. What is more, in situations or at events where lots of people are demanded,

Caritas runs initiatives and calls to action in order to encourage people to support the

organization. Different to Volkshilfe, volunteers at the interviewed Caritas subsidiary engage

55

in work with disabled people and it is highlighted in the interview, that a special education or

profession is paramount to work in this field.

After finishing the acquisition process, the voluntary workers get socialized into the

organization and pass through the same early stage than paid employees do. The

organizational values, what Caritas takes a stand for as well as the different areas that

belong to the NPO are collectively gleaned in a folder and imparted to the volunteers in a

personal job interview. This indicates that a good enrollment into the subject matter as well

as mutual getting to know is crucial in the early stage. However, Caritas expects that the

potential volunteers inform themselves about Caritas and its values in advance. The reason

behind this introduction phase is that people should get a profound knowledge about the

organization and can decide meanwhile or afterwards whether or not they want to work at

Caritas or at the particular department.

Aside from that, there were no further trainings or education mentioned in the interview.

Rather, Caritas affords an opportunity to complete an internship for further occupational

purposes.

5.1.3 Leadership characteristics

Having the right people socialized in the organization, it is the leaders’ challenge to lead and

direct their volunteers properly. Hence, Volkshilfe’s interviewee is convinced that

volunteering asks for full concentration and power. More precisely, the interview partner

emphasizes his role as representative of the organization and describes himself as a role

model by acting fair and correct in every situation. Above all, he is grateful about the free

engagement of volunteers and highlights his appreciative attitude when people spend their

rarest personal resource – time.

What is more, the interviewee builds upon a respectful cooperation and describes the

relationship with volunteers as overly amicable. Always having a sympathetic ear for

volunteers, and creating an open, communication-friendly climate is paramount for a good

relationship between the leader and volunteers. The interview partner tries to be there when

problems occur and gives support if necessary. Foremost, it is argued that it is the leader’s

task to guarantee that the volunteers feel like home. That is why the interviewee conveys a

sense of ‘family affiliation’ that has to be cared for properly, and clearly speaks out against a

56

distinction between volunteers and employees. In short, Volkshilfe’s interview partner

proudly regards his relationship to volunteers as highly amicable, appreciative and

welcoming. The interaction between each other is respectful, open-minded and friendly as

well as at eye level.

“He wants to do something and that should be accepted. And that should be accepted in a

way that we present who we are and what we want, and that the person who wants to join

us feels like home and represents the organization.” (I4V, p. 9, L 276ff)

Thereto, Caritas points out that in general, volunteers have to be led differently to paid

employees. Due to the missing financial reward, leaders have to find creative ways of

directing volunteers and have to adapt their way of behavior. Overall, Caritas agrees with

Volkshilfe that it is important to invest time and patience, as volunteers can usually not be

regarded as experts on the respective field. Furthermore, it is tried to ensure that all

volunteers are well integrated into the team, in order to make them feel comfortable. Also

the acceptance of the direct supervisor has to be guaranteed. It is argued that working

together as a team as well as making internal conversations is important to succeed and to

achieve goals. Anyhow, the interviewee confirms to act as a mediator between volunteers

and employees in times of trouble or potential discrepancies.

Beyond good team integration, the interview partner at Caritas attaches utmost importance

to appreciation and esteem. This is why Caritas appreciates new ideas and suggestions

from volunteers which help to optimize their everyday work. Similar to Volkshilfe, Caritas’

volunteers know that they have a contact person who is always very open-minded and has

a sympathetic ear in every concern. This means that having an open door and being

accessible build the basis of leadership at Caritas.

“It is necessary to provide a comfortable environment. […] The volunteers know that I have

always a sympathetic ear for them, in every concern […]. Appreciation has to have, and

has, highest priority at Caritas.“ (I1C, p. 4, L 83ff)

Regarding challenges in leadership, both organizations agree that the number of volunteers

has been increasing steadily. It is not just the general extension of volunteering, but rather

more and more people provide their support short-term at any important events, whereby

Caritas argues it is challenging to deploy the right volunteers for the right task. However,

57

Volkshilfe points out that even in difficult situations, leadership always has to be fair and

correct.

5.1.4 Feedback

Aside from that, another main topic in leadership for both organizations is feedback. Not

only Volkshilfe, but also Caritas attach importance to constructive, mutual feedback. The

interview partner from Volkshilfe points out three different ways of feedback. That is, if a

volunteer maintains an extraordinary performance, a positive internal feedback is given

within the organization. This feedback reaches from a thanking statement in the

organization’s magazine, to a brief abstract at social media platforms. What is more,

volunteers get regular individual feedback by praising and thanking them for good work. As

opposed to this, the interview partner states that even though appreciative and on eye level,

it is legitimate to tell people if something goes wrong. However, it is clearly emphasized that

it is not what you say, but how you say it. It is important not to slag the volunteer, but rather

instantly look for a solution to the problem. For that reason, it is not the goal to find a victim.

Nevertheless, the interviewee argues that in case of a discrepancy between a volunteer and

the organization, then the collaboration will be dissolved, again respectful, friendly and on

eye level.

“And there is not a ‘good cop’ or ‘bad cop’, or a better or worse person, but rather, if

something happened wrong or did not work so well, it is all about talking about it and

guaranteeing that in future, it works better.” (I4V, p. 14, L 444ff)

In comparison, the interview partner at Caritas gives positive feedback to its volunteers

when doing a very good job. In a personal conversation between the leader and volunteer,

the satisfaction is communicated and emphasized. However, volunteers do not get any

reward for it. With regard to problems or mistakes, these are either discussed in the team

together with employees, similar to Volkshilfe, or coordinators get informed by employees to

be invited to a one-on-one conversation.

“If something happens wrong then either a conversation within the team takes place where

our full-time employees directly talk to the volunteer, or the other way around, the full-time

employees come to me and tell me about the problem, and I will talk to the volunteer then.

Thereby, it is important to hear both sides.” (I1C, p. 6, L 177ff)

58

5.1.5 Motivation

Another main task of volunteer leaders is motivation. As there is no financial motivator, the

interview partners were asked if and how they motivate their volunteers. Both Caritas and

Volkshilfe agree that the overall motivation primarily has to come from the volunteers

themselves. Volunteers have to have an intrinsic will to help third people and to live the

values of the respective organization.

According to Volkshilfe, the main motive of volunteers is ‘doing something good for the

society’. Thus, the interviewee especially expresses his appreciation towards the time

volunteers take for enhancing other people’s living standard without demanding any

valuable consideration.

Furthermore, the following motives for volunteering are highlighted:

Important for the future and turn to account

Improve people’s study opportunity

Enhance their lives and quality of living

Be a betterment in their job

Be a fulfillment in retirement

Solely give people’s lives a valuable meaning

Based on these intrinsic motives, Volkshilfe’s interviewee argues that volunteers are

motivated primarily by themselves. Nevertheless, extrinsic motivation is applied in order to

encourage their motives still more. Volunteers get motivated by telling them how valuable

they are for the institution and which added value they create. The leader expresses his

thanks and esteem verbally to them. In addition, Volkshilfe attaches importance to do

informal conversations with its volunteers, to let them participate in internal and external

events, and to invite them to celebrations. In order to constantly express appreciation,

volunteers are put on a pedestal from time to time.

“The only treat you can give to volunteers is to always tell them how valuable they are.”

(I4V, p. 18, L 620ff)

As compared to Volkshilfe, also Caritas takes the view that incentives have to be provided

to enhance volunteers’ motivation. It is told that lots of volunteers are, among others,

dedicated to getting a full-time job in the social area in future, which is why it is important to

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provide a sympathique working atmosphere to keep volunteers motivated and committed in

the end. Regularly, the leader gives thank and appreciation to volunteers, whereas it is

clearly stated that they do not get any presents. Rather, they are invited to a coffee or lunch

to keep them happy. Also at statutory holidays, people get postcards and wishes, or receive

birthday calls on their special day, in order to strengthen the relationship.

Unlike in Volkshilfe, volunteers at Caritas get invited to a dinner once a year, to demonstrate

special thanks. What the interviewee also emphasized as important for volunteers are that

the general conditions are clarified. This means that they are insured, that they get travel

expense allowance, etc. which makes working quite more satisfying.

5.1.6 Trust and commitment

In general, both Volkshilfe and Caritas put emphasis on mutual trust and ascribe highest

priority to reliability. Without trust between volunteers and leader, volunteering would not

make sense and might has to be terminated. Volkshilfe even talks about an obligation of

adhering to a mutual engagement. It is argued that there have to be a foundation of trust as

a lot of tasks could not be fulfilled otherwise.

“It would be impossible without trust. That is very important. It is not necessary to be friends

with everybody, but you have to confide in each other, mutually. And if trust is not given,

then it will not work in the long run […].”(I4V, p. 21, L 702ff)

Thereto, Caritas adds that adhering to deadlines as well as the obligation towards clients is

a prerequisite for engaging voluntarily at Caritas. As in all other employments as well, it is

expected from the volunteers to inform the supervisor in case of illness or other reason of

absence.

Regarding commitment, both organizations again agree that without trust, commitment

would not exist. Thereto, the interviewee of Volkshilfe believes that as long as the

volunteers see their success, they are committed to the organization, whereas Caritas

points out that volunteers build commitment through a high degree of team spirit. Important

to say, volunteers at Caritas not only build relationships to the team, but also to the clients.

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“[…] By working together in a team, the volunteer builds commitment. Simultaneously the

volunteer establishes a relationship and trust to the clients and to our team. And as a result,

a good collaboration follows.” (I1C, p. 13, L 424ff)

5.1.7 Goals

When having a look at the organizational goals, both Volkshilfe and Caritas associate

targets with their organizational values. For that reason, both agree that the values of the

organizations have to be clear and lived every day. These serve as basic attitudes in order

to know the associations’ mission and vision. The leaders forward the main values to their

volunteers already at the beginning of their voluntary work.

“At Caritas individuals are standing in the foreground as well as the dignity of people.” (I1C,

p. 12, L 375f)

For that reason, the interview partners of both institutions reveal that employees in general,

but also volunteers, are not that much concerned with higher organizational goals.

Especially Volkshilfe states that there is less pressure on volunteers to succeed, as the

primary goal is to help and take time for others, instead of having numbers or success

criteria in mind. In other words, Volkshilfe focuses more on the means rather than the ends.

Aside from that, the two leaders point out that volunteers are in the position to interchange

in order to come up with improvements or possible changes in the teams themselves.

However, they do not have the required authority or competence to participate actively in

discussions at organizational level.

5.1.8 Power and control

With regard to power and control, Volkshilfe appreciates a flat hierarchy and low structure

within its teams. Superiors are not titled as ‘bosses’, but rather as ‘responsible contact

persons’. The relationships are based on eye level and team spirit, and the organization is

not organized tightly. According to the interviewee of Volkshilfe, volunteerism would not

work within formal power, control and strict hierarchy, as a volunteer does not want to be

led directly. Rather, it is stated in the interview that volunteers value a contact person who

tells them where to go, who forwards to them information, and supports when help is

necessary and required.

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Although the responsible departments monitor whether activities work smoothly, volunteers

are able to work autonomously. It is up to the volunteers themselves to plan their actions

and to enroll in the duty roster. However, it is clearly stated that there is no strict quality

control or special procedure how work has to be done, but it is crucial that people’s intrinsic

will is to work according to the association’s values.

“There is no quality control like with other employees. Either it works, or not […].” (I4V, p.

17, L 569ff)

In contrast to that, Caritas does have daily routines and structures within the teams, which

also volunteers have to obey. Although it is said by the interviewee that no drop-down

leadership style is applied, volunteers nevertheless get monitored by the organizations’ full-

time employees. Volunteers have to comply with the instructions of the employees and are

accompanied in their every day work. This is because the course and structure of the day is

determined by the clients and the task itself. With few exceptions, it can be extracted from

the interview that really good socialized volunteers get the chance to work autonomously for

one or two hours in order to clear employees of charge. It is also mentioned that people with

pre-experience who already worked at Caritas full-time and want to pursue a volunteer job

now, will also have more autonomy in their working. These people already know the

procedures and processes, and are already well incorporated. Nevertheless, the structures

and routines have to be obeyed.

„In our teams we have daily structures and procedures about work with our clients, which

volunteers have to obey. The volunteers have to follow the instructions of our full-time

employees [...]” (I1C, p. 6, L 163ff)

5.1.9 Intermediate summary

In conclusion it can be summarized that Volkshilfe Vienna and Caritas Linz not only share

similarities, but also differentiate in one form or another. In a first step, both organizations

reveal the added value volunteers bring not only to the society, but also to them as NPOs.

Whereas Volkshilfe highlights a win-win situation between volunteers and the association,

Caritas is convinced that they lighten the full-time employees’ workload. In addition, trust is

highlighted by the two as a prerequisite in leading volunteers.

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In order to commit volunteers to the organization, Caritas puts emphasis on an informative

onboarding process, whereby a long-term relationship should be supported. In contrast,

Volkshilfe starts with a job talk and due to the fact that people do not need a special

education, as it is the case in working with disabled people at Caritas, there is no specific

enrollment process.

However, the idea of integration seems to be more distinct in Volkshilfe with regard to its

emphasized family affiliation. Due to the fact that Volkshilfe offers incentives to increase the

intrinsic motivation of volunteers and that the interviewed leader acts as a role model, the

interviewee at Volkshilfe tends to a more transformational leadership style. This is also

confirmed as the leader seems to be very charismatic, open-minded and appreciative, give

lots of autonomy and absolutely believes in his volunteers. Although the organizational

values, and overall vision, are seen as the base for a good collaboration, there is no

pressure to succeed. Besides that, within the bounds of possibility, little wishes of

volunteers get implemented. However, in case of failures or misbehavior, it comes out from

the interview that volunteers get corrected by the leader, even though in a respectful,

friendly and cooperative way. This in turn might speak for a solution-based problem solving

approach, which could either be seen as very charismatic and therefore transformational, or

as a focus on the goal attainment despite a mistake, what can be ascribed to transactional

leadership.

On the contrary, Caritas constitutes a clear mix of both transformational and transactional

leadership behavior. Whereas on the one hand, the leader takes time for volunteers, has a

sympathetic ear in every concern, appreciates the volunteers’ work and highlights mutual

trust, Caritas’ interviewee further points out clear structures and routines the volunteer has

to obey on the other hand. Organizational targets and regulations accompany volunteers

day by day. Additionally, it is conspicuous that good team integration is important and trust

is inevitable, whereas work monitoring as well as the distinction between volunteers and

employees are present. However, both positive feedback as well as constructive feedback

in case of misbehavior is given. Volunteers’ motivation should mainly come out of intrinsic

motives, whereas also extrinsic incentives are provided to strengthen the collaboration.

These facts let assume that Caritas’ interviewee uses the leadership styles interactively,

meaning that the leadership styles complement each other.

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5.1.10 Analysis based on publicly released material on volunteering

When simultaneously having a look at the external, official material the organizations

provide, it can be found that both NPOs provide lots of information at their websites and

additionally, put a lot of work into position papers. On top of that, Caritas also published a

volunteering folder.

First of all, it is obvious that indeed voluntary work is one of the cornerstones of the

organizations’ operations (Caritas&Du Österreich, 2015c; Volkshilfe, 2014, p. 4). Whereas

Franz Küberl, president of Caritas, signalizes that Caritas would not exist without that much

volunteers (Caritas&Du, n.d., p. 2), Volkshilfe describes them as invaluable (Volkshilfe, n.d.

b). In addition, it is written by both associations that voluntary work is a valuable supplement

to everyday work. This means that voluntary work and paid work are not seen equally, but

rather supplement and support each other (Caritas&Du, n.d., p. 4; Volkshilfe, 2014, p. 7).

In addition, it is officially said by both Caritas and Volkshilfe that volunteers have to identify

themselves with the organizational values, meaning to help people in need. Volkshilfe

expects solidarity, social responsibility, continuity as well as reliability and mutual support

from their volunteers. Therefore, volunteers are led respectfully (Volkshilfe, 2014, p. 4ff),

whereby Caritas points out a competent and appreciative leadership behavior (Caritas&Du,

n.d., p. 4). What is more, official data approves that Caritas encourages everyone to support

third parties by making use of an amicable relationship between leader and follower

(Caritas&Du, 2012, p. 3).

For their work, volunteers are respected and appreciated by both organizations. However,

other than in the interview, Volkshilfe’s volunteers get occasion-related honors and gifts like

badges, documents, and prizes for extraordinary work. Nevertheless, Volkshilfe seems to

focus on the intrinsic motives of volunteers as well, and facilitates fun, socializing and

primarily, helping others (Volkshilfe, 2014, p. 8f).

Beyond that, it is officially mentioned by Volkshilfe that due to a democratically-driven

association, volunteers indeed have a right of co-determination and influence on the

strategy, what was not that clearly mentioned in the interview. In order to create positive

synergy effects between volunteers and paid employees, the organization also highlights a

clear definition of responsibilities and task allocation. Another discussable point that is

mentioned in the official paper of Volkshilfe is that if necessary, further education or

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trainings are provided as well, although this is dependent on the regional association. These

trainings should assure the quality of work towards clients, volunteers and the organization

itself. However, as it is pointed out in the interview that hardly specific trainings are

provided, this could be ascribed to the regional differences (Volkshilfe, 2014, p. 7ff).

With regard to Caritas, where none was mentioned about further education in the interview,

the publicly released material says that high attention is paid to trainings. It is primarily the

human and interpersonal training that is provided to volunteers to be able to meet people’s

needs (Caritas&Du, n.d., p. 15). In addition, the official material of Caritas says that

volunteers enjoy lots of space in their work (Caritas&Du, n.d., p. 4), whereas it emerged

from the interview that a clear structure and monitoring of work is applied. However, this

difference could come from the different areas of responsibility Caritas provides.

In short, although both organizations officially present more or less the same facts that

emerged from the interviews, some differences can be found regarding the right of co-

determination and further trainings at Volkshilfe, and the space that is provided to

volunteers at Caritas. One could assume that some parameters depend on the types of

voluntary work and responsibility volunteers take on.

5.2 Krebshilfe and Aidshilfe

Having a good picture of Volkshilfe Vienna and Caritas Linz in mind, Krebshilfe Vienna and

Aidshilfe Linz will be screened now. Whereas first of all a separate evaluation is presented,

a brief summary of both NPOs with regard to transformational and transaction leadership

follows in a second step.

5.2.1 Benefit

Firstly, it has to be highlighted that both organizations reveal the enormous benefit that

volunteers bring to the organization. Whereas the interviewee of Krebshilfe expresses that

volunteers contribute essentially to the general operation and representation of the

institution, the interview partner of Aidshilfe argues that without volunteers the whole

association would not work and exist. In the view of Aidshilfe, volunteers are to a large

extent responsible for operating in such black numbers and at Krebshilfe, lots of tasks could

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not be performed without volunteers. Additionally, also volunteers gain a lot through their

voluntary engagement which makes the collaboration a win-win relationship.

“Insofar, volunteers contribute essentially to the operating business.” (I3K, p. 11, L 361ff)

„For lots of people it is a win-win situation based on the leadership style.“ (I2A, p. 12, L

387f)


When stressing the personnel management in the two associations, Krebshilfe and Aidshilfe

use various search strategies. At Krebshilfe, it comes out of the interview that the search

process depends on the department the volunteer is working in. These two working areas

comprise

the voluntary management board, and

the administration, where people help with electronic data processing, make official

repots or support in donation campaigns.

However, the interviewee clearly stated that working with cancer patients does not belong to

voluntary work, due to the fact that in the oncologic field a special, clinical education is

absolutely necessary. This is why Krebshilfe works only with skilled and trained health

psychologists in this field.

When there is need for another or additional management board member, Krebshilfe

actively approaches a person by weighing up the professional skills. Conversely, in the area

of administration, people apply by themselves and write an e-mail or place a call with their

request of becoming a volunteer. Volunteers also often acquire family members or friends to

offer their help.

Subsequently, in a first detailed fundamental talk, the potential voluntary workers get

introduced to the organizational values and backgrounds as well as get to know other

employees and volunteers with the same areas of responsibilities. Beyond that, both the

person’s interests and the expectations of the interviewee are clarified to have a deeper

look at whether or not the potential volunteer fits to the organization. Further on, people in

the administration area get invited to a trial week to learn about the daily routines and

structures, and to decide whether these activities and the organizational values indeed

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coincide with their self-interests. Due to the small number of volunteers, the socialization

and onboarding happens individually and personalized in the sense of learning by doing

and coaching. According to the interview partner, a lot of time is invested in new volunteers

especially at the beginning. The reason behind is to make highly qualitative people of them

that benefit to the organization. For Krebshilfe it is important that people grow into their

tasks and the organization little by little to remain in the organization for long.

“We do not have introduction phases, as we do not have that much volunteers. That is why

we keep the beginning very individual. So, the enrollment is individual and we take a lot of

time as thereof, the organization benefits [...]” (I3K, p. 3, L 72ff)

Regarding further training or additional education, Krebshilfe is short on experience. So far,

the interviewee argued, they did not receive any request from their volunteers. However,

one advanced training per year would be conceivable.

By comparison, it seems as that Aidshilfe lets volunteers work closer to infected people.

With regard to the interview, volunteers at Aidshilfe have different opportunities to work. It is

clearly stated that volunteers do not get a job that is useless or worthless, but rather they

assist in tasks which were not manageable otherwise, due to a lack in resources. This

means that they work together with hetero-, homo- and bisexual men or women, in the

areas of

prevention

migration, and

the care of infected people.

Additionally, also Aidshilfe’s board exists of three voluntary managers.

Quite different to Krebshilfe is the personnel management procedure at Aidshilfe. In order to

attract new potential volunteers, Aidshilfe mainly relies on word-of-mouth advertising and

besides, places ads at the homepage, at Facebook or at a volunteer platform. Moreover,

HIV or Aids Workshops serve to find volunteers and sometimes people who have already

done a test at Aidshilfe or learned about Aids in school want to engage voluntarily and apply

directly. Similar to Krebshilfe, already existing volunteers acquire new ones.

In a next step, a face-to-face interview is conducted, similar to Krebshilfe, where personnel

and basic information are clarified, followed by a short introduction to the organization. Into

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the bargain, the mutual expectations as well as a possible area of responsibility are

discussed in order to deploy people in the right position. Due to the fact that the volunteers

spend their time at Aidshilfe, the interview partner emphasizes the necessity of attending to

volunteers’ skills and their preferred voluntary job. At the beginning of the collaboration it is

communicated to volunteers that further trainings are absolutely welcomed at Aidshilfe and

that the opportunity to learn more is definitely given.

In case of a concurrence, Aidshilfe provides a mandatory enrolment program for all new

volunteers and employees, which takes place on two evenings. There, basic information

about HIV and Aids as well as other sexually transmitted diseases is transmitted. Beyond

that, legal and insurance topics get discussed, as all newcomers have to sign a compulsory

confidentiality agreement which is crucial for the protection of the clients. Afterwards, all

participants get a certificate of attendance and can call themselves volunteers at Aidshilfe.

Surprisingly, although Krebshilfe also deals with highly sensitive data, such an agreement

was not mentioned in the interview. Important to say is that the onboarding training is not

held solely for one volunteer, but rather for more than three newcomers. This means that

some volunteers already start working although they have not participated in the onboarding

course. What is more, it is expressed by the leader that Aidshilfe focuses on long-term

collaboration that at least lasts for half a year. Otherwise, familiar subsidiaries or NPOs are

recommended.

„In case of a positive response, a mandatory training session is organized. These include

two blocks in which basic information about HIV Aids is explained […], followed by brief

legal stories about volunteering.” (I2A, p. 5, L 119ff)


After the onboarding training, it is the leader’s responsibility to lead and direct the volunteers

properly. Due to the fact that the interviewee of Krebshilfe does not have any power to

direct, it was argued that it is necessary to find more creative ways of leading volunteers.

That is why leading volunteers is always a challenge according to the interview partner.

Particularly important in working with volunteers is to take time for them and to treat them as

good and as important as paid employees. Thus, Krebshilfe applies a very amicable

leadership behavior based on partnership. It is said that volunteers get the support they

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need in order to fulfill the organizational goals. For that, the leader takes time to do informal

conversations and to have fun, despite the serious topic – cancer.

“Well, an extremely amicable leadership, due to the fact that I do not have any power to

direct.” (I3K, p. 4, L 87f)

According to the interview partner of Aidshilfe, volunteers enjoy a respectful, appreciative

and motivating leader who has a sympathetic ear in every concern, is empathic and values

a friendly and collegial relationship. Although there is no predefined corporate behavior, the

basis of good collaboration defined by the interviewee is interpersonality, equality as well as

appreciation. Similar to Krebshilfe, also Aidshilfe values the volunteers’ work and highlights

having fun as a crucial leadership factor. As the employees have equal rights and perceive

the same leadership, it is not a topic of distinction between volunteers and paid employees.

“Very cooperative, appreciative and on one level. I tell you that because this is very

important to me.” (I2A, p. 6, L 158f)

The challenge in leading volunteers described by the interview partner is the changing

communication behavior, and the scant time people have. Communication has become

much more difficult in the last years, what makes it even more difficult to fix or arrange

appointments. The interviewee cannot fully rely on people who have the freedom to choose

their amount of work by themselves anyway. It is often very troublesome to get responses

to mails and if, short and concisely. That is why he feels a slight trend that the respectful

and human dealings get a bit lost in future.

5.2.4 Feedback

Another main part of leadership, feedback, is also a key characteristic of Krebshilfe and

Aidshilfe. Both associations attach utmost importance to constructive individual feedback.

On the one hand, Krebshilfe’s interviewee gives regular positive feedback if something

works well and tries to reward volunteers for their high performance. The interview partner

feels that feedback is something the volunteers want to hear in their everyday work. On the

other hand it is mentioned by the interviewee that also constructive feedback is

communicated in cases of failures, but it has to be expressed in a very positive way, not

blaming or reproachful.

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“They get feedback every day, first of all positive feedback.” (I3K, p. 5, L 131f)

Also at Aidshilfe lots of feedback to volunteers is given. The leader has a sympathetic ear

in every concern; regardless of something runs good or not so good. It is highlighted that

the volunteers not only get feedback from the supervisor, but that also clients or colleagues

give feedback that is important to be communicated to the volunteers as well. In the case of

failures, volunteers do not get blamed. Rather the mistakes are seen as happened, and a

trial and error experience. Volunteers get the feedback to do it better next time, but it was

definitely worth a try. At the same time it is highlighted that also a leader has to be open for

feedback and thus, the interview partner expresses that he also apologizes if something

went wrong from his side.

“If something went wrong, I say ‘shit happens’ or ‘trial and error’. Next time, we make it

better and it is great anyhow that we tried it.” (I2A, p. 7, L 192ff)

5.2.5 Motivation

Besides good leadership behavior, Krebshilfe and Aidshilfe attach great importance to a

proper motivation. Both interview partners agree that first of all, motivation has to come from

the volunteers themselves. Krebshilfe and Aidshilfe formulate that the interest for the

organization is the basis to be intrinsically motivated and to engage voluntarily. Aidshilfe

additionally points out that people volunteer according to the following motives:

Doing something good and meaningful to the society

Get to know new people

Feel like a big clique

Form friendships

Having fun together

In addition to that, it is argued by Krebshilfe that a value-based relationship and a good

work climate contribute positively to the working moral.

Moreover, both interview partners tell their volunteers how important and indispensable their

work is. Many tasks would have to be abolished without voluntary support, which is why the

interviewees try to increase volunteers’ intrinsic will of doing something meaningful. As a

result, both organizations put emphasis on constantly showing thanks to their volunteers

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and on appreciating what they do. Whereas Krebshilfe keeps it more personal and invites

their volunteers to lunch or dinner under the banner of esteem, Aidshilfe praises them

personally or officially in the annual report, at the Homepage or on Facebook. Beyond that,

as the organizations give weight to lots of fun at work, they highlight the amicable climate.

“A ‘thanks’ or ‘well done’ means much more to people that any incentives […].” (I2A, p. 7, L

191f)

Especially important for Krebshilfe is the appreciation not only on the factual level, but also

on personal level. And besides, the people get rewards for their extraordinary performance.

Although the organizations rely on intrinsic motives, they also provide some incentives to

extend the volunteers’ motivation. These include little presents when they did something

really good at Krebshilfe, as well as coupons at Aidshilfe.

Beyond that, the volunteers of both associations get invited to special parties or events.

They invite people to internal Christmas parties as well as anniversary celebrations. In

addition to that, Krebshilfe also asks its volunteers for participating in exciting official events

where lots of celebrities are present. Sometimes, volunteers get small gifts as well.

“They are invited to our internal events, to parties, Christmas parties, etc. At these events

volunteers get highlighted and praised. And sometimes they get presents in case of very

good performance.” (I3K, p. 10, L 324ff)


One of the prerequisites in leading volunteers for both interview partners is trust. That is

why motivational incentives are provided and a good work climate is created. In Krebshilfe’s

opinion, appreciation means equality, equality means a good climate and all in all, trust gets

strengthened. Thereto, the interview partner of Aidshilfe argues that he often does not need

any justifications as he solely trusts in the reliability and qualification of the volunteers. What

else needs to be said is that both associations believe, beyond the volunteers’ intrinsic will,

that their motivational approaches as well as their trust in people lead to a long-term

commitment.

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“[…] If volunteers trust the people, then the trust to the organization follows automatically.”

(I3K, p. 8, L 257f)

5.2.7 Goals

With regard to the organizational targets, Aidshilfe and Krebshilfe differentiate a bit from

each other. Krebshilfe signalizes the importance of setting and communicating clear basic

conditions, parameters and objectives and already imparts this information in the

onboarding phase. That is why also the goal and task definition is done more precise than

with paid employees. On the organizational or strategic level, goals get decided in board

meetings, whereby volunteers get the information about optimizations or changes

afterwards. In their own working area, volunteers indeed may use their right of co-

determination.

“It is very important to me that volunteers get predefined parameters and clear targets which

will be discussed with them to combine them with their interests.” (I3K, p. 4, L 89ff)

On the contrary, Aidshilfe indeed explains how important it is to know the vision of the

organization. However, there are no clear goals predetermined that volunteers have to

reach, but the focus is more on the means rather than the ends. Thus, the goals relate to

the overall mission that is discussed to set priorities once or twice a year. Moreover, the

interviewee responds that Aidshilfe is rather open towards ideas and improvement

suggestions. Selectively, volunteers even get involved in the overall goal determination of

the upcoming year.


Having a look at the monitoring mechanisms at the two institutions, a flat hierarchy can be

found in both NPOs. There is no drop-down relationship between leaders and volunteers or

any formal power. Nevertheless, although Krebshilfe and Aidshilfe are, compared to the

other interviewed NPOs, small organizations and operate in a rather similar field, indications

show differences between them with regard to autonomy and work monitoring.

Krebshilfe points out that although it is mentioned that trust plays a vital role, its volunteers

get monitored in everyday work. On a daily basis, the work is controlled by the executive

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assistant. The reason behind this procedure is on the one hand, volunteers’ own security

and on the other hand the fact that everything works fine and correctly. Additionally it is

argued that work get controlled as it is the aim to act in concert, meaning to act jointly. As

the volunteers are not in the office every day, they often check back by themselves in order

to make sure if their work is done properly enough. This is why Krebshilfe believes that the

control of each work step is demanded by the volunteers themselves.

In contrast, Aidshilfe makes use of the before mentioned trust by granting a lot of

autonomy, responsibility and independency. In their work volunteers get hardly controlled

and apart from a databank where people have to enter how much material they handed out,

no monitoring is practiced. In this respect, the interview partner grinned that volunteers

often explain themselves, what is not necessary though, due to the mutual trust. Another

main difference to Krebshilfe is that volunteers at Aidshilfe can decide by themselves when

and where they want to volunteer. There is no strict duty roster or any other regulation that

someone has to do a certain number of working hours per week or months.

“If we would have too much hierarchy, would communicate strict instructions, and would

have lots of control based on mistrust, I believe that most of the volunteers would not be

here longer.” (I2A, p. 18, L 594ff)


To put it in a nutshell, also these two NPOs, Krebshilfe Vienna and Aidshilfe Linz, have

similar approaches, but also differ in one point or another. With regard to the benefit

volunteers’ bring to the organization, both agree that without volunteers, work would not be

manageable and the organization would stand still from one day to the next. As also

volunteers have an advantage of volunteering, Krebshilfe and Aidshilfe describe

volunteering as a win-win situation for both parties.

However, especially conspicuous is the matter of control. Although both organizations put

great emphasis on mutual trust as a prerequisite in volunteering, Krebshilfe attaches

importance to clear structures and routines. Also regularity is essential in everyday work.

The organization also signalizes the importance of setting and communicating clear basic

conditions, objectives and parameters. On the contrary, Aidshilfe seems to be more

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autonomous and give volunteers more freedom and independence. Additionally, the

institution does not have such clear structures or target tracking.

Beyond that, another difference that can be found is in the field of motivation. Krebshilfe and

Aidshilfe believe in the intrinsic motivation of their volunteers and tell them that work would

not be manageable without their appreciative support. Thereto, Aidshilfe gives a lot of

thanks and esteem to its volunteers and tries to keep them committed by a funny work

climate. By comparison, Krebshilfe rewards its volunteers in case of extraordinary work with

little presents in order to show appreciation of their work. Simultaneously, Krebshilfe also

gives constructive, respectful feedback in need of improvement or in cases of failures,

whereas Aidshilfe speaks for trial and error without any consequences. The reason behind

could be that in Aidshilfe all members have to sign an obligatory agreement that has to be

obeyed reliably anyhow.

With regard to personnel management, Krebshilfe pays particular attention to its volunteers

by an individual onboarding process. However, due to the slight number of volunteers in the

organization, Krebshilfe does not have a general introductory event. When having a look at

Aidshilfe, the onboarding process is also fairly personal. The onboarding training there is

held for about three newcomers and is also individual in some degree.

Having an overall view at both organizations it can be briefly summarized that there is a

clear tendency of Aidshilfe practicing a more transformational leadership style by

encouraging volunteers to support, by giving autonomy as well as by accepting ideas and

participating in goal determinations. Also the leadership behavior is charismatic,

appreciative and interpersonal, whereby also positive, constructive feedback plays a role.

On the contrary, some patterns of behavior could be explored that belong to a mixture of

transactional and transactional leadership style at Krebshilfe. Not only the predetermination

of clear tasks and goals, as well as the constant monitoring of accomplishing these goals,

but also the rewards and constructive feedback volunteers get for their work, clearly speak

in favor of a more transactional behavior of the leader. Also the focus on the ends rather

than the means and on extrinsic incentives to reward extraordinary performance, are

indicators for the transactional leadership style. However, also some transformational

characteristics were elaborated. Foremost, the relationship is based on an amicable,

appreciative and charismatic attitude and the leader reacts to the individuals. Additionally,

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Krebshilfe’s interviewee attaches importance to having fun at work and is open for

suggested improvements in the own workspace. That is why no clear isolation can be made

in this case, although patterns of behavior show a slight more tendency towards a

transactional behavior.


Unfortunately, Krebshilfe does not have any official material on volunteering. Also on

request in the general office of Krebshilfe, it was approved that no publicly released

statements exist. Solely the voluntary management board is highlighted at the homepage.

That is why a comparison between material and interview cannot be conducted in this case.

However, other than Krebshilfe, Aidshilfe does have lots of material on volunteering in the

form of a magazine. Although it is about German Aidshilfe, the interviewee of Aidshilfe who

gave me the link to the magazine acknowledged also Austrian validity. First of all, it is

highlighted that voluntary work is a central element of Aidshilfe and is even anchored in the

organization’s mission statement. This is because people communicate the necessity,

importance and aims of the organization to third parties and raise awareness of the topic

Aids and HIV. Only with their help it is possible to ensure the variety of supporting offers.

Nevertheless, it is written down that voluntary work is no alternative to paid and full-time

work, due to the fact that volunteers can quit their job whenever they want to. It is also

stated that full-time employees may help volunteers if necessary, but volunteers are no

underlings of them (Deutsche Aids-Hilfe, 2006, p. 8ff).

The most often mentioned motives why people engage voluntarily at Aidshilfe include doing

something good for others and having a personal connection to the topic. Additionally,

volunteers spend their time as they want to participate in the wide network, want to do

something meaningful, to feel committed to an association, to take over responsibility and

because they can actively help shaping the NPO. These motives overlap with what was

said in the interview (Deutsche Aids-Hilfe, 2006, p. 11ff).

Besides the intrinsic motivation volunteers bring along, Aidshilfe draws on the individual

motives by appreciating volunteers a lot and by trying to be as transparent as possible,

which is similar to the interview statement. Aside from that, Aidshilfe provides the necessary

equipment, a flexible time scheduling and fosters communication and the participation in

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team structures. What is more, tasks are clearly communicated and geared to personal

competences and interests, volunteers get properly socialized into the organization and

meaningful work is offered. Equal to the interview, also further seminars and trainings are

provided. All these incentives should contribute to a long-term collaboration. In return, it is

expected by the volunteers to comply with the organizational standards, to provide good

support and to ensure a close relation to clients (Deutsche Aids-Hilfe, 2006, p. 19f).

With regard to the right of co-determination at Aidshilfe, the publicly released material

allows for more detailed information. It is said that volunteers should get the right of co-

create projects and working structures as well as participate in decision processes in order

to ensure a rather flat hierarchy. On the one hand, Aidshilfe wants to make use of additional

competences and outside influences, whereas on the other hand, responsibility is given to

volunteers. This responsibility positively contributes to volunteers’ commitment. Otherwise,

it is argued, volunteers would get a feeling of large hierarchical differences which would

make an impact on the collaboration (Deutsche Aids-Hilfe, 2006, p. 38).

Briefly speaking, there is nothing new or different in the publicly released material of

Aidshilfe. Rather, what was said in the interview was confirmed to a great extent.

5.3 Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund

As the last couple, Rotes Kreuz Salzburg and Samariterbund Linz get explored in detail. In

the course of the comparability, also these two organizations get analyzed for their

personnel management, benefit, leadership behavior, feedback, motivation, trust and

commitment, goals as well as power and control.

5.3.1 Benefit

Similar to the before mentioned NPOs, also Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund highlight the

enormous benefit volunteers bring to the organization. Each association appreciates

volunteers as valuable asset and points out that they conduce to the organizational

success. Without volunteers Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund would stand still overnight.

According to the interviewee of Rotes Kreuz, there was nothing left to be added. However,

Samariterbund does not describe volunteers as additional help in everyday work, but

rather as essential human resource that keep up the organization.

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“[…] the success of Rotes Kreuz lies in the voluntary engagement and the employees who

make that possible.” (I5RK, p. 12, L 393f)


As volunteers are a great part of Rotes Kreuz’ and Samariterbund’s staff, especially the

acquisition of those people is essential. Resulting from the interview, Rotes Kreuz pays

particular attention to addressing people personally by trying to attract potential volunteers

via personal conversations. Apart from that, information events get used to hire people as

well as print media, like poster advertising, or folder, as well as digital media like a

promotional video together with the ORF. Especially with digital media, Rotes Kreuz wants

to appeal to the younger generation. In the course of the refugee crisis, a lot of people

directly apply at Rotes Kreuz and express their interest in engaging voluntarily.

For volunteering at Rotes Kreuz the following areas and tasks are up for choice:

Rescue service

Administration and documentation

Blood donation

Youth work

Health and social services

Depending on the area of responsibility, the onboarding process is adapted. First of all,

Rotes Kreuz arranges face-to-face interviews where personnel data is acquired,

preconditions as well as requirements are clarified. When volunteers start working in the

area of health and social services, less admission criteria is used. Then it is important to

bring a character reference and to pass the intake interview. The other way around, in the

rescue service, law sets the restriction that there is an obligatory education necessary

before start working. Strictly speaking, volunteers have to participate in 100 hours theory

and 160 hours practice. That is why it is also important in advance to prove the physical and

mental suitability of the volunteers and to clarify the volunteers’ time capacities to do the

training courses. Further trainings are sponsored by the organization and include twelve

training hours per year. As they are required by law, the training is clearly structured and

planned.

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On the contrary, the vast majority of volunteers at Samariterbund remain in the

organization after finishing their obligatory community service. This indicates that

Samariterbund has a constant inflow of volunteers via keeping their civil servants in the

organization. In addition to that, current volunteers encourage or lure friends away from

another NPO. Thus, the organization also relies on word-of-mouth acquiring. By far less,

people directly apply for a voluntary position via internet or visit Samariterbunds’ stand at a

certain fair. Due to the ongoing refugee crisis, lots of asylum seekers who do not have a

valid work permit, make an approach to engage voluntarily as they want to have work or

even an activity.

At Samariterbund volunteers have the choice to work in

the rescue service

Essen auf Räder

the area of refugee aid.

Similar to Rotes Kreuz, the onboarding process differs according to the operating area. In

the rescue sector people get the chance to do a first tryout in order to get an idea of the job.

Similar to Rotes Kreuz, volunteers have to pass the education as ambulance man then.

Samariterbund therefore provides a course twice a year. In the beginning, volunteers are

solely car passengers as long as they have their final exam and certificate. However, civil

servants mostly already absolved this training in their community service, which is why they

can start as voluntary ambulance men immediately. Compared with Essen auf Räder,

people can make use of two or three tryouts and are then be able to work autonomously.

Apart from that, it is argued by the interviewees of Samariterbund that in common with

Rotes Kreuz, regular statutory training courses have to be done by the volunteers. Here it is

not uncommon to make use of the opportunity to do such trainings together in a group with

some colleagues. However, it is pointed out that when talking about individual training

wishes, it is not possible that every volunteer participate in high-order training. Often there is

the problem that volunteers work only the minimum hours per year, but want to move up the

ladder by doing lots of training courses. That is why full-time employees or highly engaged

volunteers are preferred then, whereas other volunteers feel rejected.

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“In the rescue service it is common to participate in a trial course to get an idea of the job.

And in a next step, people subscribe to the course including a final exam. After that, they

become ambulance men.” (I6ASB, p. 6, L 160ff)


With regard to leadership, the interviewee at Rotes Kreuz applies a very cooperative

leadership style which aims at increasing the intrinsic motivation of volunteers and

employees. Particularly, the appreciative, respectful, friendly and compassionate

relationship between leader and volunteers is stressed. In fact, the team spirit and

collegiality is treasured.

The interviewee further underscores the basic principle of Rotes Kreuz, which is leading by

being a role model. Insofar, it is posited that the behavior the interview partner applies, is

the behavior what can be expected by the employees. Moreover, voluntary work asks for

caring, humanity and taking time. This personal consideration including taking an active

interest in the voluntary tasks but also in volunteers’ personality, is from the interviewee’s

point of view, a leadership quality that volunteers need. Besides authentic behavior as a

further important leadership characteristic, the interview partner also cites Martin Buber:

“Martin Buber said ‘You become me’, and this is a sentence that is applicable in all areas of

life […].” (I5RK, p. 13, L 437f)

In the interviewee’s opinion, a leader of volunteers should be someone who is good with

people, as well as responsive, approachable and clear in statements. That is why the

interviewee itself tries to communicate a lot in order to bring clarity and understanding.

Hence, it is also expected from the volunteers to be reliable, collegial and attach value to an

appreciative interaction.

Apart from that, a few challenges in leadership were discussed with Rotes Kreuz, whereas

one challenge comprises the short-term commitment, or ‘job hopping’. More concrete, it was

argued that in former times it was a great pleasure to belong to Rotes Kreuz and people

were part of the organization 30, 40, or even 50 years. Nowadays, people have different life

situations and due to constantly changing economic and professional situations, they are

not able to spend that amount of time to engage voluntarily. Thus, volunteers work more

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and more project-based for Rotes Kreuz which asks for another structure and another

handling of volunteers. On the opposite side, this leads the interviewee to a second

challenge including the increasing demand of more and more transparency. People want to

participate and want to know what happens and why something happens or not. And

additionally, they want to show their engagements in their CVs. Summarized, the overall

challenge is to meet these new trends, to ensure the structural logistic of planning short-

term commitments and to enable participation through transparency.

By comparison, Samariterbund also applies a very appreciative leadership style and points

out the open-minded relationship between leader and volunteers. According to the

interviewees, there is no differentiation in leadership between volunteers and full-time

employees, meaning that they are treated equally. Nevertheless, it is argued that a leader of

volunteers also have to keep in mind that volunteers cannot be forced to do something,

which from this point of view asks for more sensitivity.

“According to the general leadership of volunteers it is important that it is not possible to

force them to do something.” (I6ASB, p. 7, L 212f)

In order to give volunteers a vote, Samariterbund tries to consider volunteers’ wishes in

their everyday work. However, the implementation of these depends on the supervisors and

whether a majority of people would also be in favor for the optimization or change. Often,

the interviewees’ said, it is very difficult to bring in ideas, whereby it is important to grouch

and to be annoying then. Anyway, the importance of showing consideration for others with

every little change is claimed as otherwise people would leave the organization.

However, similar to Rotes Kreuz, also Samariterbund takes the view that people have far

less time to engage voluntarily and especially recently it is noticeable that volunteers help

only project-based. Thus, also leadership gets more difficult in future. Especially in times of

the refugee crisis where lots of people are needed short-term, the structuring and task

allocation gets nearly unmanageable, as it is not always clear how much people can be

planned.

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5.3.4 Feedback

As an essential part of leadership, both Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund emphasize the

importance of feedback, although the approach how feedback is given is different in some

points. It is argued by the interviewees that they want volunteers to give feedback to them.

Whereas Rotes Kreuz tries to signalize that it is important to know how volunteers feel and

where they stand at the moment, Samariterbund makes use of a feedback discussion as

well as of anonymous feedback surveys.

Aside from that, Rotes Kreuz stresses that positive feedback is given through extrinsic

motivation which is described in chapter 5.3.5 in more detail. In comparison, also

Samariterbund expresses that there is hardly praise and thanks during the year. What also

needs to be mentioned is that in both organizations, negative occurrences get sanctioned.

The interviewee from Rotes Kreuz explicitly talks about facebook postings or other official

abuses that are not allowed. These would lead to a personal conversation that brings along

a rebuke. However, to get excluded from the organization, needs a really serious offence.

Thereto, Samariterbund argues that the extent of the sanction depends on the offense.

Whereas in serious cases a conversation takes place with the responsibles that could even

bring disciplinary consequences, more harmless misbehavior is not treated that strictly.

“It is also important to signalize that it is important to me that they tell me how they are and

where they stand at the moment.” (I5RK, p. 9, L 271ff)

5.3.5 Motivation

Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund have lots of agreements on the fundamentals of

motivation and are both convinced that motivation plays a vital role in leading volunteers.

Both organizations argue that the remuneration has to be something different from money,

although Samariterbund reveals that people get 36 cents per hour in the sense of

allowance. However, appreciation, esteem and acceptance as well as gratefulness are key

motivators both associations highlight. Moreover, it is mentioned that little wishes of

volunteers get fulfilled if possible. These comprise the equipment of the duty station or in

the rescue service, the availability of broadly equipped company cars.

In addition, volunteers get motivated by fostering the internal team spirit, meaning that they

get invited to Christmas parties, barbeques, or other special events. Thanks to works

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outings, there is the opportunity to undertake certain activities together in a group, starting

with skiing through to joint trips to Italy.

“Well, motivation has to be something different than money.” (I6ASB, p. 13, L 406)

Into the bargain, both Krebshilfe and Samariterbund honor their volunteers in great style, in

order to keep up their motivation. Thereto, the interviewee of Rotes Kreuz responds that

thanks to volunteers is communicated in the organizational magazine and at the office

portal. Additionally, both argue that according to special training regulations, volunteers get

delivered documents of value, stick pins or badges for merit at special events.

Beyond extrinsic motivating factors, the interview partners rely on the advantages of

voluntary work which motivate volunteers intrinsically. With regard to Samariterbund, these

motives to volunteer comprise:

Large interest

Further training or education

Relevant for the future profession

Relevant for the actual education

Making new contacts

Doing something meaningful in leisure time

Having the opportunity to climb up the career ladder

Thereto, Rotes Kreuz explicitly highlights one of their main tasks in motivation, which

includes encouraging and fostering the intrinsic will of volunteers to help others. On the

contrary, Samariterbund argues in support of volunteers intrinsically motivate other

volunteers.


With regard to trust and commitment, Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund do have different

views and perceptions. The interview partner of Rotes Kreuz is convinced that trust plays a

vital role in leading volunteers. Whereas on the one hand, the interviewee argues that it is

important for the leader to be able to rely on the volunteers by granting a credit of trust, the

volunteers also have to have trust into the interviewee as a leader on the other hand.

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Without mutual trust, which generates also commitment, volunteering would be a very rigid

construct.

“I as a leader have to trust my employees and I grant them a credit of trust. The other way

around, the volunteer has to have trust in me as a leader as well.” (I5RK, p. 13, L 424ff)

In contrast to that, trust is not a big issue at Samariterbund according to the two

interviewees. In their opinion, the organization is too big that trust would play a role,

although it is pointed out later on that it concerns individually at team level. This means that

volunteers want to know the working style and attitude of their team members as they want

to rely on their colleagues in terms of a rescue effort. What is more, the commitment works

pretty well although the interviewees could not describe why. However, they believe that

appreciative posts as well as pictures on facebook contribute to commitment. In addition,

volunteers that participate a lot in common activities, generally remain longer.

5.3.7 Goals

As firm goal the organizations’ mission, namely to help people in need, is in the foreground.

Rotes Kreuz signalizes that high value is attached to a structured, purposeful and

immediate rescue of people. This is also what third parties expect from Rotes Kreuz.

Thereto, lots of volunteers are needed, whereby it is paramount to find, to commit and to

keep voluntary workers. In addition, the organizational goals get determined by the

chairmen in a general assembly once a year. At this, all targets for the upcoming year are

discussed, whereby also employees and volunteers are invited. In the case that volunteers

want to participate actively in the goal discussion, the consideration depends on a majority

decision. In general, the goals are communicated by releases in the quarterly organization’s

magazine or at the end of the chair meeting.

In comparison, also Samariterbund argues about an unconditional, non-bureaucratic and

immediate rescue as the key objective. Rescue operations should work smoothly and

ideally without any big incidents. Beyond that, the goals for the next year get determined in

the yearly general assembly, whereby also volunteers may proactively participate in.

Unfortunately, so the interviewees, the right of co-determination is not communicated that

well. Lots of volunteers do not know that they could have a determining influence on new

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concepts, strategies or goals, even though they get not invited to discussions about the

overall mission and targets concerning the organizational continuity.

Furthermore, it is important that if changes in everyday work get determined by the people

responsible, these should be slowly implemented by considering the overall attitude of

volunteers towards this change. It is mentioned that in case of changes, volunteers have to

be seen as customers, not as employees. This is to maintain the harmonic collaboration.

“I would negate that volunteers may co-operate in decision-making on organizational level.”

(I6ASB, p. 25, L 846f6)


Accompanied by this, both organizations, Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund, are

hierarchically structured in order to reach the above mentioned targets. Especially in the

rescue service or in the aid of refugees, the interview partners point out to the importance of

having an authority figure who gives concrete instructions. It is necessary that all

commanders, employees and volunteers know what to do. That is why in the rescue service

clear commands are issued.

“[…] Especially in a rescue mission, clear leadership structures are inevitable as it is

important to give clear instructions and commands.” (I5RK, p. 6, L 149ff)

In addition, due to the statutory provision to absolve at least 144 work hours per year, work

monitoring in the sense of quality assurance is given. Ambulance men get measured by law

and have therefore strict regulations. Although there seems to be no direct supervisor or

monitoring body, a commander monitors that work runs. However, it is also stated by the

interviewee of Samariterbund that in leading volunteers, there is no direct supervisor that

controls every step of work. Rather, the commanders and experienced full-time employees

look over volunteers’ shoulder and overtake this role. Moreover, the organizations have a

clear plan with hourly records to proof who worked when and how much.

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Due to the fact that these two organizations work both in the rescue service, they have very

much in common. In both organizations, Rotes Kreuz Salzburg and Samariterbund Linz,

volunteers play a vital role and contribute to a high degree to the success of the

associations. Therefore, they appreciate every newcomer who wants to engage voluntarily.

Whereas the majority of volunteers from Rotes Kreuz are hired on the external market,

Samariterbund keeps its civil servants and does not invest that much in external searches.

In a next step, volunteers are able to participate in a trial week and subsequently, they have

to pass the statutory education to become an ambulance man.

With regard to the leadership, Rotes Kreuz applies a very cooperative behavior aiming at

the encouragement of volunteers to bring extraordinary performance. Besides appreciation,

respect and friendliness, being a role model plays a vital role. Also an open-minded,

collegial relationship as well as reliable relationship between leaders and volunteers is

mentioned. Samariterbund especially signalizes the fact that volunteers cannot be forced to

do something, which makes leading volunteers a challenge.

Apart from that, both organizations reveal the upcoming trend of short-term commitment

and job hopping. There is a clear tendency mentioned in the interview that people do not

engage themselves for many years anymore, but rather help when it suits best for them on

a project basis. Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund justify this in the constantly changing

economic environment.

When having a brief look at feedback again, it can be stated that Rotes Kreuz pays

attention to regular feedback conversations and extrinsic motivation in the case of positive

occurrences, whereas Samariterbund uses discussions or feedback surveys. What they

both do have in common is the constructive feedback or sanctions volunteers get in terms

of failures. These sanctions depend on the degree of the offense and ranges from harmless

constructive feedback discussions to disciplinary consequences.

What is more, Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund signalize appreciation, esteem, acceptance

and gratefulness as key motivational factors. Whereas Rotes Kreuz relies a lot on the

intrinsic encouragement of volunteers, also Samariterbund believes in the various motives

of people to engage voluntarily. Drawing on this, volunteers of both associations get invited

to different parties and events, get esteemed and appreciated at official annual celebrations,

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by handing over delivered documents of value, stick pins or badges for merit at special

events.

As the goal of providing unconditional, non-bureaucratic and immediate rescue is a key

objective at both organizations, also the goals are clearly stated. These get monitored

because ambulance men do have strict regulations by law to obey. There is less autonomy

in voluntary work due to the fact that every work step is defined and has to be right to

provide third parties in need with the optimal health service. That is why in the rescue

service a strict hierarchical structure and constant monitoring mechanisms exists. Besides

that, if volunteers want to participate in target discussions, it depends on a majority decision

at Rotes Kreuz whether the suggestions get heard. On the contrary, volunteers of

Samariterbund are not that aware of the fact that they are allowed to bring in ideas, to

create concepts and to actively participate in such discussions.

Although such a strict structure is present at the organizations, Rotes Kreuz highlights

mutual trust as inevitable. On the one hand, a credit of trust is given to the volunteers, but

on the other hand also volunteers should know that they can trust their leader. As opposed

to this, the interviewees argue that trust is not a big issue between leaders and volunteers

at Samariterbund. Rather, trust is considered as important at the team level in order to rely

on the other club members in rescue efforts.

In the end, the intermediate findings of Samariterbund Linz indicate a tendency towards the

transactional leadership style, whereas a mixture of both leadership approaches can be

examined at Rotes Kreuz Salzburg. It seems that the two organizations pay particular

attention to their vision, namely to help people in need and emergency situations. Therefore

the highest priority is ascribed to rescue and therefore, they highly aim at achieving

predetermined ‘goals’. Instead of autonomy, work is monitored by law and the operations’

commander who is responsible for sticking to clear structures and procedures. If necessary,

the interviewees’ of both organizations talk about serious conversations or even harmless

punishments in case of undesired behavior. Simultaneously, Rotes Kreuz applies a very

charismatic and encouraging leadership behavior, and the interviewee describes her

leadership style as ‘leading as a role model’. In addition to that, authenticity, reliability and

an appreciative relationship are key factors in leading volunteers at Rotes Kreuz.

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Having a look at the publicly released material on volunteering of Rotes Kreuz and

Samariterbund, little information can be found on their websites. Though, both organizations

do have YouTube videos where present volunteers introduce themselves and explain their

experiences and work. Similar to the NPOs before, the information is available through just

a few clicks. However, it is conspicuous that although these associations are rather big in

size, they do not have any folders or position papers online. Rather, at Rotes Kreuz’

homepage, a large part is written about volunteering in Austria, whereas only about one

page entails FAQs about volunteering. In comparison, Samariterbund builds on the different

voluntary work areas and states on the one hand, what is expected by volunteers, and on

the other hand, what is provided to them. All in all, Rotes Kreuz emphasizes the important

role volunteers hold in the organization and Samariterbund considers them as important

pillar of society.

When comparing the outlined information of Rotes Kreuz with the interview, it can be found

that the ultimate motive to volunteer is to help others, according to the slogan ‘Because of

love to people’9. Thus, volunteers at Rotes Kreuz may work in the field of rescue, care,

migration, emergency relief, youth work or blood donation. According to their interests and

aptitudes, volunteers may choose an area of activity and are even allowed to participate in a

trial lesson, so also in the interview. Whether time to work is flexible or has to be strictly

planned, or whether a long-term or project-based collaboration is striven for, depends on

the volunteers’ resources and interests and to a large part on the task itself. In comparison

to the interview that was taken in the field of rescue, a clear leadership structure was

mentioned which might be due to serious rescue situations. Especially in such areas,

special education is necessary, whereby volunteers can make use of the good training

facilities (Österreichisches Rotes Kreuz, 2017), which were also highlighted in the interview.

To become an ambulance man, it is required by law that people are older than 18, eligible,

reliable, and already finished their compulsory education. Besides 100 hours theoretical

education, also 160 hours practice is necessary to do the final exam (Österreichisches

Rotes Kreuz Oberösterreich, 2017).

9 The ultimate objective of Rotes Kreuz in German language is “Aus Liebe zum Menschen”.

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At Samariterbund’s website, it is emphasized firstly that all volunteers get an enrollment in

the beginning, depending on the area of activity. Preconditions to become a volunteer are

regular cooperation over a specific period, a general and mutual agreement, a criminal

record as well as a declaration of enrollment (Samariterbund Österreich, n.d. c). Beyond

that, Samariterbund expects friendliness as well as the ability to listen to patients and

convey comfort by their volunteers (Samariterbund Österreich, n.d. d) In return, interesting

fields of work, a good team climate, a lot of training opportunities as well as a wide social

network are provided (Samariterbund Österreich, n.d. c). Especially in the field of rescue

ongoing trainings are paramount as it was also stated in the interview. In addition, as

teamwork is one of the key factors in the rescue service, at every operation, an experienced

ambulance man is present to support the volunteer (Samariterbund Österreich, n.d. d) This

could be ascribed to the hierarchical leadership and control mechanisms that were

mentioned in the interview.

5.4 Common findings

Summarized it can be said that both similarities and differences in leadership behavior

across the NPOs can be found. What has to be mentioned first is that all interview partners

agree that volunteers are an essential and indispensable human resource. Without their

work, nearly all associations would stand still overnight. That is why every NPO pays

particular attention to its volunteers and embodies a very reliable, thankful and appreciative

attitude. Furthermore, the majority of the interviewed NPOs describe the relationship

between leaders and volunteers as trusting, appreciative and friendly, whereby also open-

mindedness and having a sympathetic ear in every concern seem to be important

leadership characteristics (see Fig. 10). However, after careful investigation it comes as

surprise that there is no difference in leadership behavior in NPOs having a voluntary

management board.

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Fig. 10: Important leadership values

Having scrutinized the NPOs’ individual results, these show that Aidshilfe and Volkshilfe

tend to a more transformational leadership style, despite the fact that the organizations are

not operating in the same field of activity. Both associations display clear indications of

giving priority to volunteers. Besides the role model function of the leader, also trust,

autonomous work as well as open-mindedness play a great role. Volunteers get

encouraged and appreciated by the leader to act for the purpose of the organization.

Although the volunteers should always keep the associations’ values and goals in mind,

attention is paid to the means rather than the end. This indicates that the support to third

parties itself has priority by embodying a sense of community and team spirit.

To the contrary, it seems Samariterbund show a tendency towards the transactional

leadership style. The organization does have specified targets which are clearly

communicated to employees and volunteers. In order to reach the organizational goals, the

area of responsibility is specifically determined and all tasks get divided among employees

and volunteers. Additionally, everyday work is well structured and work is monitored to keep

sight of the common mission. This implies that the leadership behavior is also determined

by rewards and sanctions. If volunteers keep good performance that matches the leader’s

expectations, they get rewarded. These rewards range from appreciation and thanks, to

further development, career leaps or special honors. Beyond that, although it is sometimes

a longer process, little wishes of volunteers get fulfilled if possible, in order to create a good

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Leadership attributes

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working atmosphere that increases work performance. The other way around, if failures

occur and volunteers stray from the track, the above organizations apply harmless

sanctions and give constructive feedback how to perform better next time.

Lastly, it emerges from the interviews that Krebshilfe, Caritas and Rotes Kreuz do not have

a clear tendency towards the one or the other leadership style. Rather, patterns of behavior

as well as leadership characteristics of both approaches can be explored. On the one hand,

the leaders make use of charisma, individual consideration and above that, act as role

models. On the other hand, there are clear structures, procedures and operating cycles

given which volunteers have to stick to. Thus, not only the accomplishment of tasks as well

as the achievement of the associations’ objectives is important, but the leaders also

highlight the belief and care of volunteers’ interests.

But where do these differences in leadership behavior among the interviewed NPOs come

from? From where can these leadership tendencies be derived and whereupon can these

differences be ascribed to?

When having a look at Aidshilfe and Volkshilfe, tending to a more transformational

leadership style, it is conspicuous that volunteers in these organizations overtake tasks that

are not directly pegged into the daily business. Rather, the activities are individually

arranged and do not influence a clearly structured daily routine. This in turn could explain

why these organizations have lots of autonomy and rather flat hierarchies. At the same

time, this implies that in the other interviewed organizations, referring to the rescue service

of Rotes Kreuz and Samariterbund, the work with disabled people at Caritas, and the

administrative area at Krebshilfe, volunteers actively participate in the daily routines, which

asks for more control, and ergo, less autonomy. Especially in these organizations there are

much more organizational structures that get maintained. Besides that, the interviews and

the officially published material show a connection between further education or internal

trainings, and the performed tasks.

H1: Leaders providing tasks to their volunteers that are not pegged into the daily business

tend to a more transformational leadership style.

Especially in the rescue service, further training lessons are obligatory to keep in touch with

the latest rescue approaches. Thus, volunteers get also the chance to climb up the career

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ladder and develop further. At Aidshilfe and Krebshilfe seminars are not mandatory, but are

welcomed on a voluntary basis. By comparison, the interview partners of Caritas and

Volkshilfe do not consider further trainings as necessary due to the fact that volunteers do

not need them in their everyday work. In the work with disabled people at Caritas, it was

pointed out that volunteers nevertheless need a special education.

H2: Especially in the sector of health care, volunteers are invited to participate in further

trainings in order to improve one’s own way of working, whereas in the social support

further seminars are not considered necessary and therefore, not provided.

Moreover, the individual findings show that those interviewed NPOs which actually allow

further trainings and education, also give volunteers the chance to play a part in determining

the organizational objectives. These NPOs include in particular Rotes Kreuz, Aidshilfe and

Samariterbund, even though at present, volunteers at Samariterbund underutilize their right

of co-determination at the yearly general assembly. However, if considering the publicly

released statement of Volkshilfe which is saying that volunteers do have a right of co-

determination and influence on the strategy, the following hypothesis demands for

discussion.

H3: Those NPOs which allow further trainings and seminars, also allow volunteers to make

use of their right of co-determination in setting organizational objectives.

With regard to monitoring mechanisms, the interviewed organizations ascribe different

importance to organizational objectives as well as to their monitoring and control. Whereas

Aidshilfe and Volkshilfe pay attention to the means and the ends follows automatically,

Samariterbund focuses a bit more on the ends rather than the means. In comparison to

that, Rotes Kreuz, Caritas and Krebshilfe do not show a clear tendency towards the one or

the other, whereby observed patterns of behaviors show a slight tendency towards the

ends. This indicates that the latter organizations have more control mechanisms than the

former associations. Aside from that, it is also conspicuous that interview partners in the

organizations like Rotes Kreuz, Samariterbund, Krebshilfe and Caritas, operating in the

rescue and health service, pay more attention to work monitoring than Aidshilfe and

Volkshilfe. In addition, there is also explored a connection between admission formalities

and the control of volunteers. In associations having special admission criteria to start

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working in this job like with Caritas, Rotes Kreuz or Samariterbund, volunteers get much

more monitored in their everyday work.

Simultaneously, the findings of the investigation show that the organizations practicing a

monitoring leadership style also give constructive, or if necessary negative, feedback or

apply sanctions in cases of failures or misbehavior. In brief, NPOs which pay attention to

the ends automatically observe the goals and in the same breath, impose either sanctions

or reward volunteers for properly pursuing the objectives. After careful investigation it can

also be found that those interviewed NPOs having stricter monitoring mechanisms, tend to

motivate volunteers more extrinsically, with the exception of Rotes Kreuz. On the contrary,

the findings show that those NPOs believing in the intrinsic motivation of volunteers and

only give little extrinsic incentives, like Volkshilfe and Aidshilfe, automatically provide more

autonomy.

H4: NPOs with a high concentration on goals and goal attainment, with special admission

criteria or in the branches of rescue and health service, practice a more monitoring and

controlling leadership behavior which in turn leads to rewards for extraordinary performance

or sanctions in the case of misbehavior or failures.

H5a: NPOs with predefined structures and work monitoring, motivate their volunteers to a

large extent extrinsically.

H5b: NPOs allowing autonomous work believe in the intrinsic motivation of volunteers and

give incentives only sparsely.

Conversely, the interviews reveal that Aidshilfe and Volkshilfe which have a rather flat

hierarchy, low formal power and less strict routines, provide more autonomy to their

volunteers. Furthermore, it can be observed that those companies allowing more autonomy

in volunteers’ work, came up with less or no sanctions in the interviews.

H6: NPOs with a flat hierarchy and low formal power provide more autonomy to volunteers

and as a consequence thereof, do not impose sanctions.

When having a look at trust, nearly all interview partners highlight mutual trust as a major

characteristic in leading volunteers. The only exception forms the interviewees of

Samariterbund who connect trust with the team level, but not between leaders and

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volunteers. In addition, the organizations are convinced that trust and also some kind of

motivation contribute positively to a high commitment. Again, Samariterbund steps out of

the line and although commitment works well, the interview partners are not sure what the

reason behind is.

Another overall finding that has emerged from the interviews is the feeling of integration and

community. Especially the interviewee of Volkshilfe signalizes the “family affiliation” that is

lived in the organization. There is no difference between fulltime employees or volunteers,

but rather all people belong and work together in one community. The same can be found at

Aidshilfe and Krebshilfe. In contrast to that, interview partners of Caritas, Rotes Kreuz and

Samariterbund make clear the different positions of volunteers and paid employees, what

might be due to a more structured environment and to the job profiles volunteers possess.

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6 DISCUSSION

This study leads to new and informative results that give deeper insights in the leadership of

volunteers, and the interaction between transformational and transactional leadership

behavior. With the steady increase and growth of non-profit organizations, also volunteers

have become a very valuable and indispensable resource. For that reason, it is of

paramount importance to treat volunteers wisely and to ensure not only a constant intake,

but rather a long-term commitment. As the findings show, volunteers are an indispensible

resource of non-profit organizations. Without their voluntary engagement, NPOs would not

be able to run their organization successfully and might stand still overnight.

In order to guarantee a good collaboration and ideally a long-term commitment, the

interview partners come to the agreement that special leadership is necessary. Although

Redmann (2015, p. 77ff) points out that there is no one best way of leading volunteers

successfully, all of the interview partners highlight appreciation and thanks as the most

important leadership attitudes. Also Jäger et al. (2009, p. 86) share the opinion that leaders

have to value their followers as well as their performance. Thereto, Shin and Kleiner (2003,

p. 70) take the view that leaders should constantly praise and appreciate volunteers’ work.

Additionally, dignity, the position itself and sense of community contribute to commitment,

mention Horch et al. (2014, p. 337).

Beyond that, the findings show that the organizations make use of both intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motives seem to be important in order to become a volunteer,

but not all interview partners believe that intrinsic motives like ‘doing something good for the

society’ or ‘belonging to an association’ are enough. That is why volunteers also get invited

to parties, events and joint trips or sometimes even have possibilities to up-skill. Moreover,

official or private honor play a key role to strengthen the mutual relationship. Thereto,

Barnard emphasizes that a good working atmosphere, social attraction and a community

feeling motivate people (Ridder, 2009, p. 56). Thus, one could assume that besides the

motives people have to become volunteers, the interview partners also rely on additional

motivational approaches to compensate the missing financial remuneration. The leaders

want them to get esteem and make them feeling part of the big organizational picture. In

this regard, Shin and Kleiner (2003, p. 69) argue that especially a common team spirit and

sense of community cause higher commitment, as well as the right of co-determination on

organizational level. Horch et al. (2014, p. 337) are convinced that motivation emerges from

the task itself, from the predefined goals as well as from the groups volunteers work in.

94

Beyond that, the interviewees agree on a trusting, appreciative and friendly relationship that

is crucial to establish between leaders and volunteers. Also open-mindedness and having a

sympathetic ear in every concern stay in the focus of voluntary leadership. Additionally,

‘being a role model’ and encouraging volunteers by motivating them, was mentioned by

those leaders tending to a more transformational leadership style. In addition to that,

feedback is strongly emphasized in leading volunteers. Where some organizations rather

focus on positive feedback and try to avoid constructive or negative discussions, others

make use of both in order not to lose sight of the organizational goals. As the findings show,

it depends on the organization itself whether feedback is given officially or in a private

setting. Thereto, also Shin and Kleiner (2003, p. 69) take the view that supportiveness,

empathy and giving feedback are, among others, successful leadership characteristics. In

addition to that, Redmann (2015, p. 126) highlights good communication and organizational

skills, goal-orientation, strategic thinking and the ability to establish relationships as core

competences that every volunteer’ leader should possess.

What is more, the findings show that there are differences among the NPOs in monitoring

mechanisms and among the structural level of organizations. Especially NPOs operating in

the rescue service or health care, have more structures and daily routines than institutions

in the general social branch. Thus, it emerges from the interviews that volunteers have

more autonomy and less formal control when fulfilling tasks that are not directly pegged into

the daily business of the organization. The other way around, clear structures, routines and

processes are needed in everyday work to run the association. However, according to

Redmann (2015, p. 70ff), voluntary workers always strive for acting autonomously and

refuse strict rules and regulations. This means that Redmann argues against influencing

volunteers formally, what contradicts the statements of the interviewees in the rescue and

health service. Rather, superior and experienced people should direct them in the right

direction without formality. Hence, leaders need lots of sure instinct to find out which

behavior followers expect in various situations. Also Jäger et al. (2009, p. 87ff) point out that

neither hierarchy, nor any top-down notion or extensive control bring along satisfaction in

leading volunteers. Oosterlander et al. (2014, p. 1379) take the view, that volunteers should

be led by an ‘invisible hand’ to guarantee highest satisfaction. However, compared to the

interviews, one could assume that this is the truth when volunteers perform tasks that are

not pegged into daily business. In terms of a full-time work with diseased people or in the

rescue service, clear instructions may be necessary especially in stressful situations when

95

people are under pressure and get nervous. There might be someone who keeps calm and

allocates tasks to guarantee optimal health care.

Strict regulations are also indicators for a more monitoring and controlling leadership

behavior. The outcome shows that leaders applying this leadership style, automatically

reward volunteers for extraordinary performance or impose sanctions in case of

misbehaviors or failures. In Redmanns’ opinion (2015, p. 75), leaders have to make sure

the right balance between ‘give’ and ‘take’ which might be indicators for this effect.

Having a general view on the outcome by taking account of the transformational and

transactional leadership style, there was no clear consensus found whether leaders in non-

profit organizations solely use the former or latter leadership behavior, or which style is

more effective. Rather, tendencies and trends could be explored towards the one or the

other leadership style. However, it seems as that both approaches interact and cannot fully

be seen separately. This is also what the findings show at Rotes Kreuz, Caritas and

Krebshilfe. Also Bernard M. Bass, as he developed the Full-Range-Leadership

Development Model' (see Fig. 2), is convinced that only a trend towards a leadership style

is possible (Kirkbride, 2006, p. 28). Although Aidshilfe and Volkshilfe tend to a more

transformational leadership style and the leaders act as role models, motivate their

followers and mainly focus on intrinsic motivation, it nevertheless seems to be a win-win

situation for both parts. However, these NPOs also communicate their organizational values

at the beginning of the collaboration and impart the overall mission to volunteers, even if it

seems as they put more attention to the means and the ends follow automatically. In the

course of that, volunteers do have to know in which direction they have to go, even though

trough leading by role models or encouragement. A rough direction will always be

predefined, also in everyday work. This is the same when transformational leaders give too

much autonomy. There will always come a point when they intervene in order to guide

volunteers into the right direction. Simultaneously, volunteers might always get slightly

rewarded to strengthen their intrinsic motivation. Thus, these latter characteristics do have

some influence on the transactional leadership style as well, which is why I ask myself,

whether the leaders’ behavior can clearly be assigned to transformational or transactional

leadership or can be fully isolated.

On the contrary, the findings show that it is not impossible for organizations like Rotes

Kreuz, Krebshilfe and Caritas to embody a charismatic attitude, try to build long-term

96

relationships with volunteers and consider them individually, while simultaneously having

clear structures and monitoring mechanisms. Thus, it could be interpreted that both

leadership behaviors intertwine and leaders act according to the actual situation, which

leadership style is most appropriate. This opinion also share Sosik and Jung (2010, p. 18)

who argue in support of the intertwining of those two behaviors. In addition, Dartey-Baah

(2015, p. 99ff) addresses this topic and expresses that leaders have to be able to adapt

their behavior to whatever situation. In his view, good leaders combine a strategic thinking

approach with emotional intelligence. In their study, also Rowold and Rohmann (2009, p.

51ff) come to the conclusion that both, transformational and transactional leadership cause

positive emotions and consequently, both leadership approaches lead to high performance.

Additionally, the findings reveal indications that it depends on the organizational context and

environment, which leadership behavior is used and most appropriate. However, this

argument needs further careful, likely quantitative, investigation as only patterns and

characteristics about correlations but no conclusive result could be found. Nevertheless, it

seems as that the NPOs’ structure as well as the question, whether leaders strive for a

long-term or short-term collaboration, impact on the leadership style. When leaders or

organizations are looking for prompt help or irregular support, it could be interpreted that

there is not enough time for intellectual stimulation, encouragement and inspirational

motivation. Rather, the leaders might pursue a leadership style that focuses more on the

ends rather than the means. This could be linked to the Leader-Member-Exchange Theory

by Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995, p. 219ff). This approach says that leaders have different

relationships to their individual followers and this relationship determines which behavior is

applied. Although the researchers highlight respect, trust and loyalty as one of the key

characteristics of a close collaboration, it depends on the degree of relationship leaders and

followers have. With regard to the argument above, this might mean that transformational

leadership needs time and close collaboration, whereas transactional leadership can also

be applied in not that close relationships.

In this master thesis, lots of new insights were elaborated. Especially on the topics of

leadership characteristics, motivation, feedback and monitoring rich and new data could be

examined. In the end, also the linkage between transformational and transactional

leadership in leading volunteers in non-profit organizations was worthwhile investigating.

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7 CONCLUSION

The main aim of this master thesis was to explore, how leaders manage to lead volunteers

in Austrian non-profit organizations operating in the social sector, by taking account of the

transformational and transactional leadership style. After a first literature review about

leading volunteers in general and a comparison of different leadership styles that emerged

over decades, a qualitative study among six NPOs throughout Austria was implemented in

order to get deep and rich information about leadership behavior.

In summary, the findings show that volunteers, as an integral part of NPOs, are

indispensable, in particular to maintain and keep non-profit organizations’ performance.

Thus, NPOs would not exist without people providing their valuable time and effort to third

parties by getting no financial remuneration. In the interviews it is highlighted that without

volunteers, the NPOs would stand still overnight. That is why a reliable, valuable and

trusting relationship between those responsible and volunteers is that important.

Additionally, volunteers deserve respect, appreciation and esteem, independent of their

working area. These values also reflect one of the main leadership characteristics of the

interview partners. Furthermore, there is common agreement on an amicable and

cooperative leadership style, which is built upon feedback, open-mindedness and, with one

exception, mutual trust. Also intrinsic and extrinsic motivation play a vital role in keeping

volunteers committed to the organization. Besides personal motives that are considered as

essential for starting as volunteer and for a long-term collaboration, also extrinsic incentives

are provided by giving volunteers the possibility to participate in community-based events.

Aside from a good personal relationship, the findings reveal the importance of good

communication of the organizational values and mission. Whereas some NPOs place great

value on clear task descriptions, structures and fixed parameters, others grant lots of

autonomy and give volunteers the chance to participate in job-related discussions.

Furthermore, the findings show indications that volunteers working with organizations in the

rescue and health service, mainly work within clear structures and get monitored in their

work.

Overall, there was no consensus found whether transformational or transactional leadership

style is more effective or even used more or less, albeit tendencies could be derived from

the interviews. Indeed, it seems as these two leadership styles coincide, work interactively

and cannot be seen fully separately. Rather, indications show that it depends on different

situations and organizational parameters, which leadership behavior is used.

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8 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

This study was conducted in non-profit organizations in the social sector which indicates

that the findings of this master thesis do not represent a general view on leading volunteers,

but rather gives indications. That is why the specific context has to be taken into account.

Due to the fact that interviews in a manageable size of six were conducted, no generally

valid statements could be made. This is why the findings relate to subjective views of the

interviewees. Consequently, the findings cannot be expounded to all non-profit

organizations or leaders of volunteers. What is more, the interviews were conducted in

Upper Austria, Salzburg and Vienna, which is a limited target group that can be even

widened in order to guarantee a more precise outcome. This also means that the findings

can solely be related to the organizations in the specific urban area and cannot be seen as

general indicators for the whole organization. This is due to possible deviations from federal

to national level. Beyond that, the interviews were held in German. Thus, information might

got changed a bit or even lost in the translation into English or even in the evaluation

procedure. What is more, as the interviews were done with experts in different job roles, the

findings could differ according to the position of the interviewees.

This indicates that further investigations could widen the samples to other branches and

could include NPOs with the focus on environmental and animal protection, the protection of

human rights, refugee relief, etc. in order to get a more concrete picture of leading

volunteers. Beyond that, the viewpoint on the part of volunteers themselves could be

interesting er to figure out, whether volunteers and leaders share the same perceptions and

opinions. It could be of interest which needs, requirements and wishes volunteers express

and which attitudes they possess. Thereto, also observations in everyday life could provide

good insights. Another research field could be to scrutinize how volunteering is marketed in

the organizations and what is expected by volunteers, in comparison with the actual lived

behavior.

Finally, the hypotheses and findings of the thesis could be proofed with a subsequent

quantitative research on this topic. In the wake of this, the present thesis could be approved

or even refused.

99

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10 ANNEX

ORIGINAL GERMAN QUOTES OUT OF THE INTERVIEWS

„Wir profitieren auf jeden Fall davon, weil wir unser Sozialleistungsportfolio optimal

erweitern können und verbessern können […]. Der Ehrenamtliche profitiert sicherlich auch

davon […]“ (I4V, p. 19, L 646ff)

„Ja also Ehrenamtliche tragen viel zum Erfolg bei, weil sie eben unsere hauptamtlichen

Mitarbeiter gut entlasten können.“ (I1C, p. 7, L 200ff)

“Also es gibt sicherlich Bereiche, wo man sagt, da gibt es eine Einschulung, aber das kann

auch ein zweistündiges Gespräch sein. […] Aber jetzt so richtige Schulungen […] haben wir

nicht, weil diese Professionalität wir im ehrenamtlichen Bereich nicht haben.“ (I4V, p. 6, L

160ff)

„Er möchte etwas tun und das soll man annehmen. Und das soll man so annehmen, dass

man zu verstehen gibt, wer wir sind, was wir wollen, und dass der, der dann bei uns dabei

ist, sich daheim fühlt und auch uns nach außen hin gut vertritt.“ (I4V, p. 9, L 276ff)

„Man muss es ihnen halt schon, ich sag einmal, so angenehm wie möglich machen. […] Die

Ehrenamtlichen wissen, dass sie jederzeit zu mir kommen können, egal, mit welche

Anliegen […]. Wertschätzung, muss natürlich sehr groß geschrieben werden und wird sehr

groß geschrieben bei uns.“ (I1C, p. 4, L 83ff)

„Und da gibt es nicht der Böse, die Böse, oder die besser, die schlechter, sondern da geht

es darum, wenn man erkennt, dass etwas einmal nicht so gelaufen ist, […] dann redet man

darüber und schaut, dass das […] künftig halt besser funktioniert.“ (I4V, p. 14, L 444ff)

“Wenn irgendetwas nicht passt, dann wird das entweder vor Ort im Team besprochen, dass

unsere Hauptamtlichen direkt ein Gespräch führen mit dem ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeiter.

Oder die hauptamtlichen Mitarbeiter kommen zu mir und sagen, was für ein Problem es gibt

und ich rede mit dem ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeiter. Da ist es natürlich auch wichtig wieder

beide Seiten anzuhören.“ (I1C, p. 6, L 177ff)

112

„Aber das einzige, was man halt wirklich Ehrenamtlichen zu Gute tun kann, ist ihnen immer

wieder zu sagen, wie wertvoll sie sind […].“ (I4V, p. 18, L 620ff)

„Ohne das ginge es gar nicht. Das ist ganz wichtig. Man muss nicht mit jedem Freund sein,

aber man muss aufeinander vertrauen können. In die eine und in die andere Richtung. Und

wenn dieses Vertrauen nicht da ist, dann ist das nichts auf Dauer […]“ (I4V, p. 21, L 702ff)

„[…] Die Verbindung baut der Ehrenamtliche auf, indem er im Team mitarbeitet. Da baut er

die Verbindung und das Vertrauen zum Klienten auf und zu unserem Team. Und dadurch

entsteht auch die Zusammenarbeit, die gute, sag ich jetzt einmal.“ (I1C, p. 13, L 424ff)

„Also bei uns steht der Mensch im Vordergrund und die Würde des Menschen.“

(I1C, p. 12, L 375f)

„Aber jetzt so eine Qualitätskontrolle wie das jetzt bei anderen Mitarbeitern ist, gibt es in

diesem Fall jetzt nicht ja, da funktioniert es oder es funktioniert nicht […].“ (I4V, p. 17, L

569ff)

„Also bei uns in den Teams gibt es schon Tagesstrukturen, Tagesabläufe, was wird mit den

Klienten gemacht. Und danach hat sich der Ehrenamtliche schon zu richten. Also er muss

schon die Weisungen von unseren Hauptamtlichen befolgen […].“ (I1C, p. 6, L 163ff)

„Und insofern tragen sie wichtig, ganz wichtig bei und wesentlich bei, zum Funktionieren der

Organisation.“ (I3K, p. 11, L 361ff)

„[…] Es ist für viele schon eine win-win Situation letzten Endes auf den Führungsstil […]“

(I2A, p. 12, L 387f)

„Also Einschulungsveranstaltungen haben wir nicht, weil wir ja nicht so viele Ehrenamtliche

haben. Sondern wir halten das sehr individuell. Also wir machen die Einschulung individuell,

nehmen uns aber sehr viel Zeit und es kommt ja auf jeden Fall der Organisation zu Gute

[…].“ (I3K, p. 3, L 72ff)

113

„Im Falle einer positiven Rückmeldung, findet dann eine Weiterbildung statt. Diese ist bei

uns auch verpflichtend, das sind zwei Blöcke, wo Basisinfos über HIV Aids vermittelt

werden […] auch kurz ein bisschen die rechtlichen Geschichten von Ehrenamt.“ (I2A, p. 5, L

119ff)

„Also eine extrem partnerschaftliche Führung, weil ich hier ja keine Weisungsbefugnis

habe.“ (I3K, p. 4, L 87f)

„Sehr kollegial, wertschätzend und auf einer Ebene. Sag ich auch deshalb, weil es mir ganz

wichtig ist.“ (I2A, p. 6, L 158f)

„Also Feedback bekommen sie eigentlich täglich, in erster Linie positives Feedback.“ (I3K,

p. 5, L 131f)

„Oder wenn ein Misserfolg einmal passiert ist, sagt hey, shit happens, trial and error, passt,

machen wir das nächste Mal anders, super dass wir es überhaupt probiert haben.“ (I2A, p.

7, L 192ff)

„Wenn man mal Dankeschön sagt, das hast du gut gemacht, das bedeutet den Leuten

tausend Mal mehr als irgendwelche Incentives […].“ (I2A, p. 7, L 191f)

„Sie werden zu unseren internen Veranstaltungen eingeladen, zu sämtlichen Feiern,

Weihnachtsfeier etc. Da werden sie auch immer besonders hervorgehoben und belobigt.

Sie bekommen auch manchmal in gewissem Rahmen Geschenke, wenn sie irgendetwas

besonders toll oder gut gemacht haben.“ (I3K, p. 10, L 324ff)

„[…] Wenn das Vertrauen zu den Menschen da ist, dann ist auch das Vertrauen zur

Organisation da.“ (I3K, p. 8, L 257f)

„Was ich sehr wichtig finde, ist, dass man den ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeitern und

Mitarbeiterinnen klare Rahmenbedingungen gibt, auch klare Zielvorgaben, die aber mit

ihnen abstimmt, ob die ihren Interessen entsprechen, im Vorfeld.“ (I3K, p. 4, L 89ff)

114

„Wenn das jetzt so ein hierarchischer Stil wäre so, du hast das zu machen, du musst das

machen oder immer so auf Kontrolle und auf Misstrauen basierend, glaube ich, wären die

meisten Ehrenamtlichen relativ schnell weg.“ (I2A, p. 18, L 594ff)

„[…] Der Erfolg des Roten Kreuzes liegt in der Freiwilligkeit und in den Mitarbeitern, die das

leisten.“ (I5RK, p. 12, L 393f)

„Und für einen Rettungsdienst ist es üblich, man macht einen Schnupperdienst, dass man

sieht, ob das überhaupt irgendwie in die Richtung geht, was man sich vorstellt. Dann meldet

man sich für den Kurs an […] mit einer Abschlussprüfung dann. Und dann ist man

Rettungssanitäter.” (I6ASB, p. 6, L 160ff)

„Martin Buber hat gesagt 'Du zum ich werden'. Und das ist für mich ein Satz, der in allen

Lebensbereichen zutreffend ist […]“. (I5RK, p. 13, L 437f)

“ Wichtig ist auch, zu signalisieren, dass es mir wichtig ist, dass sie mir rückmelden, wie es

ihnen geht und wo sie momentan auch stehen.” (I5RK, p. 9, L 271ff)

“Naja, dass einfach die Motivation etwas anderes sein muss als Geld.” (I6ASB, p. 13, L

406)

„Und sonst generelle Führung von allen Ehrenamtlichen, da muss man halt auch immer

aufpassen, dass man sie zu nichts zwingen kann im Endeffekt.“ (I6ASB, p. 7, L 212f)

„Ich als Führungsposition muss mich auf meinen Mitarbeiter verlassen können und […] da

gebe ich einen Vertrauensvorschuss. Andererseits muss der Freiwillige natürlich ganz klar

Vertrauen zu mir als Führungsperson haben“. (I5RK, p. 13, L 424ff)

„[…] Vor allem im Einsatz, braucht es eine klare Führungsstruktur, wo klare Angaben und

auch Befehle ausgegeben werden.“ (I5RK, p. 6, L 149ff)

115

EINVERSTÄNDNISERKLÄRUNG DER INTERVIEWPARTNER ZUR

AUDIOAUFNAHME UND VERWENDUNG DER ERHALTENEN ERGEBNISSE

Interview Masterarbeit

„Die Führung von ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeitern“

Schriftliche Einverständniserklärung

Beiblatt – Interviewnummer:

Ort des Interviews:

Datum:

Interviewerin:

Dauer:

Formale Angaben:

Geschlecht:

Hiermit willige ich _____________________________ ein, an der oben genannten

Untersuchung teilzunehmen. Ich bin darüber informiert, dass das Interview für die

Auswertung per Handy aufgezeichnet wird und mein Name in der Forschungsarbeit nicht

erscheinen und auch meine Funktion in keinem Zusammenhang mit der Organisation

erwähnt wird.

Unterschrift der Teilnehmerin/ des Teilnehmers: ______________________

Datum und Unterschrift der Forscherin: _____________________________________

Herzlichen Dank für Ihre Mitarbeit und Unterstützung!

116

INTERVIEW LEITFADEN

Thema Frage

Einstieg

Frage 1:

Kurzvorstellung durch den Interviewpartner

Frage 2:

Bitte schildern Sie Ihren aktuellen Tätigkeitsbereich und Ihre Beziehung

zu ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeitern.

Frage 3:

Wie viele ehrenamtliche Mitarbeiter sind aktuell in der Organisation

beschäftigt und mit wie vielen arbeiten Sie im engen Umfeld zusammen?

Akquise und

Sozialisierung

Frage 4:

Wie würden Sie die Akquisition von ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeitern in Ihrer

Organisation beschreiben?

Frage 5:

Wie werden ehrenamtliche Mitarbeiter in die Organisation eingeführt?

- Inwiefern werden die Ehrenamtlichen in der Anfangszeit betreut?

- Wie gestaltet sich der Onboarding-Prozess?

Führung

Frage 6:

Inwiefern glauben Sie, dass sich die Führung von Ehrenamtlichen anders

gestaltet als bei bezahlten Mitarbeitern?

- Welche Eigenschaften und Werte erachten Sie bei der Führung von

ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeitern als wichtig?

- Inwiefern sollten Kontrolle, Autorität und Autonomie eine Rolle spielen?

Frage 7:

Wie würden Sie Ihren Führungsstil beschreiben?

- Was bedeutet „Führen“ für Sie?

- Wie erteilen Sie Arbeitsaufträge?

- Wie garantieren Sie, dass die Freiwilligen im Sinne der Organisation handeln?

- Inwieweit werden die Freiwilligen kontrolliert, dass diese jederzeit im Sinne

der Organisation handeln?

- Wie wird mit Widerhandeln umgegangen?Würden Sie im Hinblick auf das

Eingreifen Ihren Führungsstil als eher aktiv oder passiv beschreiben?

117

Frage 8:

Ihrer Meinung nach, inwiefern profitieren sowohl Sie seitens der NPO als

auch die Ehrenamtlichen von der gemeinsamen Zusammenarbeit?

Frage 9:

In welchem Ausmaß tragen Ehrenamtliche zum organisationalen Erfolg

bei?

Frage 10:

Wie haben sich die Herausforderungen der Führung Ehrenamtlicher in

letzter Zeit entwickelt?

- Hat es Veränderungen gegeben?

- Auf was führen Sie diese Veränderungen zurück?

- Gibt es Trends, die sich speziell in der letzten Zeit bemerkbar machen?

- Aufgrund der aktuellen Flüchtlingskrise herrschen teilweise Extremsituationen.

Was ändert sich Ihrer Meinung nach in solch Situationen an der Führung von

Ehrenamtlichen?

Motivation

Frage 11:

Wie motivieren Sie Ihre ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeiter?

- Inwiefern sehen Sie eine Motivation Ihrerseits als wichtig an?

- Inwiefern kennen Sie die Wünsche und Erwartungen Ihrer ehrenamtlichen MA

und wie werden diese umgesetzt?

- Werden bzw. wie werden ehrenamtliche Mitarbeiter für tolle Leistungen bzw.

gut geleistete Arbeit prämiert?

Frage 12:

Welche Anreize werden den ehrenamtlichen MA geboten?

Vertrauen und

Commitment

Frage 13:

Wie schätzen Sie das Vertrauen zwischen Ihnen als Führungskraft und

den ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeitern ein?

Frage 14:

Wie bauen Sie Vertrauen zu Ihren ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeitern auf?

Frage 15:

Inwiefern entsteht Ihrer Meinung nach eine Bindung zwischen

Organisation und ehrenamtlichem Mitarbeiter?

Frage 16:

118

Inwiefern tragen Sie zur Bindung der Ehrenamtlichen zum Unternehmen

bei?

Ziele

Frage 17:

Inwiefern sind Ziele und die Mission des Unternehmens wichtig für die

ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeiter?

- Wie werden Ziele in der Organisation bzw. von Ihnen festgelegt?

- Wie werden diese Ziele kommuniziert?

- Inwiefern wird die Zielerreichung kontrolliert?

- Welche Ziele gilt es zu erreichen?

Vielen Dank für Ihre Unterstützung und die zur Verfügung Stellung als Interview

Partner.

119

TRANSKRIBIERREGELN

In Anlehnung an: Dr. Thorsten Dresing und Thorsten Pehl, Praxisbuch Interview, Transkribieren & Analyse, 5.

Auflage, September 2013, S. 21-23

http://www.audiotranskription.de/download/praxisbuch_transkription.pdf?q=Praxisbuch-Transkription.pdf

I: Interviewer

B: Befragter (B1/B2 bei mehreren interviewten Personen)

Allgemeine Transkription:

Es wird wörtlich transkribiert, also nicht lautsprachlich oder zusammenfassend. Vorhandene

Dialekte werden möglichst wortgenau ins Hochdeutsche übersetzt. Wenn keine eindeutige

Übersetzung möglich ist, wird der Dialekt beibehalten, zum Beispiel: Ich gehe heuer auf das

Oktoberfest.

Wortverschleifungen werden nicht transkribiert, sondern an das Schriftdeutsch angenähert.

Beispielsweise „Er hatte noch so‘n Buch genannt“ wird zu „Er hatte noch so ein Buch

genannt“ und „hamma“ wird zu „haben wir“. Die Satzform wird beibehalten, auch wenn sie

syntaktische Fehler beinhaltet, beispielsweise: „bin ich nach Kaufhaus gegangen“.

Interpunktion wird zu Gunsten der Lesbarkeit geglättet, das heißt bei kurzem Senken der

Stimme oder uneindeutiger Betonung wird eher ein Punkt als ein Komma gesetzt. Dabei

sollen Sinneinheiten beibehalten werden.

Stottern & Halbsätze:

Wortabbrüche werden mit Bindestrich gekennzeichnet, wie zB "Erst-". Stottern wird

geglättet bzw. ausgelassen. Wortdoppelungen werden nur erfasst, wenn sie als Stilmittel

zur Betonung genutzt werden: „Das ist mir sehr, sehr wichtig.“ Abgebrochene Sätze werden

erfasst und mit Abbruchzeichen / / / gekennzeichnet.

Gesprächspausen:

Gesprächspausen werden je nach Länge gekennzeichnet durch:

120

[…] Kurze Pause: 2-3 Sekunden

[…..] Lange Pause: mehr als 3 Sekunden

Schimpfwörter:

Schimpfwörter werden ab der Hälfte mit Sternchen *** versehen. zB Schei***

Gesprächsunterbrechungen & etwaige emotionale Äußerungen:

Wenn das Gespräch unterbrochen oder anderweitig gestört wird, wird dies mit eckigen

Klammern gekennzeichnet:

Läuten des Telefons/Telefongespräch [Telefon]

Hereinkommen eines/r Kollegen/in [Kollege]

Lachen (inkl. einzeln und beide) [Lachen]

Husten [Husten]

Niesen [Niesen]

Seufzen [Seufzen]

Räuspern [Räuspern]

Ausblasen/Durchschnaufen [Puh]

Kaffee wird gebracht [Kaffee]

Hervorhebungen:

Worte, die von der interviewten Person deutlich betont werden, sind durch Großbuchstaben

gekennzeichnet. zB: Wenn DAS der Fall ist, dann…

Unverständliche Passage:

Wenn ein Wort, oder eine ganze Passage nicht verständlich ist, wird dies in der

Transkription mit eckigen Klammern und [unverständlich] vermerkt.

zB: Wenn das der [unverständlich] ist, dann…

121

Verständnissignale:

Verständnissignale des gerade nicht Sprechenden wie „mhm, aha, ja, genau, ähm“ etc.

während dem der andere spricht, werden nicht transkribiert. AUSNAHME: Eine Antwort

beginnt mit „mhm, genau, ja etc.“. "Mhm, ja, genau" werden als zustimmende Signale

betrachtet. Äh's und Ähm's werden wie bereits erwähnt, ebenfalls mit […] kennzeichnet.

Abkürzungen:

Wörter, die im Sprachgebrauch ausgesprochen, aber schriftlich abgekürzt werden:

Zum Beispiel zB

Das heißt dh.

Und so weiter usw.

Genderbezogene Ausdrücke:

Geschlechtsspezifische Ausdrücke werden nicht gesondert "gegendert", sondern immer als

männlich und weiblich, also geschlechtsneutral, verstanden. Ausgenommen davon sind

jedoch besonders hervorgehobene und betonte Ausdrücke beim Geschlecht, die sich

tatsächlich nur auf das männliche oder weibliche Geschlecht beziehen. Dies wird, wie im

Punkt "Hervorhebungen" geschildert, mit Großbuchstaben vermerkt.

Personennamen:

Fallen während des Gesprächs etwaige Namen von Personen, werden diese aufgrund der

Anonymität durch [XY] gekennzeichnet.

122

DATENANALYSE BEISPIEL DES INTERVIEWS MIT

AIDSHILFE OBERÖSTERREICH, LINZ

No. Line-No.

Interview

Paraphrase Reduction

Category

Reduction

Category

Main category

(still higher level of

abstraction

29 179f Einfach, damit die

Leute sich

wertgeschätzt fühlen,

nicht so als Teppich-

oder Kaffeetante.

Wertvolle

Aufgaben

Tasks Personnel Mgmt.:

Tasks

30 184 Richtig, auch wirklich

eigenständig,

verantwortliche

Tätigkeiten.

Wertvolle

Aufgaben

45 387f Es ist für viele eine win-

win Situation.

Gegenseitiges

Profitieren

vom

Ehrenamt

Benefit

48 452f Der gesamte Verein der

Aidshilfe Oberösterreich

wäre ohne

Ehrenamtliche nicht

möglich.

Gegenseitiges

Profitieren

vom

Ehrenamt

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