Master Document Template - The University of Texas at Austin

Copyright

by

Tania R Vásquez

2010

The Dissertation Committee for Tania Roxana Vásquez Certifies that this is the

approved version of the following dissertation:

The Emergence of the South European Migration System and the Role

of Social Networks of Migration as catalysts of change in countries of

origin: the cases of Argentina and Peru

Committee:

Bryan R. Roberts, Supervisor

Cynthia Buckley, Co-Supervisor

Kelly Raley

Arthur Sakamoto

Charles R. Hale

The Emergence of the South European Migration System and the Role

of Social Networks of Migration as catalysts of change in countries of

origin: the cases of Argentina and Peru

by

Tania Roxana Vásquez, B.A.; M.A.

Dissertation

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of

The University of Texas at Austin

in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

The University of Texas at Austin

August 2010

Dedication

To my parents Rebeca and Guillermo, my sisters Giovanna and Masha and my loved

nephew Guille

v

Acknowledgements

Many pe ople ha ve he lped m e i n di fferent w ays t o s tart, c ontinue a nd c omplete

this s tudy. Among them and fundamentally are my two advisers Bryan R. Roberts and

Cynthia J. Buckley who supported me immensely not only with academic advice but also

with their personal support and warm friendship. I have learned immensely f rom them.

From both of them and from my committee members Kelly Raley, Arthur Sakamoto and

Charles H ale I h ave received t he m ost v aluable as sistance. I remember es pecially t he

support f rom m y t wo a dvisers a nd f rom K elly R aley dur ing t he elaboration of m y

research proposal: their help and trust during those initial stages of my study meant a lot

to me , e specially w hen I started to p lan th e r ealization o f th e s mall household s urvey

elaborated with the objective of targeting relatives of migrants to Spain and Italy, in Lima

and B uenos A ires ( “Household s urvey of M igrant S ending H ouseholds t o Italy an d

Spain”) w hich w as t he main s ource of qua ntitative da ta i n t his s tudy. Following t heir

individual academic perspectives, each one of them convinced me that many apparently

difficult things can be realized in social r esearch. A rthur S akamoto pr ovided m e w ith

invaluable help and support.

The other major source of help I was fortunate to have during these three years

comes f rom m y friends and family. M y f riends have provided me with pure friendship

and immense support and I do not even have the right words to thank them. They are my

friends Laszlo Kulcsar, Natalia Gonzales, Julio Postigo, Carla Lañas, Claudia Masferrer,

vi

Anna M ueller, D eniz G olkap, Ignacio C ancino, D emetrio Laurente, J aime Quino a nd

Benjamin Nieto-Andrade. I also want to thank the gracious help of three friends who I

met la ter in th e r ealization o f th is p roject: D enisse G elber, Kelley R oberts and

Jojhan Roldan. Very special in my heart is the affection of Susan Roberts, at the moment

of motivating me to complete this project. My cousins Jose and Ana Vasquez Britos in

Great B uenos A ires a nd J uan V asquez B ermejo i n L ima he lped m e t remendously

connecting me with people that I was interested in interviewing or taking me along the

neighborhoods of M erlo a nd M oron i n B uenos Aires a nd P uente P iedra i n Lima. O f

course, I need to thank my loved sisters Giovanna and Masha who are also dedicated to

the s ocial s ciences. M y younger s ister M asha was p resent w ith h er intelligent a nd

cheerful support throughout the different stages of this study.

As a graduate s tudent t rainee at the Population Research Center (PRC) over the

years, I ha ve r eceived i nvaluable a nd c ontinuous s upport f rom t his r esearch center f or

which I am very p roud. I especially want t o t hank Mary de l a G arza an d t he ex cellent

staff of Computing and Informatics Services of t he PRC. Also, I very much appreciate

the f inancial s upport o f t he A ndrew M ellon F oundation D issertation F ield R esearch

Award (2005) which made possible the realization of this study and the financial support

of t he H ewlett F oundation F ellowship f or D emography i n Latin A merica ( 2001-2004)

and of t he D epartment of S ociology at t he U niversity of T exas a t A ustin, t hat m ade

possible my doctoral studies in sociology and demography. Finally I want to express my

gratitude to Robert Hummer who first as director of the Population Research Center, and

then as Chairperson of the Department of Sociology has always aided my work and the

work of all the graduate students in the department.

vii

The Emergence of the South European Migration System and the Role

of Social Networks of Migration as catalysts of change in countries of

origin: the cases of Argentina and Peru

Publication No._____________

Tania Roxana Vásquez, Ph. D.

The University of Texas at Austin, 2010

Supervisors: Bryan R. Roberts and Cynthia Buckley

Abstract: With th is s tudy I a im to u nderstand th e role of social networks of

migration as very special catalysts of change in the countries of origin of important labor

migration s treams, p articularly in th e c ase o f th e e mergent a nd s econd most imp ortant

system o f mig ration in w hich Latin A mericans p articipate, i. e. th e South European

Migration System. I pursue this aim through the means of examining the characteristics

and mechanisms of operation of ego – centered social ne tworks of migration th at a re

active w ithin t he m igration s treams f rom A rgentina and P eru t o Italy and S pain,

therefore: ( 1) I examine th e tw o d ifferent in stitutional c ontexts th at c ontribute t o t he

shape of the mentioned social networks of migration in Argentina and Peru; (2) I study

the structure of t hese ne tworks ( which c omprises c haracteristics s uch a s size, density,

and degree of heterogeneity); th eir resources and mechanisms o f operation ; a nd ( 3) I

discuss the main possible causal influences that these social networks of migration exert

in the countries of origin of the emigration streams I study, namely Argentina and Peru,

viii

considering the very specific characteristics these social ne tworks h ave in each one o f

the country cases. In order to discuss these causal influences, I examine their impact on

children residing in Argentina and Peru who are members of migrant sending households,

and I s pecifically analyze i mpacts o n t heir living arrangements. I use q uantitative and

qualitative d ata o n th e emigration s treams f rom Argentina and P eru to Italy and S pain

which I collected during 2006, 2007 a nd 2008 1

, in Buenos Aires (Argentina) and Lima

(Peru). Quantitative data was collected using a small household survey targeting relatives

of migrants to Spain and Italy, in both cities (Argentina – Italy: n=75, Argentina – Spain:

n= 245, Peru – Italy: n= 206, and Peru – Spain: n=398). Qualitative data included expert

interviews (n=5 for Peru and n=7 for Argentina); and different types of semi-structured

in- depth in terviews ta rgeting r elatives o f mi grants to S pain a nd I taly in d ifferent

household pos itions, i ncluding c hildren 12 -18 years ol d ( n=11 for P eru, a nd n= 11 f or

Argentina).

1 In 2008, I only did field research and collected data in Lima (Peru).

ix

Table of Contents

List of Tables ......................................................................................................... xi

List of Figures ...................................................................................................... xiv

Chapter 1: Introduction ...........................................................................................1

Research objective ..........................................................................................1

Hypotheses ....................................................................................................26

References: ....................................................................................................30

Chapter 2: Collecting data on international migration in Lima and Buenos Aires, field Research and the “Household Survey for Relatives of Migrants to Spain and Italy” ......................................................................................................36

Quantitative data collection ..........................................................................38

Qualitative methods ......................................................................................52

References: ....................................................................................................58

Chapter 3: From Latin America to Southern Europe, South American participation in the Emergence of a New Migration System ..............................................59

The South European migration system .........................................................60

References .....................................................................................................82

Chapter 4: Differing Institutional Contexts influencing Migration from Argentina and Peru to Italy and Spain ..........................................................................83

Education ......................................................................................................83

Labor .............................................................................................................91

Family ...........................................................................................................99

Law……………………………………………………………………….101

References: ..................................................................................................102

Chapter 5: Characteristics and relationships between ego and network partners in the migration flows .....................................................................................103

1. The characteristics of Ego (respondent) ............................................104

2. The characteristics of the Network partners ......................................112

3. Types of specific relationships network partners have with Ego (the respondent) .........................................................................................132

x

References: ..................................................................................................149

Chapter 6: The Structure and Resources of the Social Networks of Migration Operating within the Migration Streams from Argentina and Peru, to Italy and Spain ....................................................................................................150

1. The Structure of the Networks ...........................................................151

2. The Resources of the networks ..........................................................172

References: ..................................................................................................180

Chapter 7: Mechanisms of operation of Social Networks of Migration, possible paths of change in family ......................................................................................182

Does high demographic dependency depend on the characteristics of the social networks of migration? ......................................................................189

Discussion on the mechanisms of operation of the networks: ....................207

References: ..................................................................................................212

Chapter 8: Conclusions .......................................................................................213

References: ..................................................................................................223

Appendices ...........................................................................................................231

Bibliography ........................................................................................................276

Vita………... ........................................................................................................283

xi

List of Tables

Table 1.1 : Total Number of Migrants from Argentina and Peru to all OECD

countries (2000-2003) .......................................................................23

Table 1.2: Hypothesized effects of the characteristics of social networks of

migration on the migrant sending households. .................................28

Table 2.1: Characteristics of sampling frames Lima and Buenos Aires ................44

Table 2.2 : Samples of the four different streams .................................................47

Table 2.3: Variables description ............................................................................51

Table 3.1: Yearly percent increases of migrant stock population in Spain by

continent (1996-2008). (Oceania not considered) ............................68

Table 3.2: Percent differentials in migrant stock population in Spain by year,

continent ............................................................................................70

and region (1996-2009)..........................................................................................70

Table 3.3: Percent differentials in American migrant stock population in Spain by

country and selected years (1996-2008) ...........................................72

Table 3.4: Yearly percent increases and percentage distribution of migrant stock

population in Italy by continent and region (1985-2008). ................76

Table 3.5: Percent differentials in American migrant stock population in Italy by

country, selected years (1996-2008). ................................................79

Table 5.1: Demographic composition of the respondents, by flow .....................106

Table 5.2: Household position of respondents, by flow. .....................................108

Table 5.3: Percentage distribution of place of birth of respondents, ...................110

by flow (Argentina sample). ................................................................................110

xii

Table 5.4: Percentage distribution of place of birth of ........................................112

respondents, by flow (Peru sample). ....................................................................112

Table 5.5: Percentage distribution of network partners by ..................................115

sex and flow 115

Table 5.6: Percentage distribution of the mean age of network .........................123

partners by network and flow ..............................................................................123

Table 5.7: Percentage distribution of the level of education of network partners, by

flow .................................................................................................124

Table 5.8: Similarities and connections of network partners with respondents ..130

Table 5.9: Percentage distribution of types of neighbors (relatives and non-relatives),

by flow ...........................................................................................132

Table 5.10: Female friends and acquaintances by flow .......................................146

Table 5.11: Place of residence of network partners by flow and by country of

residence. ........................................................................................148

Table 6.1: Size of the network, by flow (2 diff. variables, A &B diff. coding of same)

.........................................................................................................155

Table 6.2: Degree of heterogeneity -SEX (“Female= category of reference). ...159

Table 6.2: Degree of heterogeneity - AGE by flow ............................................162

Table 6.3: Degree of heterogeneity - AGE by flow ............................................165

Table 6.4: Degree of heterogeneity – EDUCATION .........................................167

Table 6.5: Degree of heterogeneity – EDUCATION .........................................169

Table 6.6: Density of the network, by flow ........................................................172

Table 6.7: Network partner has currently relatives in Spain/Italy (Total) ........174

Table 6.8: Network partner is a current or ex-migarnt to Spain/Italy (Total) ...176

Table 6.9: Network partner has financial resources .............................................176

xiii

Table 6.10: Network partners who attained tertiary (non-university and university)

education. ........................................................................................179

Table 6.11: Network partners who attained tertiary university education. ..........180

Table 7.1: Total dependency ratios at migrant sending households (respondent's

household) by flow .........................................................................186

Table 7.2: Children dependency ratios at migrant sending households (respondent’s

household), by flow. .......................................................................188

Table 7.4: Logistic regression models on the Total Dependency Ratio of migrant

sending households/ ARGENTINA ................................................198

Table 7.5: Logistic regression models on the Children Dependency Ratio of migrant

sending households/PERU. .............................................................202

Table 7.6: Logistic regression models on the Children Dependency Ratio of migrant

sending households/ ARGENTINA. ...............................................206

xiv

List of Figures

Graph 1.1: Main destinations for population 15 and older born in Argentina and

Peru (2000-2003) ..............................................................................24

Graph 2.1: Questionnaire data on ego-centered social networks and variables

implicated in research problem .........................................................49

Graph 3.1: American Immigration to Spain by subregion of America and sex (1996-

2009) .................................................................................................74

Figure 5.1: Segment of Section 5, survey questionnaire (social network of migration)

.........................................................................................................113

Graph 5.1: Relationship of network partners with respondent (EGO)/ Peru-Spain133

Graph 5.2: Relationship of network partners with respondent (EGO)/PERU-ITALY

.........................................................................................................138

Graph 5.3: Relationship of network partners with respondent (EGO)/ ARGENTINA-

SPAIN .............................................................................................142

Graph 5.4: Relationship of network partners with respondent (EGO)/Argentina-Italy

.........................................................................................................145

Graph 6.3: Degree of heterogeneity – AGE, by flow ..........................................162

1

Chapter 1: Introduction

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

In this study I aim to understand the role of social networks of migration as unique

catalysts of change in c ountries of or igin. I examine t he c ase of t he emergent S outh

European M igration S ystem, t he s econd m ost i mportant s ystem o f mig ration in w hich

Latin A mericans pa rticipate. I pur sue t his a im t hrough t he m eans of examining t he

characteristics and mechanisms of operation of e go – centered s ocial ne tworks of

migration2 that are active within the migration streams from Argentina and Peru to Italy

and S pain. T herefore: ( 1) I e xamine t he t wo di fferent i nstitutional c ontexts t hat

contribute to the shape of the mentioned social networks of migration in Argentina and

Peru; (2) I study the structure of these networks (which comprises characteristics such as

size, density, and degree of heterogeneity); their resources and mechanisms of operation

2 Ego – centered social networks of migration: the respondent, who is 18 or older is EGO, resides in the sending country, and has at least one family member in Spain and/or Italy.

;

and ( 3) I di scuss t he main pos sible c ausal i nfluences t hat t hese s ocial ne tworks of

migration e xert i n t he c ountries of or igin of the e migration s treams I study, n amely

Argentina and Peru, considering the specific characteristics these social networks have in

each one of the country cases. In order to discuss these causal influences, I examine their

impact on children residing in Argentina and Peru who are members of migrant sending

households, an d I s pecifically an alyze i mpacts o n o ne as pect as sociated to t heir living

arrangements, which is demographic dependency (measured by total dependency ratio,

children de pendency r atio). D emographic d ependency i s a ke y aspect of t he l iving

arrangements o f ch ildren b ecause i t co nstitutes a v arying resource as sociated t o

2

residence; the resource of having a sufficient number of household members aged 15 t o

64 to help with the tasks required to protect the dependents, particularly the children aged

0 to 14 in the household.

I use quantitative and qualitative data on the emigration streams from Argentina and

Peru to Italy and Spain which I collected during 2006, 2007 and 20083

Quantitative data was collected using a small household survey targeting relatives of

migrants to Spain and Italy, in both cities (Argentina – Italy: n= 75, Argentina – Spain:

n= 245, Peru – Italy: n= 206, and Peru – Spain: n=398). This survey provides data on 75

ego- centered social networks of migration and 236 network partners in the case of the

stream from Argentina to Italy; 245 ego- centered social networks of migration and 830

network partners in the case of the stream from Argentina to Spain; 206 ego- centered

social ne tworks of m igration a nd 380 ne twork partners i n t he c ase of t he s tream f rom

Peru t o Italy; a nd 398 ego- centered s ocial ne tworks of m igration a nd 922 ne twork

partners in the case of the stream f rom Peru to Spain. Qualitative data included expert

interviews and interviews with institutional actors (n=5 for Peru and n=7 for Argentina),

and different types of semi-structured in- depth interviews targeting relatives of migrants

to Spain and Italy in different household positions, including children 12 -18 years old,

(n=11 for Peru, and n=11 for Argentina). Observational field notes accounts of informal

conversations with several of the survey respondents (these include my own accounts and

the accounts of many of the survey assistants both in Argentina and Peru) also serve as

sources of qualitative data.

, in Buenos Aires

(Argentina) and Lima (Peru).

I am basically interested in understanding what are the consequences of the operation

of imp ortant in ternational mig ration s treams in th e c ountries o f o rigin o f t hese

3 In 2008, I only did field research and collected data in Lima (Peru).

3

migrations. M y country, P eru, ha s b een an i mportant or igin r egion for l abor m igration

over the past four decades. Argentina, mostly since 2001, t he year of the outburst of its

latest e conomic c risis, is f ollowing th e s ame d irection, a s it is th e c ase of ot her S outh

American countries. Interestingly, Both Argentina and Peru, being contrasting societies,

have a s m ajor de stinations of t heir e conomic m igrations S pain a nd Italy. T he

consequences of Peru’s and Argentina’s status as a sending regions are readily observable

and t hat t hey are c rucial t o s tudy, i n or der t o a ccumulate e nough know ledge t o or ient

national and international education, labor, and family protection policies.

In f act, t emporary and pe rmanent i nternational l abor m igration f rom P eru h as b een

since the 1990s increasing and diversifying to other countries, intra and extra regionally;

being t he e migration t o s outhern E urope ( Spain a nd Italy) t he s econd most i mportant

after th e e migration to th e U nited S tates, in terms o f th e extra-regional e migration

streams. A s imilar increasing trend o f emigration to major destinations Spain and Italy

has be en obs erved i n Ecuador, w here G ratton f inds m any E cuadorians c hoosing t o

migrate to Sprain rather than the United States (Gratton 2007), Colombia, Bolivia, Brazil,

Uruguay, P araguay, D ominican R epublic, C uba, a nd E l S alvador. F or Argentina and

Peru, S pain a nd Italy are t he s econd a nd t hird m ain de stinations r espectively after t he

United States. In addition to the expansion of ou tmigration to new destinations such as

Spain and Italy, migration trends in Latin America as a region, increasingly involve large

segments of the urban middle classes, a new phenomenon. As I will argue in one of the

next subsections, to date, few theories of international migration focus on the trajectories

of m igration of t he Latin A merican ur ban m iddle c lasses. C onsidering t hat Latin

American countries are nearly to be 80% urban4

4 See the ECLAC Statistical Yearbook 2008, page 33.

,and that there are increased educational

opportunities f or younger c ohorts, t he e mergence of t he s outhern E uropean m igration

http://www.eclac.cl/publicaciones/xml/7/35437/LCG2399B_1.pdf

4

system may differ dramatically from the North American system rise over 40 years ago.

In other words, these are not the same sending societies that began the North American

system.

In bot h P eru and A rgentina r ecently, m iddle c lasses emigration i s i ncreasing,

typically as a r esponse t o t he h ard eco nomic ch allenges r esulting from t he

implementation o f th e n eoliberal s tructural a djustment p olicies in th e c ountries o f t he

region. W hile in creased mid dle c lasses e migration is o ccurring, th ese a re time s o f

geopolitical r e-alignments w ith increased e conomic i nterdependencies b etween Latin

America and the European Union, China and several South East Asian countries and a

certain degree of regional unification. The consequences of emigration for the region go

beyond t he us ual a nd mostly ov erstated i ssue of a br ain dr ain. U nderstanding t hese

consequences, add to the identification of the best possible future paths of development in

the region.

In the following sections of this chapter I present my arguments regarding the specific

boundaries of my research problem. Those sections include:

(a). A di scussion of the contributions and l imitations of previous s tudies examining

issues of change caused by international labor migration in sending countries.

(b). A discussion of the role of social networks as operators of change in di fferent

social research territories, and particularly in the case of international migration, focusing

on justifying the use of the notion of social networks of migration instead of the notion of

migrant networks. I argue for the need to consider both the resident and the non-resident

segments of social networks of migration to understand the complexity of paths in which

networks contribute to changes in sending countries. Lastly, I argue as to why the study

of networks composed by urban middle classes, is necessary.

5

(c). A r eview of t he l iterature on t he e ffects of t emporary l abor i nternational

migration o n t he s ocial relationships pr evalent i n t he f amily. H ere I w ill de scribe t he

types of effects a nd c hanges t hat c an be e xpected t o oc cur i n f amily h ouseholds5

a. Change caused by international labor migration at countries of origin

that

have one or more family members abroad, and I will focus on and hypothesize about the

role of social ne tworks of m igration i n m ediating t he i nfluence of i nternational l abor

migration on the family experiences of children.

The literature on international migration is diverse, but mostly has covered three areas

of ch ange: ( a) ch anges i n t he development prospects of t he s ending a reas, given t he

increasing importance of remittances (Adams 1996; Durand, Parrado et al. 1996; Taylor

1999 a mong m any ot hers; A larcon 20 02; S uro, B endixen e t a l. 2002; Adams 2003;

Mooney 2003; A dams 2006) ; a nd g iven t he i ncreasing e migration of hi ghly educated

individuals ( commonly termed a s “ brain dr ain”) (Adams 2003; Lowell 200 3; M artin

2003; Lowell, Findlay et al. 2004; Lowell and Gerova 2004); (b) changes in the cultural

forms assumed by the increase in populations involved in international labor migration

(commonly cat egorized as social r emittances) (Levitt 1996; Levitt 199 8; Levitt 1998;

Levitt 2001; Alarcon 2002); and lately, (c) changes in family and gender roles (Abadan-

Unat 1977; G uendelman a nd P erez-Itriago 19 87; H aritos-Fatouros a nd S akka 1988;

Hondagneu-Sotelo 1992; H ugo 1992; H ugo 199 5; H ondagneu-Sotelo a nd A vila 1996;

Tacoli 1999; Aysa and Massey 2004) .

The l iterature on i nternational l abor m igration ha s a lso pr ovided s ome c onceptual

tools us eful t o unde rstand how c hanges i n s ending c ountries ar e g enerated. T hese ar e

basically t he co ncept o f cumulative causation (Reichert 1981; M assey 1988; M assey

1990; Fussell and Massey 2004; Rivero-Fuentes 2004), defined as the process by which

5 Family households: households composed by individuals related by birth, marriage or adoption.

6

“social an d eco nomic s tructures w ithin s ending c ommunities” a re a ltered in w ays th at

increase t he l ikelihood of s ubsequent m igration” (Massey 1988: 396); t he not ion of

culture of migration (Reichert 1981; Kandel a nd M assey 2002) which can b e

understood as “way of life” (Reichert 1981: 56) and “local value system” (Reichert 1981:

64) exclusively related to the experience of migration in communities where the rates of

emigration are high for a long period of time; and finally and similar to the latter one, the

notion of social remittances (Levitt 1996; Levitt 1998; Levitt 1998; Levitt 2001; Alarcon

2002), de fined a s “ the ideas, be haviors, i dentities, a nd s ocial c apital t hat fl ow fro m

receiving t o s ending-country communities” p laying an imp ortant r ole “ in tr ansforming

sending-country s ocial and p olitical lif e” (Levitt 1998: 926). Interestingly, t he t hree

outlined c oncepts ( cumulative c ausation, c ulture of m igration a nd s ocial r emittances)

comprise a s pa rt of t heir e xplanations, t he r ole of migrant networks and social -

migrant- capital which are considered as the main mechanisms producing the described

processes.

Importantly, and this is the key to s ituate my s tudy, these three concepts have been

elaborated on the basis of case studies belonging to only one migratory system, the North

American M igration S ystem, b asically “dominated b y f lows in to th e United S tates”

(Massey, Arango et al. 1998:7). The first two notions (cumulative causation and culture

of m igration) w ere e laborated upon t he ba sis o f r esearch on t he m igration f rom t he

Northern states of Mexico to the United States; and the third notion (social remittances)

upon t he ba sis of r esearch on t he m igration f rom r ural c ommunities of the D ominican

Republic to the United States. In these two historical migrations to the United States the

migrant populations have been predominantly rural and currently still are, although this is

changing l ately6

6 Cerrutti and Massey, 2004, talk about “the changing selectivity of migration”, finding that since 1980 but more clearly since 1990, first -time migrants from Mexico to the United States are characterized by having

, composed b y male i ndividuals coming f rom households pos itioned in

7

the poorer social strata, and characterized by low levels of education attainment (Ugalde,

Bean et al. 1979; Grasmuck and Pessar 1991; Levitt 2001; Flores, Hernandez-Leon et al.

2004). By contrast, the migrant populations from Argentina and Peru to Italy and Spain

are predominantly urban, composed by individuals coming from middle class households,

who ha ve c ompleted or e xperienced s econdary and t ertiary l evels of e ducation.

Understanding t hese l atter e migration s treams c an c ontribute t o e xpanding, s pecifying

and f urther d eveloping the t heoretical a pproaches out lined a bove, by evaluating t heir

relevance to explaining a different empirical reality. Are the effects of international labor

migration the same for rural poor sectors than the effects for urban, middle class

sectors? I p osit th at th ese effects are different, a nd that t he r ole of s ocial ne tworks of

migration is a key aspect to understand those differences.

These two branches of the literature (one focused on t he account of diverse changes

in the society of origin and the other responsible for the elaboration of theoretical notions

explaining change) have advanced our knowledge on t he consequences o f international

migration i n i mportant w ays. H owever, s tudies doc umenting c hanges i n t he s ending

countries do not r egularly us e a s a f ramework of a nalysis t he c oncepts of c umulative

causation, culture of migration or social remittances, nor do they consider the key role of

migrant n etworks s uggested b y them. C ommonly, t hey explain c hanges a lluding t o

(mostly isolated) independent variables (such as for example the expectation of obtaining

higher earnings working abroad, or the access to remittances) but do not elaborate on the

mechanisms at play in the processes leading to those changes. Likewise, the studies using

the three concepts do not usually consider the wide range of changes documented in the

first g roup of s tudies but i nstead, t end t o f ocus on t he pe rpetuation of m igration. In

addition, the studies that are part of this “theoretical” side of the literature do not include more schooling (both among those documented and g undocumented aged 15 years and older), and are less preponderantly male and rural (or at least tend to work less in agriculture when they arrive in the United States).

8

a de tailed a ccount of t he r ole a nd ope ration of the s ocial ne tworks of m igration, e ven

when they include them as key components of their theory.

I consider t hat bot h s egments of t he r esearch c an pr oductively i ntersect a nd t hat

building on t hat intersection, further theoretical explanations about change produced by

international l abor m igration i n t he s ocieties o f or igin c an b e de veloped. I w ant t o

contribute to those developments by focusing on the role of social networks of migration

as ope rators of c hange, but g oing f urther t han t he us ual i nterest i n the pe rpetuation of

migration.

b. The role of social networks of migration

Social networks and change

The pr emise t hat s ocial ne tworks i nfluence c hange b y p romoting or r estricting

innovation has already motivated several studies; and has been empirically examined in

different areas of s ocial r esearch ( like t ransference of kno wledge, t he di ffusion of

different t ypes o f v alues –political, r eligious-, a nd t he e xpansion of di fferent t ypes of

practices in health and education).

In demographic research, particularly in the f ield of fertility, a group of researchers

(Entwisle, Rindfuss et al. 1996; Kholer 2001; Behrman, Kholer et al. 2002) has focused

on t he r ole of s ocial ne tworks i nfluencing f ertility c hange. W ith t he obj ective of

examining how the characteristics of social networks mediate the influence that access to

contraception m ethods exerts o n r eproductive behavior, t hese r esearchers el aborated

useful methods of data collection, particularly worth mentioning are the ones designed to

collect quantitative data about the characteristics of the network. Nevertheless, the use of

quantitative methods for the analysis of the characteristics of social networks has already

a long and rich t rajectory (Barnes 1954; Mitchell 1969; Kapferer 1972; Boissevain and

Mitchell 1973; G ranovetter 1976; S cott 1988 a mong m any ot her a uthors) but i n

9

demographic r esearch, t he s tudies b y Kholer, Watkins an d E ntwisle ar e a p articularly

important reference. Studies in the field of family change have also considered the action

of ne tworks i n t he a cquisition of ne w a ttitudes a nd a s a “ pathway [ from] m icro-level

interactions to macro-level social change” (Rindfuss, Choe et al. 2004). The examination

of the role of networks as pathways from micro-level interactions to macro-level social

change, and from macro-level structural conditions to the determination of the dynamics

of micro-level entities such as the household, can be of unique importance if used in the

study of migration.

From migrant networks to social networks of migration

In the field of migration, social networks play a critical function in the transmission

of information. A dditionally, social networks are considered fundamental pieces in the

adaptation and adjustment of immigrants at the country of destination, promoters of the

formation of ethnically segmented labour niches in these destinations, facilitators of the

process of i mmigration, e xtensions of t he c ommunities of or igin, a nd f undamental

activators i n t he occurrence of cumulative causation, t he pe rpetuation of migration and

the f ormation o f s ocial mig rant c apital (Massey, Arango e t a l. 1988 ha ve pr esented

exhaustive evaluations on the many studies on migrant networks; Boyd 1989; Gurak and

Caces 1992). However, studies on t he relationship between migrant networks and social

change are limited, compared to the research on the role of other types of social networks

as ope rators o f s ocial c hange. F urthermore, t he m ajority of s tudies, a lthough t his i s

changing l ately, obs erve t he r ole of m igrant ne tworks, f or t he m ost pa rt onl y i n t he

country o f de stination (Bagchi 2001; R oberts a nd M orris 2003; W ierzbicki 2004) , a nd

when their role is considered in terms of their effects on the social life at the countries of

origin, the usual trend has been to use very synthesized indicators such as the percent of

family members abroad or the percent of community members abroad, which are used as

10

measures of the existence and the degree of importance of migrant networks (prevalence

of migration) (Massey, Arango et al. 1988; Kandel and Massey 2002; Fussell and Massey

2004; R ivero-Fuentes 2 004). In s ummary, r esearch o n t he characteristics o f s ocial

networks of m igration, t he m echanisms of t heir operation i n t erms of pr oducing s ocial

change; and the study of the portion of them operating at the country of origin (we can

refer to this portion of the network as the resident segment of the network), is limited.

In t his s tudy, I e lect t o f ocus on t he not ion of social networks of migration (or

migration social networks), rather than migrant ne tworks. Social ne tworks of migration

represent a w ider l ens f or t he as sessment o f s ocial ch ange, b y n ot f ocusing o n s ocial

networks only composed by migrants and ex-migrants. I consider that social networks of

migration carry the message of migration (its content7

7 The content of the interaction refers to the information exchanged by the persons in interaction in the social network, or the innovative messages or behaviors. It is commonly measured by the number of members of the network who participate of the innovative behavior or have a favorable opinion regarding the innovative message (these measures are used by Kohler 2000, and by Rindfuss et al. 2004 but without the use of the term “content”).

) not because they are exclusively

composed by current and ex migrants but because different types of non migrants are also

members of the network (i.e. social network partners). One of the first things I observed

when doi ng field r esearch i n B uenos A ires a nd Lima w as t hat s ocial ne tworks of

migration a re i n f act c omposed b y current a nd e x m igrants, but not onl y b y t hem.

Individuals th at a re p rospective mig rants ( with p ossibilities o f mig rating –or w ithout

them- and processing the paperwork to do so), individuals that would like to migrate but

will not do i t (entertain the idea but do not have enough resources, have not started the

process to do so) are also enmeshed in relational networks tied to the migration process.

These i nsights he lped the development of m y survey qu estionnaire. Individuals t hat do

not w ant t o m igrate a nd w ill pr obably not m igrate e ver, but w ho i n their da ily l ife

(because of t heir f amily or f riendship r elations or be cause of t heir bus iness/source of

11

income) discuss, transmit and recreate the various themes of international migration ( in

the case of my study, of labor migration to Spain and/or Italy) are important elements in

the social network of migration.

Necessary distinction between the resident and non-resident segments of a social network of migration

The use of the notion of social networks of migration instead of the notion of migrant

networks (which di rects attention onl y t o current a nd e x-migrants), w hile a llowing th e

inclusion of ne twork pa rtners who a re not c urrent or ex-migrants, ma kes p ossible a

clearer path to understand the workings of what I have called the resident segment of the

network which is the portion of the network operating at the country of origin, and with

this, t he s tudy of t he role o f s ocial n etworks o f m igration as o perators o f ch ange i n

sending countries.

In fact it is methodologically useful to distinguish between the portion of the network

operating abroad, which we can cal l the non-resident segment of the network, and the

portion of t he ne twork operating a t t he c ountry of or igin, t he resident segment of the

network because clearly, the two portions or segments are exposed, and at some degree

also shaped (I will discuss this theme in chapter four) by different institutional contexts,

therefore, d espite th e f act th at th ey a re tr ansnational e ntities “ linked” b y tr espassing

borders, they are also probably two very different scenarios of/for social relationships and

that difference should be taken into account.

Notwithstanding the di stinction be tween the r esident and non- resident s egments o f

the networks, an ego-centered social network of migration, in which ego is an individual

residing i n t he c ountry of or igin ( a r elative of a m igrant, but not a m igrant

herself/himself), c ould be c omposed b y n etwork pa rtners r esiding i n the c ountry o f

origin, or abroad, i.e. his/her social network of migration could be composed by members

from both segments of the network. In this study I have collected data on ego- centered

12

social networks of migration, and the variations in the composition of these networks will

be described in chapter five.

The specific characteristics of the social networks of migration I will study are: size,

this m eans t he num ber of i ndividuals w ho pa rticipate i n t he s ocial n etwork ( network

partners); degree of heterogeneity or the degree of s imilarity of dissimilarity between

the network pa rtners with respect to va riables such as sex, age, l evel of education, and

socio-economic s tatus; density or t he “ degree of s ocial c onnectedness a mong t he

network pa rtners” (Kholer 2001) which is ma inly a ssociated to th e ‘ strength o f tie s’

(Granovetter 1973); and the resources of the network, which refer to the aggregated set

of abilities and attributes of the members of a network which in a specific context would

help the members of the network to a ttain favorable social and economic outcomes, o r

would hi nder t hose po ssibilities (Bagchi 2001 ; W ierzbicki 2004) . T he fi rst t hree

characteristics are considered by social networks methodologists as part of the structure

of the network

My general h ypothesis w ith r egards t o w hat i s t he r ole o f eg o-centered s ocial

networks of migration, in producing change at sending countries is that the characteristics

of t hese ne tworks i n t erms of t heir s tructure a nd r esources c an c ontribute t o t he

explanation of what effects are produced for migrant sending households, particularly in

terms of de mographic dependency and w ith t hat i n t erms of t he t ypes of r esources

children are of fered at these households ( living arrangements). The association existent

between migrant sending households and social networks of migration will be discussed

at t he end of t he s ection on c hildren l iving a rrangements. T he ba sic i dea i s t hat t he

respondent, w ho i s a m ember of t he m igrant s ending hous ehold i s a lso the e go of t he

network.

.

13

Urban, middle class based social networks of migration

Despite t he w ork on t he i nternational m igration e xperience of t he poor er s ocio

economic groups, t here ha s not be en m uch work on t he i nternational m igration

experience of middle classes in other developing countries and in urban contexts. This is

an i mportant a bsence n ot onl y be cause i t constitutes a n unde r-researched v ariant o f

international mig ration, but al so b ecause m iddle cl asses h ave b een u sually s een as t he

main a gents of e conomic de velopment (Easterly 2001; B anerjee a nd D uflo 2008) .

Therefore not s tudying th e e ffects o f in ternational mig ration a mong th e mid dle c lass

sectors of sending countries is actually neglecting a fundamental piece of knowledge.

In a ddition, a mong t he studies of i nternational migration t hat focus on the r ole o f

migrant n etworks, th e preponderant t rend ha s be en t o examine r ural-based m igrant

networks, basically composed b y p ersons with l ow l evels of educational a ttainment. In

this s tudy, I will e xamine t he characteristics of bot h t he resident and t he non -resident

portions of the migrant networks resulting from the migrations from Argentina and Peru

to Italy and Spain but since the data collection process was conducted in the capital cities

of bot h c ountries, B uenos A ires a nd Lima, t he resident por tions of t hese ne tworks a re

primarily urban-based, p reponderantly c omposed b y m iddle c lass i ndividuals a nd w ith

important levels of educational attainment (secondary and tertiary education).

c. Effects of international labor migration on children resident in countries of origin

Among a ll t he t ypes o f s ocial r elationships t hat ar e af fected / i nfluenced b y

international migration in sending countries I am interested in dimensions of family life

that will be impacted by the operation of social networks.

Because children l iving i n m igrant s ending ho useholds a re t he generation that

compared t o ol der m embers of t he hous ehold w ill be m ore s ignificantly i nfluenced b y

14

family a djustments c aused b y i nternational m igration, I de cided t o f ocus on t his a ge

group. I s tate th at c hildren w ill b e mo re s ignificantly influenced b ecause an y t ype o f

effect caused by international migration will be reflected in their lives for a longer period

of t ime t han i n t he c ase of ol der m embers o f their hous ehold a nd b ecause be ing a t

younger ages, the conditions they experience when growing up w ill be reflected in their

adult l ives and that in aggregated l evel i s a s ocietal-level change with important socio-

structuring qualities. Therefore, I will examine the possible changes being forged by the

operation of s ocial ne tworks of m igration, f rom t he pe rspective of m embers c urrently

living in migrant sending households who are aged under 18. I will specifically study one

crucial f actor building the c onditions of a dult l ife f or t hese c hildren: t heir living

arrangements. Particularly I will examine a key aspect of living arrangements of children

at these households: demographic dependency, measured by the total dependency ratio,

and the children dependency ratio. Demographic dependency is one important dimension

of the living arrangements of children because it constitutes a varying resource associated

to residence; the resource of having a sufficient number of household members aged 15

to 64 to help with the tasks required to protect the children aged 0 to 14 in the household.

Children’s living arrangements and demographic dependency

Living arrangements of children are directly associated with the types of material and

emotional r esources c hildren a re of fered w hen growing up. The s pecific de mographic

characteristics ( sex, ag e, m arital s tatus) and h uman cap ital characteristics ( level o f

education, employment, income) of each one of the members of the set of relatives or/and

non-relatives w ith w hom a c hild r esides s tructure t he t ypes a nd amount of e conomic,

education, social, and emotional resources she/he could obtain while being economically

dependent. In t urn, t hose l iving a rrangements, which c ould va ry along t he pe riod i n

which a child is dependent (whether they are stable or unstable), would determine their

15

well being and their successful transition to adulthood (McLanahan and Sandefur 1994;

Morrison a nd R itualo 2 000; R osenbaum 2000; Fields 2003; M cLanahan 2004; R aley,

Frisco et al. 2005).

Since th e e migration o f a c lose f amily m ember in volves th eir physical ab sence,

changes i n f amily l iving a rrangements a re f requent, a nd f rom t he pe rspective of t he

children these changes could be drastic. In fact, many studies examining the situation of

family and women affected by international migration describe how children left behind

usually s tay with grandparents, aunts and uncles, older s iblings, extended kin and even

fictive kin and friends, being female kin the type of kin of most importance. Hondagneu-

Sotelo and Avila (1996), reflecting on the “organizational arrangements of transnational

motherhood” of Latina migrant women from El Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico living

in Los A ngeles; d escribe how t he c hildren of t hese w omen r emain i n t heir c ountry of

origin l iving with m aternal grandmothers, aunts, co-godmothers and fathers. G rasmuck

and P essar (1991) and L evitt (2001) noted s imilar ar rangements f or t he c ase o f t he

children of Dominican migrants to the United S tates, reporting a lso f requent change o f

these non -standard l iving a rrangements, i ncluding m oving b ack a nd f orth f rom t he

Dominican Republic (living with guardians) to United States (living with their parents),

and f requent m obility o f c hildren f rom l iving with a s et of guardians t o l iving w ith

another set of guardians in their country of origin. The latter pattern is noted as well by

Smit (2001), for children left in rural communities of origin in South Africa affected by

“domestic nomadism”. Cohen (2000) observes similar t ypes o f liv ing a rrangements for

the children of Filipino mothers working in Canada as domestics. There a re also some

interesting s tudies e xamining t he absence of m igrant f athers, but i n t erms of c ausing

changes i n t he gender roles of bot h wives l eft be hind i n M exico a nd t heir m igrant

husbands (Guendelman and P erez-Itriago 1987 ) there a re m ore s tudies with r egards t o

16

non-residential p arenting o f f athers (Cooksey and C raig 1998 ), but fathers are not

necessarily migrants.

According t o t he i nterviews I conducted w ith m embers of m igrant s ending

households t o Italy and S pain i n Lima, P eru, o ne of t he first t ypes of decisions t hat

temporary labor migrants who have children need to make before leaving their country is

with whom and where their children will stay during the time period they will be abroad.

In the case of fathers and mothers who raise their children with the other parent in a “both

parents’ hous ehold”, t he de cision i s m ore or l ess c lear; t he c hildren w ill l ive w ith t he

parent who does not migrate. This situation might involve or not the moving of the family

members l eft behind to another hous ehold uni t: sometimes mothers / f athers, who s tay

with their children at their country of origin while the other parent has emigrated, stay at

the same dwelling; and on s ome other occasions, they move to the home of one of the

members of their extended family, commonly to the homes of their own parents, or their

parents in law; in order to obtain help to take care of the children, sometimes as well, a

family member, a friend moves-in to the migrant household of the mother / father, who

stayed w ith th eir c hildren. T he s ituation b ecomes mo re d ifficult and th ere a re mo re

drastic c hanges i n pr ocess f or t he c hildren w hen t he pa rent w ho m igrates i s a s ingle-

parent and when both parents migrate. In those situations, the child or children may move

into the homes of grandparents, aunts and uncles, or even into the homes of close friends

of t heir parents. T here i s one m ore alternative w hen bot h p arents m igrate: t he

child/children w ould s tay in t he s ame hous ehold uni t a nd one of t he ol der s iblings ( a

young adult) will take charge as the head of household.

In a ll t he cases m entioned a bove, t he l iving a rrangements of c hildren who ha ve a

migrant f amily member change mo re n oticeably when th e mig rant is a p arent, ( or tw o

parents).

17

The e migration of grandparents, ol der s iblings, or ot her m embers of the f amily

network m ay a lso a ffect l iving a rrangements of children. This is e specially t rue if th at

family member was co resident, but also a factor to consider among non-resident kinship

members. If that f amily member was co resident ( and had or had not children on t heir

own), then the children will be under the care of fewer adults and the remaining adults

will h ave le ss time /attention to d istribute a mong th e c hildren. If th e e migrant family

member was not co resident, but had children will remain at the country of origin, i t is

likely t hat t he l eft be hind c hildren w ould m ove i n, a nd t hat a t ransition t o a n ew

organization of t he hous ehold w ould oc cur, br inging a s a consequence t he s ituation of

living w ith a dditional c hildren ( cousins, c hildren of t heir ol der s iblings, a ll of t hem

children l eft b ehind), an d h aving t he ad ults i n ch arge ex perience d ecreasing

time/possibilities of attention, since those resources would need to be distributed among

more children.

Clearly there are two possible general s ituations regarding l iving arrangements, one

alludes to a ll children in migrant sending households despite the fact that their r elative

migrant(s) include or not one or both of their parents; and the other one alludes only to

children who have one or both parents abroad. In other words, the first situation involves

the c omplete group of c hildren l iving at m igrant s ending hous eholds, a nd t he s econd

situation involves only a sub-group of them. I describe both situations here:

(1) Living arrangements in migrant sending households affecting all children

residing in them: Assuming that migrant relatives are the best demographically suited to

work ab road ( in t erms of a ge, s ex an d h uman capital) b ecause o f p ositive s electivity

(Acosta, Fajnzylber et al. 2008); it is very likely that the adults left at the migrant sending

households would be not only numerically fewer, but maybe even less personally able (in

terms o f age an d h uman cap ital) t o t ake care of ch ildren. H owever, i f t he m igrant

18

relatives send remittances, the availability of financial resources that could be spent on

education a nd he alth ( and qua lity o f l ife i n ge neral) a t t he m igrant s ending hous ehold

could offset the negative circumstances that children would experience having fewer and

less r esourceful a dults i n c harge of t hem i n t hese t ypes of hous eholds. I n s ummary, I

posit th at th e liv ing a rrangements th at c hildren e xperience in a mig rant s ending

household could be considered as vulnerability-intensifying for children, in this sense, the

ratios of total economic dependency and children economic dependency would serve to

proxy how vul nerable o r not a re m igrant s ending hous eholds. A t t he s ame t ime, t he

reception of remittances and the importance of these remittances as part of the household

budget are also important to examine, but that examination is not part of this study.

(2) Living arrangements in migrant sending households affecting only children

whose parents (one or both) had migrated: The s tudies on l iving a rrangements o f

children generally f ocus on t he vul nerability caused b y t he m any p ossible l iving

arrangements of c hildren w ho do not r eside w ith bot h bi ological pa rents; t hese a re:

children living with t heir “mother onl y”, “ father onl y” or “neither p arent”, considering

mainly biological relationships but also step and adopted ones) and the combinations of

that status with the type of relationship the child has with the householder; that is: “child

of the householder”, “grandchild of the householder”, “other relative of the householder”,

“non-relative of the householder”, (Rosenbaum 2000; Fields 2003). All of those types of

arrangements can b e called n on-traditional liv ing a rrangements a nd ( along w ith

instability of living arrangements) are frequently associated with negative effects on t he

availability of i ncome, di minished s ocial r esources ( contacts), l ack of s upervision,

inconsistent parenting, failed education trajectories, idleness, propensity for early family

formation among other negative e ffects (McLanahan and Sandefur 1994 ; Morrison and

Ritualo 2 000). C hildren l iving i n m igrant s ending hous eholds w ithout one or w ithout

19

both pa rents be cause of t heir e migration m ight not s uffer f rom t he l oss of e conomic

resources ( because of t he r eception of r emittances), or e ven f rom t he l oss of s ocial

resources (because of the creation of new social contacts and of migration-related social

capital among parents) but for sure they can suffer from the other effects associated with

experiencing non -traditional l iving a rrangements: l ack of s upervision, i nconsistent

parenting, failed education trajectories, idleness, propensity for early family formation, or

other negative outcomes.

Although limited, I consider that demographic dependency at the household level, i.e.

the r elation of t he dependents t o t he working a ge members of a hous ehold, could be a

first s tep t o a pproach t he s tudy of t he complex of l iving a rrangements of c hildren i n

migrant s ending hous eholds. T here are t wo reasons f or t hat: ( a) If w e consider

demographic dependency at the household level, it clearly represents a varying condition

related t o co -residence t hat constitutes a r esource if its level is b eneficial ( if th ere is a

sufficient num ber of m embers a ged 15 -64 t o help t ake c are co -resident d ependent

members of the household) or a limitation if its level is high. Since it is a condition that

can be a resource or a limitation in the household and it is based in co-residence, then it is

one important aspect of living arrangements. (b) Demographic dependency can show the

level of vul nerability a ssociated t o liv ing a rrangements th at a ll c hildren a t mig rant

sending hous eholds w ould e xperience ( and not onl y t he vul nerability experienced b y

children whose parents had migrated).

But how are living arrangements of children at migrant sending households affected

by th e o peration o f s ocial n etworks o f mig ration? I f ind th at th ere a re a t le st th ree

important reasons:

The s tructure of s ocial ne tworks of m igration ( size, de gree of he terogeneity, a nd

density) would determine the level of impact their operation will have in the household

20

(this is related to the size of networks: since larger networks would have more impact on

the household and for instance on t he living arrangements of children). The structure of

social networks of migration would also determine the socio-demographic characteristics

of subsequent migrations in the household (this is related to the degree of heterogeneity

in the network: less heterogeneous networks will tend to recruit individuals with similar

socio-demographic ch aracteristics, given t hat networks t end t o recruit i ndividuals be st

demographically suited t o work abroad in t erms of a ge, s ex and human capital, t hat i n

turn would mean that the adults who remain in charge o f children would be fewer and

less suited for th is responsibility). Finally, social ne tworks of migration would br ing in

and a lso m ediate t he a ccess t o i nnovative i nformation ( this is r elated t o t he de nsity of

networks, s ince l ess de nse ne tworks a llow i nnovation; a nd a lso t o t he r esources of t he

networks). T his i nnovative i nformation w ill be came a c omponent of t he resources t hat

members of t he hous ehold w ho ha ve i nfluence ove r de cisions ( especially he ads of

household), can use and encourage.

The previous ideas are based on s ome important assumptions: First, each household

member has an i ndividual e go-centered s ocial ne twork of m igration. S econd, e ach

individual e go-centered ne twork a dds up t o c onstitute pa rt of t he r esources of t he

household as a whole. Additionally, di fferent members of the household may share the

same network partners, therefore i t i s methodologically valid to consider the individual

ego-centered s ocial ne twork of m igration of t he r espondent ( an a dult m ember of a

migrant sending household with relatives in Spain and/or Italy) as a reality connected to

the reality of the household, and therefore as a determinant of its dynamics. Third, very

likely the ego-centered social networks of migration correspondent to the adult members

of t he hous ehold a re pr obably t he m ost i mportant i n t erms of a ffecting t he i nternal

21

dynamics of the household (and that is the type of data regarding social networks that has

been collected for this study).

d. The emigration streams from Argentina and Peru to Spain and Italy

The U nited S tates remains t he m ajor e conomically d eveloped country o f

destination f or e migrants f rom a lmost a ll o f th e Latin A merican a nd C aribbean

countries8

Comparing t he c ases of A rgentina and P eru i s particularly i mportant. On one

hand, Spain and Italy a re the second and third main destinations for both Argentineans

and P eruvians after t he U nited S tates. O n t he other ha nd t hese a re ve ry contrasting

societies and their contrasting characteristics are likely to be reflected in the composition

of t heir e migrant popul ations, t herefore i n t he c haracteristics o f t he s ocial n etworks o f

migration operating in the streams originating in those countries.

. However, since 2001 Spain has ranked as the second or third most important

destination of t he e conomically de veloped w orld f or Latin A mericans, particularly f or

migrants from South and Central America. Italy is emerging as a popular destination as

well, specifically for South American countries such as Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, Argentina,

and Uruguay. With recent emigration streams from Latin America increasingly connected

with societies in Europe careful r eassessment o f migration p rocesses and the impact o f

migration on sending societies is justified.

These tw o s ocieties d iffer imp ortantly in t erms o f th eir m ain e thnic origins.

Argentina’s population is basically the result of the intersection between the Italian and

Spanish i mmigrant popul ations t hat m assively arrived i n A rgentina a fter t he S econd

World War (1945) and after the Spanish Civil War (1939), the Criollo population (people

born f rom S panish pa rents i n A merica) r esulting f rom t he S panish colonization i s

secondarily i mportant. T he or iginal popul ations s ettled i n t he A rgentine t erritory w ere 8 Excluding the Caribbean French speaking islands that have Canada as their major destination (Massey et al 1998: 65), and have developed a completely different pattern of international migration.

22

pushed to the North of Argentina (close to Bolivia) or decimated. Peru’s population on

the c ontrary is th e r esult o f th e Mestizo (people b orn f rom S panish a nd i ndigenous

Quechua and Aymara parents) a nd Criollo populations r esulted f rom t he S panish

colonization. These ethnic differences seem to have resulted in contrasting family system

characteristics. In addition, Argentina was mostly urban already in the 1940s, and very

early f or Latin A merican s tandards i n t his c ountry, w as e stablished a r obust a nd

expansive –universalistic- welfare s ystem. In Peru urbanization occurred only s ince the

1960s, and as a result of the immigration from the mostly indigenous provinces of Peru to

Lima, t he capital city. In P eru a m uch l ess i nclusive an d d ual w elfare s ystem w as

established dur ing the 1 970s, a lthough the expansion of education w as very important.

Their m iddle cl asses h ave i mportant d ifferences: T he Argentinean middle cl asses

consolidated qui te e arly i n t he R epublican pe riod but t hey a re now in pr ocess o f

impoverishment; w hile P eruvian mid dle c lasses a re s till “ in th e ma king” and d id n ot

consolidate s o far. In addition, t he l egal c omponents t hat c ontribute t o s hape t he

emigration streams to Italy and Spain from Peru and Argentina seem very different. This

is r eflected in th e d ifferent r ates o f a cquisition of S panish a nd I talian n ationalities b y

Argentineans and Peruvians and in the t ypes of l egal resources the nationals f rom both

countries have access to. This will be something to take into account in the study.

In t erms o f th e s imilarities, Italy a nd S pain a re ma jor d estinations f or b oth

Argentinean a nd P eruvian e migrants. T he O rganization f or E conomic Cooperation a nd

Development (OECD) “ Database on Immigrants a nd E xpatriates” f or t he pe riod 2000 -

2003, provides da ta for some s imple calculations9

9 I extracted the total population born in Argentina and Peru (including both naturalized foreign born and not naturalized foreign born) for all and each one of the 30 members of the OECD; added all those partial totals for each Argentina and Peru, and obtained for each country the universe of emigrants from Argentina and the universe of emigrants from Peru to the 30 members of the OECD. After that I calculated simple proportions and percentages to elaborate a raking of the most important destinations for Argentineans and Peruvians among all these developed economies.

on migration f lows ( shown in Table

23

1.1). T he results provide a descriptive image of the emigration streams from Argentina

and Peru to Italy and Spain.

According to those data, Spain was the second and third destination for Peruvian

and A rgentinean e migrants, r espectively, a mong a ll t he c ountries of t he O ECD ( an

organization that represents the economically developed world). As well, Italy is the third

and fourth destination for Peruvian and Argentinean emigrants, respectively, among the

OECD c ountries. T able 1.1 s hows t hat 36.9 % of t he A rgentinean migrants t o t he

developed e conomies d uring 2000 -2003 m igrated pr imarily to th e U nited S tates, i n

second place migrated to Spain (29.4%); and in third place migrated to Italy (14.6%). For

the c ase of P eru, 61.8 % of t he P eruvian m igrants t o t he de veloped e conomies dur ing

2000-2003 migrated primarily to the United States, in second place to Spain (11.6%); in

third place to Japan (7.3%); and in fourth place to Italy (7.1%).

Table 1.1 : Total Number of Migrants from Argentina and Peru to all OECD countries (2000-2003)

Argentinean Migrants to Peruvian Migrants to All the OECD countries All the OECD countries

OECD country Abs. % OECD country Abs. % United States 130055 36.9 United States 285650 61.8 Spain 103851 29.4 Spain 53630 11.6 Italy 51677 14.6 Japan 33608 7.3 Canada 13930 3.9 Italy 32875 7.1 Australia 10763 3.1 Canada 18275 4 France 9789 2.8 France 6596 1.4 United Kingdom 6796 1.9 Australia 5510 1.2 Other OECD countries 25934 7.4 Other OECD countries 26066 5.6

24

Total 352,795 100 Total 462,210 100 Source: OECD Database on immigrants and expatriates (2005), elaborated from 2000-2003 census data, household surveys and administrative records.

If w e onl y focus on t he popul ation f ifteen a nd ol der, popul ation t hat can be

basically co nsidered as composed b y l abor m igrants, t he m ain d estinations w ithin t he

universe of developed countries for both Argentina and Peru are exactly the same: f irst

United S tates, s econd S pain; a nd t hird Italy (see Graph 1.2) A ccording t o t hese d ata,

38.42 % of t he A rgentinean 15 a nd ol der t hat migrated t o t he d eveloped e conomies

during 2000 -2003 m igrated pr imarily t o U nited S tates; 27.14 m igrated t o S pain, t he

second most important destination; and 15.4% migrated to Italy the third most important

destination. For the case of Peru, data show that 63.93% of the Peruvian 15 and older that

migrated t o t he de veloped e conomies dur ing 20 00-2003 mig rated p rimarily to U nited

States; in second place migrated to Spain (11.38%); and in third place migrated to Italy

(6.89%).

Graph 1.1: Main destinations for population 15 and older born in Argentina and Peru (2000-2003)

25

In t his s ection of t he c hapter I ha ve pr esented t he or ientation of t his s tudy a nd t he

main g uiding c omponents of i ts r esearch de sign: t he ne ed t o s tudy the e ffects o f

international migration in countries o f o rigin; th e role th at s tudying s ocial n etworks o f

migration can play in contributing to understand those effects; the intersections between

26

social ne tworks of m igration a nd m igrant s ending hous eholds; t he association b etween

living arrangements of children and demographic dependency; and the pertinence of the

comparison between country cases Argentina and Peru. In the next section I present the

hypotheses that will guide this study.

HYPOTHESES

There are consistent reasons to expect that:

Hypothesis 1: Size

The size of the social network of migration will tend to be positively associated to the

level of demographic dependency in a migrant sending household.

At a larger size of the networks, larger impacts on the migrant sending household are

expected. In c orrespondence, s maller s ocial ne tworks of m igration w ould t end t o ha ve

smaller impacts on the migrant sending household.

Hypothesis 2: Degree of heterogeneity

The degree of heterogeneity of t he s ocial n etwork of m igration w ill t end t o be

negatively a ssociated t o t he l evel of d emographic de pendency i n a m igrant s ending

household.

If a social n etwork o f m igration is heterogeneous it w ill not be e fficient enough to

recruit individuals with the same characteristics and therefore implicate them in the social

event of migration, that in turn will determine that the effects of international migration

through the network, on the migrant sending household are weaker.

Hypothesis 3: Density

27

The Density of the social network of migration of the social network of migration will

tend t o be ne gatively associated t o t he l evel of de mographic de pendency in a m igrant

sending household.

Weakness of social ties (or low density) in the social networks of migration that are

associated t o a migrant sending household would mean that t he e ffects of i nternational

migration on t he hous ehold w ould be o f l ower i ntensity. C orrespondingly, s ocial

networks of migration with stronger social ties (higher density) can have more important

effects on the migrant sending household.

Hypothesis 4: Resources

• The fact that the network partners have relatives in Spain and/or Italy (number of

network pa rtners ha ve s econdary a nd t ertiary l evels of e ducation) is li kely to

correspond to increased availability of contacts, information, help, support related

to the travel and insertion in the destination country; therefore having relatives in

Spain/Italy is positively associated to demographic dependency.

• The a vailability o f in ternational mig ration e xperience ( number of n etwork

partners who are current migrants; and number of network partners who are ex—

migrants), will tend to be positively associated to demographic dependency. The

migration experience of network partners, who provide adequate information and

contacts at the destination, would increase the possibilities of emigration for other

members of t he m igrant s ending hous ehold, with t hat de mographic d ependency

would increase.

• The a vailability of f inancial r esources (number of ne twork p artners w ho ha ve

financial r esources), w ill t end t o be pos itively associated t o de mographic

dependency. S ocial ne tworks w ith m ore f inancial r esources us ually help

prospective m igrants i n providing with e conomic m eans t o f inance t he costs of

28

migration. T herefore, t he pos sibilities o f e migration o f o ther me mbers o f th e

migrant s ending hous ehold w ould i ncrease a nd w ith t hat de mographic

dependency would increase.

• The a ggregated l evel of education (number o f ne twork pa rtners have s econdary

and t ertiary l evels o f education) w ill te nd to b e p ositively a ssociated to

demographic d ependency. N etwork p artners with hi gher l evels of education

attainment would tend to offer better information, contacts and financial resources

to migrate, that in turn would create increased possibilities of emigration for other

members of the migrant sending household, and demographic dependency would

increase. Table 1.2: Hypothesized effects of the characteristics of social

networks of migration on the migrant sending

29

households.

Characteristics of the social networks of migration

Living arrangements of children

Demographic dependency

Structure of the network

SIZE

(+)

DEGREE OF HETEROGENEITY:

• Sex heterogeneity (-)

• Age heterogeneity (-)

• Education heterogeneity (-)

DENSITY (+)

Resources of the network

• N.Ps. have relatives in Spain and/or Italy

• N.Ps. are current or ex—

migrants (+)

• N.Ps. have financial resources (+)

• N.Ps. have secondary and tertiary level of education (+)

The r emainder of t his dissertation w ill c onsist of a s econd c hapter e xplaining t he

methodology, pa rticularly the de sign a nd i mplementation of t he “Household s urvey o f

Migrant S ending H ouseholds t o Italy a nd S pain”, w hich was t he ba sic i nstrument

designed to collect primary quantitative data in this study. The third chapter is dedicated

to determine the existence and characteristics o f the South European migration system,

30

the emergent migration system in which the flows from Argentina to Spain and Italy and

from Peru to Spain and Italy a re important components. Chapter 4 ha s as objective the

comparison between the institutional dimensions that in Argentina and Peru but also at a

transnational level and at the destinations contribute to shape the types of social networks

of migration that operate within the migration f lows f rom Argentina to Spain and Italy

and f rom Peru to Spain and Italy. In chapter 5 I will describe the characteristics of the

respondents who are the ego of the networks, the characteristics of their network partners

and the social relationships that connect both respondents and network partners, always

comparing be tween f lows a nd c ountries of or igin A rgentina a nd P eru. C hapter 6 i s

dedicated t o t he pr esentation of t he c haracteristics of t he n etworks, i n terms of t heir

structure (size, degree of heterogeneity, density) and resources (experience of migration

to Spain and Italy, family members at the destination countries, f inancial resources and

education). In ch apter 7 I p resent t he i nferential s tatistical an alysis d edicated to te st if

and how de mographic dependency a t t he m igrant s ending hous ehold depends on t he

characteristics o f t he s ocial ne tworks of m igration. C hapter 8 i s t he c hapters on t he

conclusions of this study.

REFERENCES:

Abadan-Unat, N . ( 1977). " Implications of M igration on E mancipation a nd P seudo-Emancipation of Turkish Women." International Migration Review 11(1): 31-57.

Acosta, P., P. Fajnzylber, et al. (2008). How important are remittances in Latin America?

Remittances and Development. Lessons from Latin America. P. Fajnzylber and J. H. López. Washington D.C., The World Bank: 21-50.

Adams, R . ( 1996). Remittances, Income di stribution, a nd r ural a sset a ccumulation.

Washington D.C., International Food Policy Research Institute Adams, R. (2003). International migration, remittances, and the brain drain; a study of 24

labor exporting countries. Washington DC, The World Bank.

31

Adams, R. H. J. (2006). Remittances, Poverty and Investment in Guatemala. International Migration, Remittances and Community Development. C. Ozden and M. Schiff. Washington DC, The World Bank Group: 53-80.

Alarcon, R. (2002). The Development of the Hometown Associations in the United States

and the Use of Social Remittances in Mexico ed ited by Sending Money Home: Hispanic R emittances a nd C ommunity D evelopment. R . O . l . G arza a nd L. Lowell. Lanham MD, Rowman & Littlefield.: 101-124.

Aysa, M. and D. Massey (2004). Wives left behind: The labor market behavior of women

in mig rant c ommunities. Crossing t he B order: R esearch f rom the M exican Migration P roject. J . Durand a nd D . M assey. N ew Y ork, R ussell S age Foundation: 131- 144.

Bagchi, A . ( 2001). Making c onnections: a s tudy of ne tworking among i mmigrant

proffesionals. New York, LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC. Banerjee, A. V. and E. Duflo (2008). "What is the middle Class about the Middle Classes

around the world?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 22(2): 3-28. Barnes, J . A . ( 1954). " Class a nd c ommittees i n a N orwegian i sland pa rish." Human

Relations(7): 39-58. Behrman, J . R., H . P . K holer, e t a l. ( 2002). " Social N etworks a nd C hanges i n

Contraceptive Use Over T ime: E vidence f rom a Longitudinal S tudy i n R ural Kenya." Demography 39(4): 713-738.

Boissevain, J. and J. C. Mitchell (1973). Network analysis: studies in human interaction.

The Hague, Mouton Publishers. Boyd, M . ( 1989). "Family a nd pe rsonal ne tworks i n i nternational m igration: r ecent

developments and new agendas." International Migration Review 23(3): 638-70. Cohen, R. (2000). ""Mom is a Stranger": The Negative Impact of Immigration Policies

on th e F amily Life o f Filipina D omestic W orkers." Canadian E thnic S tudies Journal Fall.

Cooksey, E . C . a nd P . H. C raig ( 1998). "Parenting f rom a Distance: The E ffects o f

Paternal Characteristics on Contact between Nonresidential Fathers and Their Children." Demography. 35(2. Men in Families.): 187-200. Durand, J., E. Parrado, et al. (1996). "Migradollars and Development: A Reconsideration

of the Mexican Case." International Migration Review 30(2): 423-444.

32

Easterly, W. (2001). "The Middle Class Consensus and Economic Development." Journal of Economic Growth 6(4): 317-335.

Entwisle, B., R. R. Rindfuss, et al. (1996). "Community and contraceptive choice in rural

Thailand: A case study of Nang Rong." Demography 33(1): 1-11. Fields, J . ( 2003). C hildren's Living A rrangements a nd C haracteristics: M arch 2002.

Current Population Reports. Washington D.C., U.S. Census Bureau. Flores, N . Y ., R . H ernandez-Leon, e t al. ( 2004). S ocial C apital a nd E migration From

Rural and Urban Communities. Crossing the Border: Research from the Mexican Migration P roject. J . Durand a nd D . M assey. N ew Y ork, R ussell S age Foundation: 184-200.

Fussell, E . a nd D . M assey ( 2004). " The Limits to C umulative C ausation: International

Migration from Mexican Urban Areas." Demography 41(1): 151-171. Granovetter, M . ( 1973). " The S trength o f W eak T ies " The A merican J ournal of

Sociology 86(6): 1360-1380. Granovetter, M. (1976). "Network Sampling: Some First Steps." The American Journal

of Sociology 81(6): 1287-1303. Grasmuck, S . a nd P . P essar ( 1991). Between Two I slands.Dominican I nternational

Migration Berkeley, University of California Press. Gratton, B . ( 2007). "Ecuadorians i n t he U nited S tates a nd S pain: H istory, G ender a nd

Niche Formation." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 33(4): 581-599. Guendelman, S . and A. Perez-Itriago (1987). "Migration Tradeoffs: Men’s Experiences

with Seasonal Lifestyles." International Migration Review 21(3): 709-727. Gurak, D . T . and F . C aces ( 1992). M igration N etworks a nd t he S haping of M igration

Systems International Migration Systems. A Global Approach. M. M. Kritz, L. L. Lim and H. Zlotnik. New York, Oxford University Press: 150-176.

Haritos-Fatouros, M. and D. Sakka (1988). "A study of migrant mothers: return home and

role change." International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling 11: 167-181.

Hondagneu-Sotelo, P . ( 1992). "Overcoming P atriarchal C onstrains; T he R econstruction

of Gender Relations among Mexican Immigrant Women and Men." Gender and Society 6(3): 393-415.

Hondagneu-Sotelo, P. and E. Avila (1996). "I am here but I am there: The Meanings of

Latina Transnational Motherhood." Gender and Society 11(5): 548-571.

33

Hugo, G. (1992). Women on t he move: Changing Patterns of Population Movement of

Women in Indonesia. Gender and Migration in Developing Countries. S . Chant. London, Belhaven Press.

Hugo, G . (1995). " International M igration a nd the F amily: S ome O bservations f rom

Indonesia." Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 4(2-4): 273-301. Kandel, W . and D. Massey (2002). "The Culture of Mexican Migration: A Theoretical

and Empirical Analysis." Social Forces 80(3): 981-1004. Kapferer, B. (1972). Strategy and transaction in an African factory. African Workers and

Indian M anagement i n a Z ambian T own. M anchester, M anchester University Press.

Kholer, H. P. (2001). Fertility and Social Interaction. An Economic Perspective. Oxford,

University Press. Levitt, P . ( 1996). Social R emittances: a C onceptual T ool f or U nderstanding M igration

and D evelopment. W orking P aper S eries, H arvard C enter for P opulation a nd Development Studies.

Levitt, P . ( 1998). "Local-Level G lobal R eligion: T he C ase o f U .S.-Dominican

Migration." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37(1): 74-89. Levitt, P. (1998). "Social Remittances: Migration Driven Local-Level Forms of Cultural

Diffusion." International Migration Review 32(4): 926-948. Levitt, P. (2001). The Transnational Villagers. Berkeley, University of California Press. Lowell, L. (2003) Skilled Migration Abroad or Human Capital Flight? Volume, DOI: Lowell, L., A . F indlay, et a l. ( 2004) B rain S train. O ptimizing hi ghly s killed m igration

from de veloping countries Asylum a nd M igration. W orking P aper 3 Volume, DOI:

Lowell, L. and S. Gerova (2004). " Immigrants and the Healthcare Workforce. Profiles

and Shortages " Work and Occupations 34(4): 1-25. Martin, P . ( 2003). Highly S killed Labor M igration: S haring t he B enefits. G eneva,

International Labor Organization. Massey, D. (1988). "Economic Development and International Migration in Comparative

Perspective." Population and Development Review 14(3): 393-414.

34

Massey, D . ( 1990). " Social S tructure, H ousehold S trategies, and t he C umulative Causation of Migration." Population Index 56(1): 3-26.

Massey, D ., J . A rango, e t a l. ( 1988). World i n M otion. U nderstanding International

Migration at the End of the Millennium. New York, Oxford University Press. Massey, D., J. Arango, et al., Eds. (1998). Worlds in Motion. Understanding International

Migration at t he E nd of t he M illennium. International S tudies i n D emography. New York, Oxford University Press.

McLanahan, S. (2004). "Diverging Destinies: How Children are Faring Under the Second

Demographic Transition." Demography 41(4): 607-627. McLanahan, S. and G. Sandefur (1994). Growing Up with a Single Parent: What Hurts,

What Helps. Cambridge, MA, Harvard Press. Mitchell, J. C . ( 1969). Social N etworks i n U rban S ituations: A nalyses of P ersonal

Relationships i n C entral A frican T owns. Manchester, Manchester U niversity Press.

Mooney, M . ( 2003). "Migrants’ S ocial T ies i n t he U .S. a nd Investment i n M exico."

Social Forces 81(4): 1147-1170. Morrison, D. R. and A. Ritualo (2000). "Routes to Children's Economic Recovery After

Divorce: A re C ohabitation and R emarriage E quivalent." American S ociological Review 65: 560-580.

Raley, K., M. L. Frisco, et al. (2005). "Maternal Cohabitation and Educational Success."

Sociology of Education 78(2): 144-164 Reichert, J . ( 1981). " The M igrant S yndrome: Seasonal US W age Labor a nd R ural

Development in Central Mexico." Human Organization 40(1): 56-66. Rindfuss, R . R ., M . K . Choe, e t a l. ( 2004). " Social N etworks a nd F amily C hange i n

Japan." American Sociological Review 69: 838-861. Rivero-Fuentes, E . ( 2004). C umulative c ausation a mong in ternal a nd in ternational

Mexican m igrants. Crossing t he B order: R esearch f rom t he M exican M igration Project. J . D urand a nd D . M assey. New York, R ussell S age F oundation Publications: 201-231.

Roberts, K. and M. D. Morris (2003). "Fortune, Risk, and Remittances: An Application

of O ption T heory to P articipation in V illage-Based M igration N etworks." International Migration Review 37(4): 1252-1291.

35

Rosenbaum, E . ( 2000). " Urban C hildren's Living A rrangements a nd t heir E conomic Status: New York, 1993." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 59(2).

Scott, J. (1988). "Social Network Analysis " Sociology 22(1): 109-127. Smit, R . ( 2001). " The i mpact of l abor m igration on A frican f amilies i n S outh A frica:

Yesterday and Today." Journal of Comparative Family Studies 32(4): 533-548. Suro, R., S. Bendixen, et al. (2002). Billions in Motion: Latino Immigrants, Remittances

and B anking. W ashington D .C. , P ew H ispanic C entre and t he M ultilateral Investment Fund.

Tacoli, C . ( 1999). "International M igration a nd t he R estructuring o f G ender

Asymmetries: Continuity and Change among Filipino Labor Migrants in Rome." International Migration Review 33(3): 658-682.

Taylor, E. (1999). "The new economics of labour migration and the role of remittances in

the migration process." International Migration 37: 63-87. Ugalde, A ., F . D . B ean, e t a l. ( 1979). " International M igration f rom t he D ominican

Republic: F indings f rom a N ational S urvey." International M igration R eview 13(2): 235-254.

Wierzbicki, S. K . ( 2004). Beyond t he Immigrant E nclave: N etwork C hange a nd

Assimilation. New York, LFB Scholarly Publishing.

36

Chapter 2: Collecting data on international migration in Lima and Buenos Aires, field Research and the “Household Survey for Relatives of

Migrants to Spain and Italy”

This c hapter pr esents t he pr ocedures I us ed t o c ollect bot h t he qua ntitative a nd

qualitative da ta f or m y s tudy. A mix ed-methods a pproach c an r esult i n a be tter

observation of the relationship of structure and agency: quantitative methods are useful to

understand s tructural pr ocesses and qua litative m ethods a re us eful to unde rstand

processes l inked to individual interactions and small/ medium size group entities. I add

that a mixed-method approach is crucial to study social networks since networks seem to

be “situated” in the intersection of both structure and agency (Rindfuss, Choe et al. 2004,

consider social networks as a pathway from micro level interactions to macro-level social

change). The connection between micro level interactions and macro-level social change

is imp ortant t o m y r esearch obj ective of unde rstanding t he r ole of s ocial ne tworks of

migration as catalysts of change within the emergent South European migration system

(Boyd 1989: 639, s ees f amily/household f riendship a nd c ommunity ba sed ne tworks a s

active in the maturation of migration streams).

The b asic in strument d esigned to c ollect p rimary q uantitative d ata w as a

household survey elaborated with the objective of targeting relatives of migrants to Spain

and Italy, in Lima and Buenos Aires (“Household survey of Migrant Sending Households

to Italy and Spain” – Appendix 1.a contains the translations of the questionnaire versions

for Buenos A ires a nd Lima). T he s urvey, w hich ha d t wo v ersions a ccording t o t he

country, was conducted with the help of six interviewers in Lima and six interviewers in

Buenos Aires from May 29 to June 18 of 2006 ( three weeks, everyday from Monday to

37

Sunday) in Lima, Peru; and f rom December 11 t o December 24 of the same year (two

weeks f rom Monday to Sunday)10. These data were in tegrated with qualitative insights

from fieldwork conducted during the last months of 2006, and the summers of 2007 and

2008, employing interviews with expert and institutional actors and in-depth interviews

to relatives of migrants to Spain and Italy

Secondary data

(Appendix 2.a includes a sample of the main

interview protocols).

Useful secondary sources in this study have been: (a) Public access data provided

by the Review of the Municipal Register (Revisión del Padrón Municipal de España), an

official r eview o f t he Padrón Municipal (i.e a r egister of t he uni verse of

residents/neighbors of each municipality in Spain), prepared by the National Institute of

Statistics o f S pain ( Instituto Nacional de Estadística - INE). T his r egister i ncluded t he

records of all the foreign born regardless of their documented or undocumented status by

country of origin, age, and citizenship.

(b) Public access data provided by Istat, the Italian National Institute of Statistics

(L’Istituto nazionale di statistica), which mainly uses the official records of the Ministry

of Interior o f Italy o n s tay p ermits ( permesse di soggiorno) av ailable s ince 1992, but

reviewed and c orrected i n 2003. T hese r ecords pr ovide i nformation on c ountry o f

citizenship rather that country of origin of all the foreign born.

(c) Public access data provided by the 2006 American Community Survey sample

(IPUMS-USA, administered by the Minnesota Population Center).

(d) T he O rganization f or E conomic Cooperation a nd Development (OECD)

“Database on Immigrants and Expatriates” for the period 2001-2003. 10 These weeks were the weeks when the two versions of the questionnaire (Questionnaire-Lima and Questionnaire Buenos Aires) were administered. However, the process of building the sampling frames and the logistical arrangements to conduct the survey took at least 3 weeks of preparation in the case of Argentina, and 2 months in the case of Peru.

38

(e) The OECD “International M igration O utlook” yearly c ompendiums of

immigration la ws a nd p olicies imp lemented b y OECD me mber c ountries c ompiled f or

different years since the 1990s.

QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION

The target population of the survey was women and men older than 18 r esiding

in Argentina/Peru who were family members of migrants to Italy or Spain. To guarantee

that th e d ata collected were me aningful to th e s tudy, th e criteria to finally in vite a

possible respondent to participate in the survey was that at least one of the migrant family

members t o Italy o r S pain had be en a broad f or a pe riod of a t l east 6 m onths a t t he

moment of a pplication of t he qu estionnaire; and a lso t hat t he pos sible respondent w as

frequently in c ontact w ith th e mig rant f amily member11

11 “Frequent contact” was operationalized as: “you call them/receive calls from them; write them emails/receive emails from them; write them letters/receive letters from them at least one time in a month; or a member of your household receives/send these types of communications at least one time in a month, and informs them to you).

. It w as not a criterion of

eligibility for the sample that these persons themselves were planning to emigrate or not,

but given the strategies used to sample them (see next subsection), i t was expected that

prospective migrants (who had a family member in Spain and/or Italy) were p resent in

the s ample. The objectives of t his survey asked t he i nterviewee to provide i nformation

about: (i) the general characteristics of the household and its members as is usual in any

household s urvey; ( ii) t he de mographic c haracteristics, a nd t he e ducation a nd w ork

situations of t he relatives w ho h ad mig rated b efore a nd after th eir tr ip; ( iii) th e

characteristics o f th e in dividuals w ith w hom th ey frequently c omment on e migration

issues ( data o n eg o-centered s ocial ne tworks o f m igration); a nd ( iv) t he e ducation

trajectories and work plans of/for the younger members of the household.

39

Given the lack of information on t he characteristics of the general population of

families with international migrants12

In this way, the sampling process for this survey included: a) the identification of

locations that th e members of the population of interest would most likely visit; b) the

evaluation of t he m ovement a nd a ttendance of pe ople i n t hose l ocations; c ) t he

enumeration o f s pecific s ub-locations ( within t he m entioned l ocations); d) t he

enumeration of the particular days and hours when individuals with the characteristics of

the population of interest would visit or spend time in the particular sub-locations; e) the

and given the need to design probabilistic samples,

the steps to determine the samples in both countries included the building of the sampling

frame according to a sampling technique developed for the case of mobile, rare or elusive

populations f or w hich t here a re not s ampling f rames (Kalton 2001) . A ccording t o t his

technique, a s ampling frame could be bui lt f or a s ubset of t he t otal p opulation ( the

mobile, e lusive or r are population), us ing c onsecutive e numerations ( lists) of l ocations

associated to times (months, weeks, days and hours) when these locations are visited by

the population of interest (Kalton 2001). The combination of these enumerations or lists,

then constitute the needed sampling frames to select a probabilistic sample. As a result,

locations, sub-locations; and months in a year, days during the week and hours during the

day (among other possibilities of space and time combinations) can be randomly selected.

These t imes and places provided the sampling frame from which specific times (hours)

and s ub-locations ( specific pl aces w ithin the l ocation) t o a pproach pot ential

interviewees. F ilter q uestions a re th en u sed to id entify e ligibility as p art o f th e

population of interest.

12 Both the national census in Argentina and Peru include a question about absent members in the household that could serve to track the households with international migrants but the last year for census data in Argentina is 2001 and 2007 (one year after I conducted my research). Also, these data (micro data) are not easily accessible. The national household surveys in both countries (EPH in Argentina and ENAHO in Peru) include a similar question, but the data on that only question as with the census data were not sufficient to answers my research questions.

40

articulation of both lists of sub-locations and times in a sampling frame; and finally f) the

random selection of combinations of SUB-LOCATIONS and TIMES; according to which

individuals w ere a pproached a nd i nvited t o pa rticipate i n t he s urvey. I w ill de scribe

these tasks in detail in the next section (“Building the sampling frames”).

The locations selected to conduct the survey in the case of Lima, Peru were the

Embassy o f Italy i n P eru; t he E mbassy of S pain i n P eru; t he National Directorship o f

Migrations of Peru (Dirección Nacional de Migraciones); the Italian Institute of Culture

(Instituto Italiano de Cultura del Peru) w here ed ucation cr edentials ar e o fficially

validated b y t he Italian government; t he International A irport J orge C havez; a nd t he

corner/street u sed t o p lace a d isplay cabinet containing th e lis t o f a warded v isas in E l

Ejercito A venue ( we c alled it “ La V itrina” o r d isplay c abinet ) 13

Building the sampling frames:

. In A rgentina, t hese

locations were the General Consulate of Italy in Buenos Aires, the Consulate of Spain in

Buenos Aires, the Federal Police of Argentina (Section: Passports) and the International

Airport of Ezeiza "Ministro Pistarini".

Here I describe in detail how the process of building sampling frames took place

in Lima (where I started first) and then in Buenos Aires:

(i) Identification of locations and evaluation of the movement and attendance of

people in those locations: Using th e in dications o btained f rom r elatives o f migrants to

Spain and Italy in preliminary interviews, I identified about 12 locations in Lima and 6

locations in Buenos Aires that were frequented by relatives of migrants.

13This is a very interesting/strange space that although it is connected to the Embassy of Spain in Peru, is located in the poorest side of another district of the city (Miraflores, while the embassy is in San Isidro) very far away from the embassy and where the only object of attention was a display cabinet with the names of the persons who were awarded different types of visas, but mostly work visas to Spain. The lists were changed 2 -3 times a week, and those were the only occasions when two members of the embassy personnel were present in that space.

41

In Lima I had to discard the offices of the companies where relatives of migrants

received t heir r emittances co ming f rom S pain an d/or Italy b ecause o f t he s uspicion o f

visitors t o t hese of fices. T hese vi sitors w ere worried about t he pos sibility o f be ing

robbed. I also had to di scard t he o ffices of t he Driver l icenses Offices i n Lima, which

housed a special program to obtain a drivers license to be used in Spain. The office of this

program was not as visited by the population of interest as I expected.

In B uenos Aires, t he d iscarded l ocations w ere t he N ational D irectorship o f

Migrations of Argentina and the embassies of Spain and Italy. The National Directorship

of Migrations of Argentina was not visited by relatives of migrants to Spain and Italy but

mainly b y i mmigrants t o A rgentina f rom ne ighboring countries P araguay, P eru a nd

Bolivia. The embassies of Spain and Italy were discarded as locations because different

than in Peru, in Argentina the embassies of these countries are completely separated from

the consulates (it is in the consulates where all the paperwork regarding visas, citizenship

and a ll i mmigration i ssues i s pr ocessed). In Buenos A ires, t he consulates f unction i n

more ac cessible a reas o f t he ci ty (both cl ose t o t he “m icro-center” o f C apital Federal),

whereas t he embassies are l ocated i n h igh i ncome r esidential areas ( La Recoleta) an d

they were not visited by the public14

(ii). Identifying specific sub-locations: Identifying th e s pecific s ub-locations in

each o ne o f t he l ocations w as n ecessary b ecause p ersons at tending a l ocation u se t he

space i n d ifferent ways, and t he specific ar ea i n t he space where t hey s tay and ex pend

time differs according to socio-demographic characteristics. For example in the embassy

of Spain in Peru (typically surrounded by hundreds of people during the weekdays), the

.

14 Also, different than in Peru, where there is only one consulate of Spain and only one consulate of Italy, both located in Lima, in Argentina given its important history of Spanish and Italian immigration, there are four Spanish consulates ( the one in Buenos Aires and the Consulate of Spain in Mendoza, the Consulate of Spain in Rosario, and the Consulate of Spain in Córdoba) and eight consulates of Italy (the one in Buenos Aires and the General Consulate of Italy in Bahia Blanca, in Córdoba, in La Plata, in Lomas de Zamora, in Mar del Plata, in Mendoza, and in Rosario).

42

specific pa perwork i n which pe ople w ere i nvolved w as i mportant t o di fferentiate

groupings of people. Thus, the major contingent would apply for a work visa, others for

family reunification, some others for official recognition of education credentials, others

for t ourist vi sas ( and a ll of t hose t ypes of p aperwork are a ssociated with di fferent

situations and socio-economic status). Also, the socio-economic status of the visitors to

the embassy would determine the times at which attended the embassy and even express

their strategies to interact with the institution of the embassy. Here a brief recount of my

observations regarding a ve ry special t ype of queue f ormed at 4: 00 i n t he m orning,

sometimes even earlier in the Embassy of Spain in Lima:

“There is a l ine that people formed from around 4:00 in the morning. This queue, that w e ( the i nterviewers an d I) u sed t o cal l "la cola de la madrugada" (“the queue of the dawn”) had a rare characteristic: it was formed 5 blocks away from the embassy, in the direction of an imaginary door: there was no door to access, nor a ny w indow or s tall, or of ficial of t he e mbassy o r guardian to ta lk w ith b y waiting in the l ine. In addition, only people coming f rom the p rovinces of Peru and from the poorer, lower-middle class districts of Lima, formed the line. Since the embassy o f S pain is lo cated in a h igh c lass residential d istrict o f Lima (the district of San Isidro a round Camino Real). Since t he previous year, ne ighbors had de manded t hat t he people ga thering a round t he e mbassy ( again, pe ople of lower economic status) should be forced to leave. Consequently, the municipality ordered that if people insisted on m aking a l ine from very early in the morning, they s hould do i t f ar a way f rom t he r esidential a rea w here t he e mbassy was situated. T he place allocated for this line from 4:00 AM was the intersection of Av. J avier P rado w ith Av. A requipa a n a rea w ithout hous ing, a nd c lose t o a n expressway. W hen t he e mbassy ope ned a t 7: 30, a pol iceman w ould c ome f rom the embassy and tell the people who had been waiting in the line to come around to the embassy (“bringing them to the embassy” and respecting the order of each person in t he l ine). In addition, t he embassy ha d t ried another solution to avoid annoying t he ne ighborhood b y us ing of a w aiting l ist t o w hich e very pe rson needed t o s ubscribe t hrough t he w ebpage of t he e mbassy. B ut a lthough t his system of a ppointments on -line w as w orking, n ot a ll t he pe ople t rusted i t a nd many insisted in making the l ine at 4 A M. Those people were poorer Peruvians coming from the marginal districts of Lima and from the provinces of Peru, whom felt vul nerable i n t heir in teraction w ith in stitutions lik e th e e mbassy. T hey s aid they preferred to make “more effort”. In conversations, they said that their claims or petitions would be ignored by the officials in the embassy and for that reason, although they had an appointment for a later time (for example for 11 AM), they would come at 4 or 5 AM to wait and have a better chance “to make everything

43

better”, talk with other people in the l ine, obtain more information to counteract negative r esponses t o t heir r equests, s trategize e tc. W e a lso not ed t hat pe ople better dr essed, a nd e thnically “ whiter” t han t he one s c oming t o m ake t he mentioned queue, would come to their appointments in the embassy only minutes before t heir appointment ( appointments s tarted a t 7: 30 A M), a nd i t w as not possible to find them in “the queue of the dawn”. T hese observations led me to include a s one m ore s ub-location of t he e mbassy of S pain t his ve ry p articular queue” ( Fieldwork not es LIM1) ( Appendix 1.b includes a lis t o f a s egment o f sampling frame for Lima)”.

In Buenos A ires, t here was not t hat m uch va riation be tween s ub-locations but

more va riation be tween locations. T he pe ople m aking t he l ines a nd pa perwork i n t he

Consulate of Spain in Buenos Aires were, according to the interviewers, “gente cheta” or

rich people; and the people making the line in the General Consulate of Italy in Buenos

Aires ( there was onl y o ne l ine i n t his l ocation) w ere poor er p eople coming f rom t he

partidos situated i n t he s urroundings o f Capital Federal15

(iii).Elaborating the sampling frames: The f inal s tep of t he pr ocess w as

performed a fter sub-locations were identified in each one of the selected locations, and

after t he d ynamics o f t he i nflow of vi sitors hour b y hour was evaluated, dur ing a

complete week. In that way I had complete information regarding the existence of sub-

locations and the hours these locations were active day by day (different days in the week

presented di fferent d ynamics). W ith t hat i nformation I c ombined l ists of s ub-locations,

days, and hours, and the result of those combinations were the three sampling frames I

used: t wo i n Lima a nd one i n B uenos A ires ( Appendix 1.b includes a s egment of t he

or c oming f rom t he less

residential ne ighborhoods i n C apital F ederal. In conclusion, di fferent groupings i n t he

locations of Lima m ade di fferent s ub-locations visible, b ut th at w as n ot th e c ase in

Buenos Aires.

15 Great Buenos Aires is composed by Capital Federal (the central district of the Republic of Argentina) and the partidos of the Province of Buenos Aires (“partido” is the term used in Argentina to name the smallest political units within a province).

44

sampling frame for Lima). The characteristics of the sampling frames and the samples are

described in the following table:

Table 2.1: Characteristics of sampling frames Lima and Buenos Aires

City Sampling frames

Sampling units

Sample (*)

Lima

Sampling frame Peru- Spain

455 (numerated from sampling unit #1 to sampling unit #455)

91 (1 set of 91 unique numbers per set)

Sampling frame Peru- Italy

278 (numerated from sampling unit #1 to sampling unit # 278)

91 (1 set of 91 unique numbers per set)

Buenos Aires

Sampling frame Argentina- Spain & Argentina – Italy (**)

194 (numerated from sampling unit #1 to sampling unit # 278)

114 (1 set of 114 unique numbers per set)

Notes: (*) 91 and 114 were the total number of "active hours" in Lima and Buenos Aires respectively (active hours = hours when there was an inflow of visitors in a sub-location).

In Lima, it was necessary to use a s ampling frame for the population of relatives

associated to th e mig ration s tream P eru- Spain a nd a nother s ampling f rame f or t he

population o f r elatives a ssociated to th e mig ration s tream P eru- Italy. F ield w ork

observations a nd t he t esting of t he que stionnaire in a ll th e s elected lo cations in Lima

showed t hat t he popul ation of r elatives of m igrants t o S pain and t he population of

relatives o f mi grants to Italy clearly v isited d ifferent locations. It w as not common for

individuals a ttending a location a ssociated w ith t he m igration t o S pain a nd w ho ha d

relatives in Spain, had also relatives in Italy, and vice versa. The sampling frame for the

stream Peru- Spain had 455 sampling units and the sampling frame for the stream Peru-

Italy h ad 278. S ampling uni ts were t he mentioned combinations of sub-location/day of

the week/hour.

45

In contrast, i n B uenos A ires, f ield w ork obs ervations a nd t he t esting of t he

questionnaire i n al l t he selected l ocations r evealed t hat i t w as co mmon for r elatives o f

migrants to Spain to also have another relative in Italy and vice versa. In addition, the two

populations of interest (relatives of migrants to Spain and relatives of migrants to Italy)

would vi sit the same locations. Finally, in Argentina, the number of locations and sub-

locations was fewer than in Peru. This probably was associated with the way institutions

work in Argentina, and how individuals interact with them, and also with the differences

in the level of emigrations to Spain and Italy from Peru and from Argentina. In Lima the

embassy of Spain was surrounded by hundreds of people, in di fferent t ypes of l ines, in

the C onsulate of S pain in B uenos A ires, t here was onl y one s hort l ine t hat w ould be

formed immediately a fter a rriving, and most of t he vi sitors would pass t o special halls

where t hey c ould s it a nd f ill out t heir pa per work w ithout m uch s upervision f rom t he

police. Also, i n Lima the individuals coming to process paperwork in the embassy of

Italy c ame w ith r elatives w ho s erved as “a r esource” t o h elp o btain d ocuments , or t o

serve as emotional support if petitions were denied and celebrate, if they were accepted;

in B uenos A ires, i ndividuals c ame b y t hemselves, w ithout a ccompanying r elatives

(Fieldwork notes LIM2, Fieldwork notes BAS1). This explains why in Buenos Aires, the

locations w ere l ess pop ulated a nd w hy i t was unnecessary t o di stinguish ( many) s ub-

locations. N evertheless, e ven t hough t here w ere l ess l ocations a nd s ub-locations i n

Buenos A ires t han i n P eru, t here w ere m ore “ active hour s” t han i n P eru because t here

were more flights and more airlines making flights between Buenos Aires and different

cities in Spain and in Italy. In Peru, in 2006, airlines flew only to Madrid and Rome, and

not to other cities in those countries. The sampling frame for the stream Argentina - Spain

and the stream Argentina-Italy had 194 sampling units (see table 2.1).

Sampling:

I assigned a number to each one of the sampling units and, then, using a random

numbers generator I selected two samples of 91 sampling units for Lima, one sample for

the stream Peru-Spain and the other sample for the stream Peru- Italy. The sample was of

size 91 because 91 was the total number of active hours in a week (7 days) for all the sub-

46

locations included in the locations associated with the migration to Spain and 91 was also

the t otal num ber of a ctive hour s i n a w eek f or a ll t he s ub-locations be longing t o t he

locations associated to the migration to Italy.

The same sampling process was used to make the sample in Buenos Aires. In this

case, t he num ber o f a ctive hour s i n a ll t he s ub-locations th at w ere id entified in th e

locations a ssociated t o bot h t he m igration t o S pain a nd Italy w ere 114 . T herefore t he

sample size was 114.

Administration of the questionnaire:

Participants o f t he s urvey were co ntacted a ccording t o a r andom s election of

combinations of S UB-LOCATIONS and T IMES w here/when i ndividuals w ere

approached and invited to answer the questionnaire. The training of the members of the

team who helped administer the questionnaire included training on the way to access the

possible interviewee. In almost all the cases, with the exceptions of the Federal Police of

Argentina (where p assports a re i ssued) and t he Airport of E zeiza i n Buenos A ires, w e

also ha d pe rmission f rom t he i nstitutions t o apply t he que stionnaires w ithin th eir

precincts. The Federal Police never authorized us to realize interviews inside the building

where t here w ere hund reds of s eats w here pu blic w aited b y t urn t o be c alled t o a

administrative window, therefore we only could contact people in the line formed from 6

AM t o 8 A M w hen t he D ocumentation S ection of t he F ederal P olice ope ned ( early

visitors). In the Airport of Ezeiza, there was no need for permission to conduct interviews

in the public spaces of the airport. So I did not request one. However, although they never

interrupted our work, security personal asked us for identification and told us they were

aware of our visits and interactions with the public.

The w ay each o ne o f t he m embers o f t he t eam ( six in L ima an d s ix i n Buenos

Aires respectively) approached people explaining that they were college students working

47

as a ssistants f or a P eruvian doc toral s tudent who w as c onducting a s urvey about

international m igration i n or der t o obt ain da ta f or he r doc toral t hesis. M any o f t hose

approached a greed to b e pa rt of t he s ample a t t his point, but t he members of t he t eam

followed m y i nstructions t o e xplain t he obj ectives of t he s urvey a nd to i nform t he

possible interviewee that they could decide to stop the interview at any point or refuse to

answer any question; the assistants also answered any questions raised by the contacted

person. The assistants showed their presentation letters signed by me and in the case of

Lima also b y th e h ead of th e R esearch C ommittee o f th e Institute o f P eruvian S tudies

(Instituto de Estudios Peruanos-IEP) where I was an affiliated researcher at that moment

and where I used to work before starting graduate studies in the University of Texas. The

letter of presentation in Buenos Aires, Argentina was written on normal blank paper and

was signed only by me. In the case of the Consulate of Spain in Buenos Aires it was also

a presentation letter validated by the Consul and the Responsible Security.Officer.

In Lima, t he que stionnaire ( Peruvian ve rsion of t he que stionnaire) ai med t o

collect da ta on di fferent a spects of t he l ife of migrant s ending hous eholds, f or t he t wo

relevant migration streams: from Peru to Italy (n= 206) and from Peru to Spain (n=398).

In Buenos Aires I used the same questionnaire but with changes to adjust the questions to

the Argentine reality (Argentine version of the questionnaire). In Buenos Aires, the data

collected a lso in cluded the tw o r elevant mig ration s treams: f rom A rgentina to Italy

(n=75) and from Argentina to Spain (n= 245). (see table 2.2).

Table 2.2 : Samples of the four different streams

48

Migration stream

Argentina- Argentina- Peru- Peru- Total Italy Spain Italy Spain

Number of respondents

398

924

75

245

206

Number of network partners

236

830

380

922

2,368

The questionnaire:

The survey questionnaire (both the Peruvian and the Argentine versions) included

two types of questions: i) questions taken from the main official household surveys used

in Argentina and Peru; and ii) questions created especially to collect data on the variables

involved in my research questions.

The two surveys from which I took questions were: for Argentina, the Permanent

Household Survey (EPH- Encuesta Permanente de Hogares); and for Peru, the National

Household Survey (ENAHO- Encuesta Nacional de Hogares). T he questions from both

national s urveys h ad be en us ed, t ested a nd i mproved f or m any years b y the na tional

statistics institutions of both countries and served as a means of comparing my samples

with t hose collected b y the na tionally representative household surveys ( translations of

both versions of the questionnaire are included in Appendix 1.a).

The que stions f ocused on e ight r esearch t opics: ( 1) ba sic information on t he

respondent, (2) b asic i nformation on t he hou sehold a nd t he hous ehold m embers

considering only the members who do not migrate , (3) education and occupations of the

household m embers ( 4) t he i nternational m igration e xperience of the hou sehold

49

(household m embers w ho m igrated, t heir s ocio-demographic c haracteristics, i ncluding

citizenship, their level of education and occupations before and after their migration, their

status a s pa rents, i f t hey l eft c hildren a t t he c ountry of o rigin, a nd if t hey s end

remittances) (5) the characteristics of the social migrant networks of the respondent, (6)

patterns of residence of the family (if other close family members who are not part of the

household l ive ne arby), ( 7) t he e ducation t rajectories of t he c hildren i n m igrant

households and (8) the living arrangements of children of migrant parents.

I will mainly use data from sections 2, and 5. Special attention was given to data

in section 5 of the questionnaire. In that section, questions are designed to collect socio-

demographic da ta on t he num ber, a nd t he s ocio-demographic ch aracteristics o f t he

network partners of the respondent and the social relationships that connect them to the

respondent (ego). That allowed me to characterize social networks of migration for each

one of the four streams of my interest and compare them within each country and most

importantly b etween th e c ountries. A lso, I examine th eir e ffects o n th e liv ing

arrangements of children who are members of the respondent’s household. The following

graph serves as representation of the preceding description:

Graph 2.1: Questionnaire data on ego-centered social networks and variables implicated in research problem

50

Variables:

In order to be able to characterize social networks operating in the four migration

streams I focus on the s ize of the network, the degree of he terogeneity o f the network,

(which includes sex, age and education attainment heterogeneity), density of the network,

experience of migration of network partners (which includes being current or ex-migrants

and ha ving family m embers i n S pain a nd Italy), financial r esources of t he n etwork

partners and educational resources of network partners (see table 2.3). Those in turn will

be us ed t o e xamine i f va riations i n t hose network ch aracteristics ar e associated w ith

living a rrangements of c hildren l iving i n t he ho usehold of t he r espondent. If t here a re

children in t he r espondent’s household, a ll of t hem would be a ffected b y having fewer

adult m embers i n c harge of t aking c are of t hem. T his i s i mportant be cause m igrant

relatives are likely the best demographically suited to work abroad (in terms of age, sex

51

and hum an c apital) be cause of pos itive s electivity. C onsequently, a dults l eft a t t he

migrant sending households would be not only numerically fewer, but maybe even less

personally able (in terms of age and human capital) to take care of children. Therefore I

consider as d ependent variables t wo m easures o f d emographic d ependency: t he t otal

dependency ratio and the children dependency ratio in the migrant sending households.

Table 2.3: Variables description

Variables

Description

52

Dependent variables Living arrangements experienced by ALL children in a migrant sending household

• Demographic dependency (total dependency

ratio, children dependency ratio)

Independent variables Size Number of network partners. Degree of heterogeneity

• Degree of heterogeneity according to sex

Proportion of female network partners (female category of reference)

• Degree of heterogeneity according to age

• Range (difference between the ages of the youngest and older network partners)

• Standard deviation of the ages of the network partners).

• Degree of heterogeneity according to education.

• Proportion of network partners that have secondary education.

• Proportion of network partners who have tertiary education.

Density Density ratio: Nt/ (N [N-1]/2) N=theoretically possible number of links. Nt=Observed links.

Resources • Educational resources

network partners • Proportion of ne twork pa rtners w ho ha ve

secondary education. • Proportion of ne twork pa rtners w ho ha ve

tertiary education. • Financial resources

network partners Proportion of network partners who have financial resources

• Experience of migration • Proportion network partners who are ex or current migrants.

• Proportion network partners who have

migrant relatives

QUALITATIVE METHODS

Qualitative methods served to obtain data on four themes:

53

1) How institutions contribute to shape the characteristics of the migration flows

from Argentina and Peru to Italy and Spain, and with this, the characteristics of the social

networks of migration operating within those migration streams.

2) The personal experience of children living in migrant households about family

adjustments, education experiences, education expectations and future work choices;

3) T he p ersonal experience of guardians a nd p arents t hat s tay i n charge of t he

childrearing process of children who have one or both parents abroad;

4) The information about possibilities and procedures to follow in order to access

a job in Italy and Spain.

Protocols for in-depth interviews described in (2), (3) and (4), included questions

designed to obtain information regarding the situations that connected the interviewee’s

family household to the experience of international migration. With those accounts, I was

able to describe the types of interactions households establish with the social networks of

migration of their adult members.

I used t wo t ypes of i nstruments f or q ualitative data c ollection: Interviews w ith

experts and institutional actors (Component I), and in-depth interviews with relatives of

migrants t o S pain a nd Italy, i ncluding children, pa rents/guardians, a nd pr ospective

migrants in the household (Component II).

Component I: Interviews with experts and institutional actors:

• Leaders of a ssociations of r elatives of m igrants t o S pain a nd Italy i n B uenos

Aires, Argentina and in Lima.

• Representatives of professional associations (colegios profesionales).

• Officials from the Ministry of Labor of Argentina and Ministry of Labor of Peru

or similar officials in other institutions.

54

• Officials o f in stitutions promoting p rograms o riented to migrants o f r elatives o f

migrants.

• Representatives o f t he b usinesses created t o s erve as i ntermediaries b etween

employers in Italy and Spain and possible employees in Argentina and Peru.

Component II: In- depth interviews with relatives of migrants to Spain and Italy:

• Children ( 12-18 years ol d) l iving i n a m igrant hous ehold i n t heir c ountries of

origin while one or both of their parents live in Italy/Spain.

• Children ( 12-18 years ol d) l iving i n a m igrant hous ehold i n t heir c ountries of

origin w hile one or m ore of t heir c lose r elatives, but not a pa rent, l ive i n

Italy/Spain.

• Guardians (18 and older) of children who, living in a migrant household in their

countries of origin, have one or both of their parents l iving in Italy/Spain (these

guardians c an be t he grandparents, a unts, unc les, s iblings a nd ot her r elatives of

these children).

• Parents (18 and older) who stayed in their countries of origin taking care of their

children while the other parent is a migrant to Italy/Spain.

• Prospective migrants (18 and older) planning to migrate for work reasons (nurses,

nursing s tudents, p ersonal c are assistants, l ife guards, c uisine h elpers and ot her

occupations in demand in Spain and Italy).

Participants for the interviews of “Component II” were contacted in two ways:

a) During the period of application of the survey questionnaires in both Lima and

Buenos Aires, some respondents with interesting stories related to the research questions

were asked if they would accept a personal interview, if the respondent was interested in

this future possible interview we asked for their contact information.

55

b) By talking informally with people in the places where the survey was applied I

obtained a n i dea of t he or ganizations r elated t o t he l abor m igration of Peruvians a nd

Argentineans. I c ontacted a nd i nterviewed t he l eaders or m anagers of some of t hose

organizations ( expert i nterviews and i nterviews w ith i nstitutional a ctors). A lso, b y

collecting information in the Center of Studies of Latin American Migration (CEMLA) in

Argentina, and informally interviewing some of the researchers working there I obtained

references about associations of relatives of migrants to Italy and Spain. I contacted the

members o f t hese as sociations t o r ealize ex pert i nterviews an d al so obtained m ore

references a bout f amilies a nd in dividuals th at I in vited to p articipate in th e in-depth

interviews using snowball sampling.

In-depth in terviews, e xpert in terviews a nd in terviews w ith in stitutional a ctors

were held in the places where the interviewee decided was more practical for them (their

homes, their offices, or a public space such as a cafe). In the case of children I conducted

the interviews in their homes, with their parents/guardians at home. Interviews lasted for

approximately 1 hour . All i nterviews w ere audio-recorded and t ranscribed. Q ualitative

data i ncluded expert i nterviews a nd in terviews w ith in stitutional a ctors ( n=7 for

Argentina and n=4 for Peru), and different types of semi-structured in- depth interviews

targeting r elatives of migrants t o S pain a nd Italy i n di fferent hous ehold pos itions,

including children 12 -18 years old (n=11 for Argentina and n=11 for Peru) (Appendix

2.b includes the complete list of interviews).

Informed consent protocols

In the case of the survey I decided not to ask for informed consents but we used a

similar pa per form t o ensure t he respondents h ad t he n ecessary i nformation a bout t he

survey in which they were participating. In Peru and in Argentina, especially around the

official/administrative i nstitutions w here w e c onducted t he s urvey, t here a re pe ople

56

offering i nformal s ervices o f consultation a nd help w ith pa perwork. S ome of t hese

persons sometimes damage their possible clients. Given that at the beginning, the survey

assistants were mistakenly taken for these informal consultants, I needed to request the

Institutional R eview B oard f or an exemption t o obt ain s igned i nformed c onsents.

Moreover, in both countries, given legal fraud and the weakness of the judicial system,

there is an extensive distrust in signing any type of paper particularly in public spaces. In

addition, s ocial r esearch i n P eru a nd A rgentina ha s not e volved yet t o t he poi nt t hat

informed consent is usual at the moment of requesting the participation of a person in a

survey or any t ype of i nterview. People a re not used to be ing asked for t heir i nformed

consent and accepting to participate in social research projects is based on how well the

social r esearcher establishes t heir a ffiliation w ith t he s ocial r esearch center o r t he

university or the governmental institution in charge of the project. It also depends on the

type of interaction the social researcher creates with the possible respondent (respectful,

being i nformative a bout t he pr oject, m aybe c oming t hrough a c ommunity l eader or a

respected pe rson in the community, or i f the r esearcher comes with a reference f rom a

friend or r elative). T o substitute f or s igned i nformed c onsents, t he s urvey a ssistants

thanked a nd ga ve t he r espondent a n e nvelope containing a l etter f rom m e e xplaining

again t he t itle of t he s tudy, t he m otives a nd obj ectives of t he s urvey a nd how t he

respondent’s d ata w as going t o be us ed, pr oviding t he e mail addresses a nd phone

numbers they could use to contact me if they had further doubts. Given the specificities

of the different types of institutional and financial resources I had at hand in Lima and in

Buenos A ires, t here w ere t wo di fferences a t t he m oment of t hanking a nd g iving t he

envelope to the respondents. In Lima the letter included a small monetary retribution of

S/. 5.00 soles; my email address in the Institute of Peruvian Studies (Instituto de Estudios

Peruanos -IEP, where I was an affiliated researcher at that moment and where I used to

57

work be fore s tarting graduate s tudies i n t he U niversity of T exas); a nd m y of fice

telephone number in that institute, in addition to my University of Texas email address.

In t he c ase of B uenos A ires, t here w as no m onetary retribution a nd t he c ontact

information I used was my University of Texas email address and my cell phone and my

home phone numbers in Buenos Aires.

To g uarantee t hat t he g roup of a ssistants w ould act co rrectly i n al l t heir

interactions with respondents, I made sure the survey assistants were persons that I could

trust and were properly trained. In the case of Peru the assistants (students of sociology

and anthropology) had worked with me in the past and I knew that I could rely on them.

In the case of Argentina, I used references from an established social researcher Professor

(Susana Novick) and at least three of the assistants were students in her class, (Course:

International M igration offered by t he U niversity of Buenos Aires). I also vi sited a t

random times the different locations when assistants were applying the questionnaires.

The pr ivacy a nd confidentiality o f pa rticipants w as a ssured be cause t he

questionnaire di d not c ontain que stions a bout the na me of t he r espondents, or t heir

address, or a ny t ype o f c haracteristic t hat w ould m ake i t pos sible t o i dentify t he

respondent. This feature of the survey questionnaire about the respondent’s personal data

applied to the other individuals about whom data are collected, these are: the members of

the r espondent’s hous ehold ( including t he children); t he r espondent’s f amily m embers

who are migrants; and the social network partners of the respondent. In all the sections of

the questionnaire where it is necessary to have a reference name when the same question

is repeated about different individuals, there is the specific instruction of asking only for

first names, nicknames or pseudonyms. For example, in the following question of section

2 of the questionnaire (Basic Information of the Household), the instruction is: “Could you please make a complete list of all the persons who live with you and share with you the main daily meals? (THE RESPONDENT SHOULD ONLY

58

MENTION THE FIRST NAME, NICKNAME OR ANY NAME THAT COULD BE USED BY THE INTERVIEWER WHILE ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT THE DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS THAT COMPOSE THE HOUSEHOLD)” (INCLUDE THE RESPONDENT). (From the second section of the questionnaire “Section 2: Basic Information of the Household”)

In the case of the in-depth interviews, due to the same reasons explained above, it

was ne cessary t o ask f or a n e xemption t o obt ain s igned i nformed c onsents, but a s a

substitute to them, I was instructed by the IRB to obtain verbal, tape-recorded informed

consents at the be ginning of e ach i nterview. In t he c ase of i nterviews w ith c hildren ( I

only conducted 2, 1 i n Lima and 1 i n Buenos Aires) I used parental consent forms and

assent f orms. In a ddition, a lthough t he que stions do not r efer t o a ny t ype of t raumatic

situation, I minimized any potential risk by asking a psychologist specialized on children

to review the interview protocols.

I t ook al l n ecessary s teps t o en sure confidentiality, s uch as conducting t he

individual interviews only with the person who was being interviewed and not including

names or i dentifying c haracteristics of pa rticipants i n a ny t ype of r ecord. P seudonyms

were used in all transcriptions.

REFERENCES: Boyd, M onica. 1989. "Family and p ersonal n etworks i n i nternational m igration: r ecent

developments and new agendas." International Migration Review 23:638-70. Kalton, Graham. 2001. " Practical Methods for Sampling Rare and Mobile Populations."

Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Statistical Association August 5-9.

Rindfuss, R onald R , M inja K im C hoe, Larry Bumpass, a nd N oriko O . T suya. 2004.

"Social N etworks a nd Family C hange i n J apan." American Sociological Review 69:838-861.

59

Chapter 3: From Latin America to Southern Europe, South American participation in the Emergence of a New Migration System

To understand the impact of i nternational migration on bot h countries o f or igin

and c ountries of d estination w e ne ed t o und erstand t he “dynamics associated w ith t he

evolution of the flow from its origins, through the shifts in its composition and volume as

it matures” (Kritz e t a l. as c ited b y Massey, A rango e t al. 1998) . T he a nalysis of t hat

takes us t o t he r ecognition of a migration s ystem, and that r ecognition in t urn, enables

and at the same time necessitates the identification/examination of the different types of

migration s ocial n etworks p revalent w ithin th at s pecific s ystem o f mig ration.

Consequently, one of the first tasks to address is the verification of the existence of the

South European migration system, w hich I de fine as the set o f s table, associated and

interdependent migration flows that since the beginning of this century, have crystallized

between, on one hand, Spain and Italy as core destination countries (Portugal could be

included as a n ewly em ergent d estination o f s econdary i mportance); a nd on t he ot her

hand, a va riety o f m igrant s ending c ountries l ocated i n a ll t he continents but

preponderantly in Europe (particularly in the East and West components of the European

Union), South America, North Africa and China (only for the case of Italy).

Therefore, the main objective of this chapter is to determine and characterize the

South European migration system. After t hat t ask i s co mpleted, t he r eader can m ore

easily u nderstand t he c hapters d edicated t o d escribe t he ch aracteristics o f th e s ocial

networks of migration operating within this new emergent system (chapters 5, 6 a nd 7)

and I c an m ore c oherently pur sue t he general obj ective of t his s tudy. T his c hapter

comprises two sections. In the f irst section, I take on t he empirical identification of the

60

South European migration system, focusing on the linkages connecting Latin America to

Southern Europe during the t ime period spanning from the 1990s to the f irst decade of

the current century, and following the propositions that Hania Zlotnik (1992) developed

to perform this task (see :“Empirical identification of International Migration Systems”,

1992).

THE SOUTH EUROPEAN MIGRATION SYSTEM

In o rder to e mpirically determine th e e xistence o f a mig ration s ystem Z lotnik

(1992) contemplates “general pr inciples” a nd ob servations “ to guide th e id entification

and f urther an alysis o f a s ystem” (Zlotnik 199 2: 20) and al though t he ex istence o f

migration f lows between sending and receiving areas i s a necessary condition, i t i s not

also, a sufficient condition to determine the existence of a migration system. According

to Z lotnik a m ore complete f ramework t o guide t he i dentification of t hese s ystems

comprises (Zlotnik 1992:20, 38-39) two main components, one component is related to

the establishment of the importance of migratory connections between area of destination

and a rea of or igin ( item 1 of t he f ollowing e xplanation); a nd t he ot her c omponent i s

related to the existence of connections within on one side the countries that form the core

area of destination and on the other side, the countries that form the area of origin (items

2,3,4, 5 and 6):

(1). The ex istence o f important international migration f lows b etween th e area(s) of

origin and the core destination area. The importance

a. Threshold: If th e e xistence o f ( numerically) im portant in ternational mig ration

flows i s ne cessary, t here s hould be s ome criteria t o de fine w hen a f low i s

of these flows could be recognized

if a threshold and some time duration are verified; and could be better described if both

the perspectives o f the receiving and sending countries are considered. Let’s explain in

detail these two elements of verification:

61

important, a nd Z lotnik e mphasizes t his i dea by mentioning t he n eed f or t he

establishment of a “ threshold be yond w hich m igration i s c onsidered t o create a

strong l ink be tween na tion s tates” (Zlotnik 1992: 20) . W hen examining da ta on

the migration s tocks and f lows both i n Spain and Italy I evaluate both a bsolute

numbers and ratios/proportions and after presenting the following item regarding

duration (“b”) I discuss the establishment of a possible threshold.

b. Duration: In addition, Zlotnik s tates that “potential systems might be identified

by a nalyzing t he m atrices of i nflows, out flows, a nd ne t f lows be tween a ll

countries as they evolved through t ime. Any sub matrix whose entries remained

above the threshold during five or ten years

c. Operational establishment of two possible measures of a threshold: Using

census data on the total foreign born in all American countries, Zlotnik comes to

the c onclusion t hat: “ three di stinct m igration s ystems ha ve op erated i n S outh

America during this century (referring to the twentieth century) each centered on

one o f t he r eceiving co untries”; an d t hese countries ar e Brazil, A rgentina, an d

Venezuela (Zlotnik 1992: 30). When comparing data and indicating the existence

of t hese t hree m igration systems i n t he A mericas i n 1992 ( besides t he “ United

States and Canada” migration system), Zlotnik indirectly provides a measure of a

threshold, and as part of her arguments to prove the existence of these systems,

the author mentions t he quantitative importance of t he migration f lows to t hose

would indicate the potential existence

of a s ystem”(Zlotnik 1992: 20) . B oth threshold and time/duration must be

included in this analysis; therefore, I will discuss the establishment of a pertinent

threshold a nd a lso e valuate w hether t here i s a t l east be tween 5 t o 10 years

duration in which migration flows connecting Latin American nations and South

Europe remain above the mentioned possible threshold.

62

three countries, in this case from other countries of the Americas, for instance: 1.1

million of foreign born in Venezuela (1980), 1.1 million of foreign born in Brazil

(1980) a nd 1.9 m illion of f oreign bor n i n A rgentina ( 1980). In addition, t hese

absolute numbers remained above a level of 1.1 m illion for at least five years in

the case of Venezuela, and for at least twenty years in the case of Argentina and

Brazil. Therefore: 1.1 million of foreign born in a destination country could be

considered as a measure of a threshold when examining only absolute numbers.

A duration of at least five years can serve as the other measure.

In t erms of pr oportions, c ontinuing w ith t he s ame c ase of t he t hree m igration

systems me ntioned be fore ( Argentina, Brazil, V enezuela), Zlotnik i ndirectly

provides another measure of a threshold (this time relative and not absolute), for

instance: i n t hose t hree c ountries t he pr oportion of f oreign bor n ( born i n t he

Americas) respect to th e to tal f oreign popul ation i n t hose r eceiving c ountries

during t he 1980s “ more t han doubl ed; or do ubled f rom 1960 t o 1980” : i n

Argentina from 19% to 41%; in Brazil from 6% to 12 %; and in Venezuela from

27% t o 63% ( 1961 & 1 981). T herefore: i f t he proportion of f oreign bo rn of a

specific country or region of origin in a receiving country is at least 12% respect

to the total foreign born population (like in th e c ase o f Brazil th at s hows th e

lowest pe rcent), t hat p roportion, w ould j ustify declaring t hat a n important

migratory connection be tween or igin a nd de stination e xists; a nd s uggest t hat a

migration system is in place there. In terms of duration, the proportions mentioned

doubled during a period of 20 years in the case of the three destination countries

examined, showing a pa ttern t hat w as s ustained throughout t ime, a nd f or m ore

than five years.

63

I will use t hese two measures o f a t hreshold, i .e. at le ast 1 .1 million o f foreign

born in one of the destination countries; and having at least a proportion of 0.12

or 12 %

d. Dual perspective & identification of hierarchies: If d ata ar e available, t he

empirical determination of a migration system should be done by systematically

“using a variety o f measures” (Zlotnik 1992: 38) , both from the perspective of

the r eceiving countries and f rom t he p erspective of t he s ending countries a nd

trying to determine hierarchical relations between the components of the system.

foreign born of a specific country or region respect to the total foreign

born in the destination country, to determine the empirical existence of the South

European migration system.

From the perspective of the destination countries, absolute numbers of migration

stocks a nd f lows b y country, and a lso pr oportions r elative t o t he c orrespondent

total migration stocks and flows by country should be analyzed throughout time,

in that way, the most important sending countries to the core receiving area will

be identified. From the perspective of the countries of origin

(2). The existence of s trong economic and pol itical t ies, usually of a dependent na ture,

between countries composing the origin area and the countries composing the destination

area.

and also using data

on m igration s tocks a nd f lows, i t i s ne cessary t o s pecify t he m ain de stination

countries for the emigrant population of a sending country.

(3). The existence of compatible pol icies r egarding migration among the countries t hat

compose the origin area. This would also be necessary if they are to be considered as part

of a single (the same) migration system. Economic and political ties among these sending

countries might be weaker than the economic and political ties that link the countries of

the destination area (see item “6” below).

64

(4). The existence o f s imilar “p atterns o f m igration l inkages”, co mparable l evels o f

development, a nd a hi gh de gree of c ultural a ffinity a mong t he na tions c omposing t he

destination area.

(5). The ex istence o f s ome d egree o f coherence i n t he pol icies di rected t o c ontrol

immigration among the nations that compose the destination area.

(6). Concurrent t o t hat c oherence, t he e xistence of s trong e conomic a nd pol itical t ies

among the nations that compose the destination area.

Using these p rinciples and observations, i n t he next subsection, I de termine the

existence of the South European migration system. In this system, the receiving region, is

composed by major destinations Spain and Italy (although lately Portugal could be also

considered as a secondary embryonic component of this region); and the origin regions

are composed by countries in all the continents but preponderantly by European (East and

West European countries members of the European Union), South American and North

African countries, and only for Italy, by a country in Asia: China. I only focus on the area

of origin correspondent to South America, highlight the migration flows that originated in

both Argentina and Peru.

From the Perspective of the Receiving Region: increased South American immigrations since the late 1990s

Given limitations in accessing data on the migration f lows arriving to the major

destinations S pain a nd I taly, th is p art o f th e e mpirical d etermination o f th e s ystem is

based mostly on data on migrant stock population.

For the migrant stock population of Spain I use public access data provided by the

Review of the Municipal Register (Revisión del Padrón Municipal de España), which is

an official review of the Padrón Municipal (i.e of the universe of residents or neighbors

of each municipality in Spain), prepared with statistical purposes by the National Institute

65

of Statistics of Spain (Instituto Nacional de Estadística - INE)16. This source of data has

the advantage of including both documented and undocumented migrants because of two

reasons. O ne i s t hat ha ving a r egistration i n t he Padrón as a pr oof of De Facto and

continuous r esidency is the m ost i mportant r equisite t o pur sue any t ype of c hange of

immigration s tatus (and also obtain a work permit, a d rivers l icense, t he ID for H ealth

Assistance, r egister c hildren a t s chool, a mong o ther ke y r esources i mmigrants ne ed i n

order t o l ive e ven t emporally i n t he r eceiving country). T he s econd i s t hat b y l aw,

municipalities d o n ot e valuate th e immig rant’s documentation17

For t he m igrant s tock popul ation of Italy I us e publ ic a ccess da ta pr ovided b y

Istat, the Italian National Institute of Statistics (L’Istituto nazionale di statistica), which

mainly us es t he of ficial r ecords of t he M inistry of Interior o f Italy o n s tay p ermits

(permesse di soggiorno) available since 1992, but reviewed and corrected in 2003

, t herefore

undocumented m igrants us ually do not fear t o c omplete t his t ype of registration. In

addition, the registration in the Padrón is very simple: the only requisite is establishing a

home address, which could be a rented home, or the home of a relative of friend.

18

16 The Municipal Register of Spain “is the administrative register which records municipality residents. Its formation, maintenance, revision and custody correspond to the respective town councils. The revision of the municipal register referred to 1 January of each year is obtained from its update. In 1996 a modification of r egister r egulations was c arried o ut. A n ew co ntinuous an d co mputerized management s ystem f or municipal registers was e stablished, b ased o n th e coordination o f a ll of them b y the N ational Statistical Institute. Based on the aforementioned regulations, the last register renewal was carried out, referred to 1 May, in 1996. This was the starting point for the new register system. The revision to 1 January 1998 was the first update to be carried out in agreement with the new system.” Description of the Municipal Register by INE (

.

http://www.ine.es/jaxi/menu.do?L=1&type=pcaxis&path=/t20/e260/&file=inebase). 17 This is what is informed in websites and forums of immigrants to Spain (these are widely used sources of key information/orientation): “If you are in a irregular immigration situation, you should not be afraid of registering in the Register of the Municipality correspondent to your home address. The Municipality does not conduct any type of control on the legality or illegality as migrants of the persons who reside in the Spanish territory” (Forum for immigrants in Spain -Foro para Migrantes en España, http://www.euroresidentes.com/inmigracion/emigrar-a-espana.htm). 18 Available at Istat. It. Data banks/ Demo: Demography in figures / Resident foreigners/ Demographic Balance on December 31st of each year.

66

Here a n ecessary note, INE -Spain provides data on a ll the foreign born even i f

they currently hol d S panish c itizenship, t herefore i nternational m igrants w ho obt ained

Spanish c itizenship i n t heir c ountries o f or igin ( as i s t he c ase of m any Argentines a nd

Uruguayans with Spanish ancestors) or when they were a lready in Spain (by marriage)

are visible and identified as migrants. Unlike Spain, the Italian Istat only provides data on

foreigners defining “foreign” as any individual who holds a nationality different than the

Italian one19

In Spain:

. Consequently, although some data on the acquisition of citizenship is also

available f rom Istat, a nd a lthough those qua ntities c ould be a dded t o t he a bsolute

numbers of “foreigners” in the Italian definition (then obtaining a more realistic picture

of i nternational m igration), c learly t his s ource pr ovides l ess i nformation on t he r eal

number of i nternational m igrants t han t he S panish s ource, given t hat m igrants w ho

obtained Italian citizenship in their countries of origin (as in the case of many Argentines,

Uruguayan and Brazilians with Italian ancestors) or in Italy (by marriage) are not visible

as migrants.

The s ize of t he f oreign bor n popul ation r esident i n Spain ha s be en g rowing

consistently dur ing t he 1990s a nd 2000s . H owever i ts m ost i mportant gr owth pe riod

occurred dur ing t he f irst years of t he 2000s . In fact, considering t he t ime pe riod f rom

1996 t o J anuary 1st of 2009 f or w hich da ta a re a vailable20

19 Children born in Italy to both foreign parents do not obtain Italian citizenship.

, t he l arger a nnual pe rcent

increase of the foreign born population in Spain occurred during the transition from 2000

to 2001, representing a 48% annual percent increase. This figure decreased to 44% during

2001-2002, 35% dur ing 2002 to 2003; and to on ly 14% dur ing 2003- 2004, r emaining

20 Data on migration stocks of the foreign born in Spain are available at the Review of the Municipal Register of Spain made by the National Institute of Statistics of Spain (INE) only since 1996, and there is no data for 1997. The most recent review is the 2009 one.

67

between 23 % a nd 7% for t he f ollowing years u ntil 2009 ( when i t w as 7%). ( see table

3.1).

In absolute numbers the total foreign born population resident in Spain grew from

542,314 in 1996, to 923,879 in 2000; 1’370,657 in 2001; 4’144,166 in 2006; 5’268,762 in

2008; and 5’648,671 in 2009. Taking as guiding criteria Zlotnik’s ideas for the empirical

determination of a migration system, we see that at least for the case of Spain and from

2001 onwards, for more than five years until now (duration) migration to Spain has not

declined b elow 4’ 000,000; s urpassing one of t he m easures of a threshold (1.1 m illion

foreign born in the receiving country).

68

Table 3.1: Yearly percent increases of migrant stock population in Spain by continent (1996-2008). (Oceania not considered)

Years &

% INC.

All

Countries

EUROPE AFRICA AMERICA ASIA All

Europe European

Union All

America North Amer.

Central Amer.

South Amer.

1996 542,314 290,809 260,507 110,414 108,075 13,576 24,231 70,268 32,015 1998 637,085 332,245 300,369 138,124 27,809 15,063 30,429 82,316 37,910

% INCR 17% 14 % 15% 25% 18% 11% 26% 17% 18% 1999 748,953 370,827 329,530 174,400 154,899 20,544 37,561 96,795 47,325

% INCR 18% 12% 10% 26% 21% 36% 23% 18% 25% 2000 923,879 460,906 409,446 207,437 202,440 18,955 46,819 136,666 51,838

% INCR 23% 24% 24% 19% 31% -8% 25% 41% 10% 2001 1,370,657 557,600 442,679 298,899 442,142 23,025 62,189 356,929 70,475

% INCR 48% 21% 8% 44% 118% 21% 33% 161% 36% 2002 1,977,946 728,746 520,285 399,836 754,200 28,290 78,546 647,364 93,329

% INCR 44% 31% 18% 34% 71% 23% 26% 81% 32% 2003 2,664,168 965,217 622,085 492,951 1,081,619 36,901 94,697 950,021 122,208

% INCR 35% 32% 20% 23% 43% 30% 21% 47% 31% 2004 3,034,326 1,079,555 676,286 541,518 1,276,101 38,660 101,439 1,136,002 135,108

% INCR 14% 12% 9% 10% 18% 5% 7% 20% 11% 2005 3,730,610 1,400,057 835,898 663,156 1,488,680 47,107 119,773 1,321,800 176,290

% INCR 23% 30% 24% 22% 17% 22% 18% 16% 30% 2006 4,144,166 1,651,571 979,864 725,960 1,557,604 47,650 127,504 1,382,450 206,476

% INCR 11% 18% 17% 9% 5% 1% 6% 5% 17% 2007 4,519,554 1,932,998 1,749,890 737,400 1,638,694 43,175 140,953 1,454,566 207,850

% INCR 9% 17% 79% 2% 5% -9% 11% 5% 1% 2008 5,268,762 2,367,922 2,161,756 822,797 1,833,888 47,289 173,012 1,613,587 241,279

% INCR 17% 22% 24% 12% 12% 10% 23% 11% 16% 2009 5,648,671 2,570,557 2,353,995 901,843 1,896,143 50,573 193,924 1,651,646 277,122

% INCR 7% 9% 9% 10% 3% 7% 12% 2% 15%

Source: Review of the Municipal Register of Spain realized by INE for statistical purposes. Data referred to January 1st of each year, according to place of birth of all residents in Spain.

69

Another important feature is the composition of the foreign born in Spain which

changed during the 2000’s (see table 3.2). In 1996, the major share of the foreign born

corresponded t o t he bor n i n E uropean c ountries ( 54% of t he t otal f oreign bor n

population), particularly to the West European countries members of the European Union

(48% of t he t otal f oreign bor n popul ation) f ollowed b y A frica a nd America ( 20% and

20% of the total foreign born population respectively). Within America, in 1996 S outh

America represented only 13% of the total foreign born residing in Spain. From 1996 to

2000 a gradual c hange i n t he composition of t his t otal oc curred, a nd s ince 2001 i t

changed impressively leading to the f act that the most important group of foreign born

residing in Spain, were born in America, particularly in South America This trend was

represented in a 32% in 2001; 38% in 2002; 41% in 2003; 42% in 2004; and 40% in 2005

while the share correspondent to the European Foreign born was only 38% dur ing that

year. Since 2006, probably because of the 2004 enlargement of the European Union that

included a s ne w m embers e ight E ast E uropean countries a nd a dded ne w i mmigration

permissions, t he da ta s hows E urope regaining i mportance i n t erms of t he pr oportions

born elsewhere in Europe respect to the total foreign born in Spain. Therefore, since that

year t he p ercentage i mportance o f A merica ( i.e. i n t his cas e S outh A merica) d eclined

moderately, but being always over 34% until 2009.

Since 1996, t he most important group among those born in t he Americas i s t he

group of those born in South America, and that importance increased tremendously since

2001, when the percent increase for South American immigration to Spain was 161% and

South Americans w ere 2 6% (356,929) o f t he t otal foreign bo rn r esiding in Spain, t hen

33% (647,364) i n 200 2, 36% ( 950,021) i n 2 003, 37% ( 1’136,002) in 2004; 35%

(1’321,800) i n 2005; 3 3% ( 1382,450) i n 200 6 a nd a lways ove r 29 % unt il 2009

(1’651,646). (see table 3.2).

70

Table 3.2: Percent differentials in migrant stock population in Spain by year, continent and region (1996-2009).

Year EUROPE AFRICA AMERICA ASIA

Year

Total foreign born

European Union All America North

America Central America

South America

1996 542,314 54% 48% 20% 20% 3% 4% 13% 6%

1998 637,085 52% 47% 22% 20% 2% 5% 13% 6% 1999 748,953 50% 44% 23% 21% 3% 5% 13% 6% 2000 923,879 50% 44% 22% 22% 2% 5% 15% 6% 2001 1,370,657 41% 32% 22% 32% 2% 5% 26% 5% 2002 1,977,946 37% 26% 20% 38% 1% 4% 33% 5% 2003 2,664,168 36% 23% 19% 41% 1% 4% 36% 5% 2004 3,034,326 36% 22% 18% 42% 1% 3% 37% 4% 2005 3,730,610 38% 22% 18% 40% 1% 3% 35% 5% 2006 4,144,166 40% 24% 18% 38% 1% 3% 33% 5% 2007 4,519,554 43% 39% 16% 36% 1% 3% 32% 5% 2008 5,268,762 45% 41% 16% 35% 1% 3% 31% 5% 2009 5,648,671 46% 42% 16% 34% 1% 3% 29% 5%

Source: Review of the Municipal Register of Spain realized by INE for statistical purposes. Note: Data on the migrants from Oceania was not included in the table, since it was almost zero along all the examined years.

In addition, us ing a gain Z lotnik g uidelines, t hese f igures a llow us t o de termine

what regions could be considered components of the South European migration system,

in this case in terms of the major destination of Spain. Considering the threshold that the

population of an area of origin should represent at least 12% of the total foreign born in

the de stination c ountry for at l east a t ime p eriod o f f ive years, I consider t hat S outh

America h as b een o ne of t he co mponents o r ar eas of o rigin o f th is ma jor d estination

probably s ince 1996 ( when i t w as 13% ) and be fore, but w hen us ing t he da ta f rom t he

71

Municipal Register certifiably since 1998 onwards (when increased from 13% to 37% in

2004 and decreased to 29% in 2009)21

The mo st imp ortant n ational g roups in q uantitative te rms w ere and s till a re,

Ecuadorians, C olombians, A rgentineans and P eruvians, i n t hat or der. However t he

relative qua ntitative i mportance of t hese na tional g roups c an onl y be e stablished since

2001. Before that year, data registered in Spain’s Review of the Municipal Register did

not d istinguish o ther S outh A merican nationalities b esides “Argentinean”, “ Brazilian”

and “V enezuelan” ( see table 3.3). D uring t hose years ( 1996-2000), t he m ost i mportant

group of South American born corresponded to those born in Argentina (17 to 12 % of

the total of the ones born in America) and the rest of the South American foreign born in

Spain were cataloged as “Rest of South American countries” making up 35% of all the

foreign bor n i n A merica. S ince t his p ercent d rastically d ecreased w hen i n 2 001, t he

categories f or “ Bolivian”, “ Chilean”, “Colombian”, “ Ecuadorian”, “ Peruvian” and

“Uruguayan” were included, we can basically infer that also before 2001 (since at least

1996) the immigration to Spain from Ecuador, Colombia, Peru and Bolivia existed, and

that a t l east one or t wo of t hose na tional gr oups c ould ha ve ha d s imilar or gr eater

quantitative importance than the Argentinean foreign born, residing in Spain.

.

In more detailed terms, data for 2006 22

21 The other components of the system are Europe (particularly the members of the European Union) that represented always between 54% (1996) and 37% (2004) of total migrants to Spain, and was 42% in 2009; and Africa which was 20% in 199, 42% in 2004 and 34% in 2009.

(year when I collected the survey data of

this s tudy, t herefore t he year I w ill r efer t o w hen e xamining f igures f rom s econdary

sources), s how t hat r espect t o t he t otal A merican f oreign bor n 89 % w ere S outh

22 Given that the National Institute of Statistics of Spain (INE) makes the Review of the Municipal

Register of Spain to be referent to January 1st of each year, the data to be considered when focusing on the

2006 trends is actually the data for 2007, because the review is made for January 1, of 2007.

72

Americans, a nd s pecifically 25% w ere bor n in E cuador; 16% w ere bor n i n C olombia;

11% w ere bor n i n A rgentina; a nd 6% w ere bor n i n Peru. In a ddition, c alculating t he

percentage distribution with respect to the total of foreign born (from all countries) who

were registered in the Municipal Register of Spain, the same pattern is observed: 32% of

that t otal were born in South America; and specifically 9% were bo rn i n Ecuador; 6%

were born in Colombia; 4% were born in Argentina; and 2% were born in Peru.

Table 3.3: Percent differentials in American migrant stock population in Spain by country and selected years (1996-2008).

73

1996 2001 (2006) Jan.1 2007 2008 Total foreign born ALL ALL ALL ALL (region/countries) countries America Countries America countries America Countries America

Total (absolute) 542,314 108,075 1,370,657 442,142 4,519,554 1,638,694 5,268,762 1,833,888 NORTH AMERICA 2.50 12.56 1.68 5.21 0.96 2.63 0.90 2.58 Canada 0.19 0.96 0.12 0.38 0.05 0.15 0.05 0.15 USA 1.67 8.39 1.01 3.13 0.42 1.16 0.40 1.14 Mexico 0.64 3.22 0.55 1.70 0.48 1.32 0.45 1.29 CENTRAL AMERICA & THE CARIBBEAN 4.47 22.42 4.54 14.07 3.12 8.60 3.28 9.43 Costa Rica n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.09 Cuba 1.51 7.59 1.82 5.64 1.05 2.89 1.00 2.87 Dominica n/a n/a n/a n/a - - 0.01 0.03 El Salvador n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.08 0.23 0.10 0.27 Guatemala n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.06 0.16 0.06 0.19 Honduras n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.31 0.85 0.41 1.17 Nicaragua n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.10 0.28 0.16 0.46 Panamá n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.04 0.11 0.04 0.12 Dominican Rep. 2.31 11.58 2.21 6.86 1.42 3.93 1.46 4.19 Rest C. Ame. & C. 0.65 3.24 0.51 1.57 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.04 SOUTH AMERICA 12.96 65.02 26.04 80.73 32.18 88.76 30.63 87.99 Argentina 3.58 17.96 2.75 8.51 4.12 11.35 3.74 10.74 Bolivia n/a n/a 0.48 1.49 4.35 12.00 4.48 12.87 Brazil 0.99 4.97 1.26 3.91 2.04 5.63 2.26 6.50 Chile n/a n/a 0.89 2.77 0.96 2.65 0.93 2.67 Colombia n/a n/a 6.34 19.66 5.77 15.93 5.39 15.49 Ecuador n/a n/a 10.01 31.03 9.19 25.35 7.89 22.66 Paraguay n/a n/a n/a n/a 1.02 2.82 1.27 3.65 Peru n/a n/a 2.53 7.85 2.32 6.39 2.34 6.72 Uruguay n/a n/a 0.55 1.70 1.23 3.39 1.17 3.35 Venezuela 1.40 7.03 1.15 3.57 1.18 3.25 1.16 3.33 Rest S. America 6.99 35.06 0.08 0.24 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 Source: Review of the Municipal Register of Spain realized by INE for statistical purposes. Data referred to January 1st of each year, according to place of birth of all residents in Spain. n/a : not available.

There i s another important t rend to describe with r egards t o t he composition of

the of the total of American immigrants to Spain dur ing 1996-2009. According to data

offered by the Review of the Municipal Register of Spain, since 1996, i mmigrants from

74

the continent of America have been, not onl y mostly South Americans but a lso mostly

female migrants than male migrants (see Graph 3.1).

Graph 3.1: American Immigration to Spain by subregion of America and sex (1996-2009)

In Italy:

According to th e d ata mainly b ased in th e n umber o f s tay p ermits th at Istat

provides, t he s ize of t he f oreigners ( non c itizens)23

23 Unlike Spain, the Italian Istat only provides data on foreigners defining “foreign” as any individual who holds a nationality different than the Italian one.

resident i n I taly ha s b een gr owing

consistently onl y s ince 1994, g iven t hat s ince t hat year unt il 2009 ( the l atest year of

available da ta) t here ha ve not be en ne gative pe rcent i ncreases, as oc curred i n 1989 ( -

24%), 1992 (-5%) and 1993 (-9%) (see table 3.5). Different than in Spain, the size of the

foreign population in Italy (migrant stock population) has not increased at the rhythm of a

consistent or increasing rate of growth but a changing one, with its trajectory marked by

75

clear ups and downs. Therefore after 1994; years 1997, 2000, and particularly 2004 have

showed important yearly percent increases (35%, 23%, and 60% respectively) and years

1995, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003 ve ry low yearly percent increases (4%, 4%, 3%, 5%, and

4% r espectively). T his c hanging t rajectory is pr obably m ostly t he hi story o f

regularization pr ocesses, s uch a s t he f our amnesty and r egularization pr ocesses o f

undocumented migration through Law 139 of 1990, the Legislative Decree –DL of 1995,

the Presidential Decree of the Ministers Council - DPCM of 1998, and the laws 189 and

222 of 2002 (Istat 2007) and of the moments of implementation of very strict, restrictive

laws (or restrictive stipulations that came with the regularization laws) which because of

their primarily reactive nature did not establish a clear path to legal migration and then

indirectly, i ncremented undoc umented m igration24

In absolute numbers the total foreign born population resident in Italy grew from

423,004 i n 1985, t o 98 6,020 i n 1997; 2’ 938,922 i n 2006; a nd 3’ 891,295 i n 2008.

Therefore, compared to Spain, i n t erms of importance of t he migrant s tock population,

Italy s eems to b e th e s econd mo st imp ortant r eceiving c ountry of t he S outh E uropean

migration system. Spain had the level of migrant stock population that Italy had in 2008,

in 2005, and in 2008 that total was already 5’268,762.

. In f act t he cl earest cas e o f

regularization i s the one occurred after 2002 w ith the Bossi- Fini l aw (Law 189) when

646,829 undocumented migrants regularized their status and that seems to be reflected in

the i mportant pe rcent i ncrease of 60 % i n 2004 (Istat 2007) . I n an y cas e the most

important growth period of the migrant stock population in Italy seems to have occurred

during 2004.

24 The history of the national level immigration legislation is characterized by sharp turns in alternative directions. I t seems like immigration took the national level government “by surprise” and consequently, the legal instruments used to regulate immigration were primarily reactive and composed at the same time by r egularization a nd s trict r estriction. At t he r egional a nd lo cal le vel t he h istory o f r egulations a nd governmental actions (regional level governmental actions) is different, and in some cases very supportive of la bor migration, that is why th e u se o f t he a djective national le vel o r r egional le vel le gislation is necessary.

76

However, a s m entioned be fore, t he Italian source of d ata provides l ess

information on t he r eal num ber of i nternational m igrants t han t he S panish s ource,

because of their definition of “foreignness” completely linked to citizenship which seems

to lead to the practice of not recording among the migrants the attribute of being born in a

country different than Italy (or not presenting the data on that attribute).

Following as guiding criteria Zlotnik’s ideas for the empirical determination of a

migration s ystem, w e s ee t hat Italy at l east s ince 2 002 o nwards, s tarted r eceiving a n

important contingent of immigrant population and in those terms could be considered the

other country making up the core area of destination for this emergent South European

migration system. Also, for period of time of more than five years (since 1998 to 2002)

the migrant stock population surpassed one of the measures of the possible threshold we

discussed earlier (1.1 million foreign born in the receiving country).

Table 3.4: Yearly percent increases and percentage distribution of migrant stock population in Italy by continent and region (1985-2008).

Data referred to December 31stof each year, according to country of nationality.

Year Yearly Total EUROPE AFRICA AMERICA ASIA % (all All EU North Central South

increase countries) Europe America America America

77

1985 423,004 38 28 6 12 -- 2 4 1986 6% 450,227 32 20 6 12 -- 2 4 1987 27% 572,103 36 24 11 11 -- 3 6 1988 13% 645,423 35 23 12 10 -- 3 6 1989 -24% 490,388 28 16 15 10 -- 4 8 1990 59% 781,138 23 15 26 7 -- 4 10 1991 10% 862,977 28 13 28 7 -- 5 13 1992 -25% 648,935 31 14 35 7 1 6 19 1993 -9% 589,457 36 16 31 7 1 6 17 1994 10% 649,102 39 15 29 7 1 6 17 1995 4% 677,791 41 17 28 7 1 6 17 1996 8% 729,159 40 16 28 7 1 6 17 1997 35% 986,020 37 13 31 5 1 6 19 1998 4% 1,022,896 37 13 30 5 1 6 19 1999 7% 1090820 39 13 29 4 1 6 20 2000 23% 1340655 39 11 29 4 1 6 20 2001 3% 1379749 40 10 28 4 1 6 20 2002 5% 1448392 41 9 28 3 1 6 20 2003 4% 1503286 42 10 27 3 1 6 19 2004 60% 2402157 47 9 27 1 2 7 17 2005 11% 2670514 47 8 26 1 2 7 17 2006 10% 2938922 47 8 26 1 2 7 17 2007 17% 3432651 52 27 23 1 1 7 16 2008 13% 3891295 54 29 22 0 1 6 16

Source: Istat (Italian Institute of Statistics) for years 1992-2008 and Caritas Statistical Dossier for years 1985-1991. Oceania and stateless countries are not considered in the table.

Another important feature is the composition of the foreign born in Italy. In Italy

different t han i n S pain25

25 In the data for Spain as described before, the 2000’s noticeably presented an increased relative importance of the South American influx of migrants (leading to the fact that in 2001 the most important group of foreign born residing in Spain, were born in America).

, th e mo st imp ortant im migrant groups w ere a nd currently a re

with no signs of change of the pattern in the short term, the European immigrants, which

represented 38% of the total universe of immigrants in 1985 and represented 54% of the

same total i n 2008, ( with some relatively important decreases o f t he s ame share i n t he

78

period 1989 -1993) and i n s econd l evel of i mportance, t he A frican i mmigrants, w hich

actually increased their importance from 6% of the total number of immigrants to Italy in

1985 to a 22% of the same total in 2008. T he third most important immigrant group to

Italy is the one composed by Asian immigrants (particularly from China), which were 4%

of t he t otal f oreigners i n Italy i n 1985 a nd were 16% of t he s ame t otal i n 2008.

Americans r epresent th e f ourth mo st imp ortant im migrant g roup i n I taly. In f act,

Americans coming from North, Central and South America represented between 7% and

14% of the total number of immigrants to Italy between 1985 and 2008: be ing 14% in

1985, 1986, 1987, a nd very similar percents until 1996, when started decreasing to 12%,

then being 11% and 10% during the first years of the 2000’s and 7% in 2008.

Importantly, among the immigrants from the Americas to Italy, South Americans

form t he m ost i mportant c ontingent: t hey were 39.29% of a ll A merican i mmigrants to

Italy i n 1996, 52.15 % i n 2001; 77.72% i n 2006; a nd 78.36% i n 2008. ( see table 3.5).

Also, w ithin the A merican immig rants to Italy, th ree S outh A merican c ountries a re

notoriously i mportant, t hese a re: E cuador, P eru a nd B razil, i n t hat or der. In 2001,

Peruvians w ere 18.52% of all t he American m igrants t o Italy, 23.84% i n 2006 a nd

24.51% in 2008. T he fact that the percentages for Argentina are much lower (5.64% in

1996, 3.86% i n 2001, 4.81% i n 2006 a nd 3.7 4% i n 2008) c ould be r elated t o t he

important l evels of Italian c itizenship a cquisition a mong A rgentines. As m entioned

before, even when they are foreign born, in Italian records they would not be considered

foreigners.

In conclusion, according to Zlotnik’s guidelines for the empirical determination of

a migration system, from the perspective of Italy as receiving country, the only migration

connections of importance a re t he ones with other countries of Europe26; Africa27

26 Which largely surpasses the threshold of 12% of immigrants respect to the total foreign population, since it was 54% in 2008, and since at least 1985 (when it was 38%).

; and

79

Asia28

. H owever, a mong the A merican i mmigrants t o Italy, S outh A mericans a re t he

most important singularly Ecuador, Peru and Brazil.

Table 3.5: Percent differentials in American migrant stock population in Italy by country,

selected years (1996-2008). Data referred to December 31st of each year, according to country of citizenship.

1996 2001 2006 2008

Total foreigners (non citizens) ALL ALL ALL ALL

(region/count.) Count. Amer. Countries Amer. Countries Amer. countries Amer. 729,159 104,117 1'379,749 162,790 2'938,922 278,960 3'891,295 316,676 NORTH AMERICA 6.47 45.30 3.49 29.56 0.59 6.20 0.46 5.63

27 Only since 1992, when it was 25 % and after 5 years of surpassing the 12% threshold . 28 Since 1995 when Asian immigrants to Italy were for more than five years above the threshold of 12% (it was 13% in 1991, then 19% in 1992, and 17% in 1993, 1994 and 1995).

80

Canada 0.32 2.24 0.19 1.59 0.51 5.34 0.39 4.84 USA 6.15 43.06 3.30 27.97 0.08 0.86 0.06 0.79 CENTRAL AMER. & CAR. 2.20 15.41 2.16 18.29 1.53 16.07 1.30 16.01 Costa Rica 0.05 0.35 0.03 0.24 0.02 0.16 0.01 0.15 Cuba 0.21 1.46 0.59 5.01 0.48 5.04 0.41 5.02 Dominic.Rep. 0.88 6.15 0.82 6.99 0.61 6.41 0.53 6.50 El Salvador 0.30 2.11 0.23 1.92 0.20 2.11 0.17 2.07 Guatemala 0.06 0.41 0.04 0.32 0.02 0.19 0.01 0.18 Honduras 0.04 0.27 0.03 0.24 0.02 0.21 0.02 0.21 Mexico 0.48 3.38 0.33 2.76 0.12 1.25 0.09 1.14 Nicaragua 0.04 0.28 0.02 0.19 0.01 0.13 0.01 0.13 Panamá 0.06 0.45 0.03 0.24 0.01 0.14 0.01 0.13 Rest C. Amer. 0.05 0.35 0.03 0.28 0.02 0.19 0.01 0.18 SOUTH AMERICA 5.61 39.29 6.15 52.15 7.38 77.72 6.38 78.36 Argentina 0.81 5.64 0.46 3.86 0.46 4.81 0.30 3.74 Bolivia 0.08 0.57 0.09 0.74 0.16 1.72 0.17 2.15 Brazil 1.78 12.47 1.37 11.64 1.17 12.31 1.07 13.10 Chile 0.34 2.36 0.21 1.76 0.12 1.27 0.09 1.15 Colombia 0.81 5.67 0.72 6.08 0.60 6.32 0.48 5.88 Ecuador 0.23 1.64 0.81 6.86 2.34 24.69 2.06 25.28 Paraguay 0.06 0.40 0.03 0.29 0.03 0.30 0.03 0.33 Peru 1.10 7.68 2.18 18.52 2.26 23.84 1.99 24.51 Uruguay 0.10 0.73 0.06 0.55 0.06 0.61 0.04 0.53 Venezuela 0.30 2.09 0.22 1.86 0.17 1.83 0.14 1.69 Rest S. America 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01

Source: Istat (Italian Statistics Institute)

From the perspective of sending countries in South America, Argentina and Peru

Spain and Italy, have been among the main extra-regional (extra-regional in terms

of outside Latin America) destination countries for the emigrant populations of Argentina

and Peru since the late 1990s to present.

81

In the case o f Argentina, among the 806,369 t otal Argentines who emigrated in

2005, Spain was the f irst most important destination, the United States the second, and

Italy the fifth most important one29

In t he cas e o f P eru, d ata f rom t he administrative r ecords o f t he P eruvian

Directorate G eneral o f Immigration and N aturalization o f th e M inistry o f Interior

(DIGEMIN), and, specifically, data obtained from the Andean Immigration Card (TAM),

show t hat t he t hree m ain ex tra-regional de stinations f or a t otal of 1’ 940,817 e migrant

Peruvians i n t he pe riod from 1990 t o 2007 ha ve be en t he U nited S tates (30.6% of t he

total emigrant population), Spain (13%); and Italy (10.3%) (OIM, INEI et al. 2008).

.

Why Spain and Italy became so important destinations? There are m any factors

involved. One is that between 1999 and more or less 2005 immigration to those countries

from S outh A merica an d Latin A merica i n general w as f avored b y E uropean U nion

immigration laws. European policy makers realized that declining birth rates and ageing

populations and the unmet demands of the labor market called for important reforms on

immigration la ws a nd a c hange f rom th e “ zero immig ration p olicies” to “ orderly

regulated immigration” (Pellegrino 2004). Spain in particular established these t ypes of

open to immigration policies while experiencing rapid economic growth during the first

years of the 2000s (later with the world economic crisis of 2008-2009, it changed to more

restrictive pol icies). O n the ot her ha nd, t he e ffects of t he i mplementation of s tructural

adjustment pol icies i n Argentina and P eru ( and ot her S outh A merican co untries)

impoverished middle classes and propelled emigration, to the United States, but also to

new “e asier” ( as t he i nterviewees I m et d escribed) an d l ess challenging d estinations

(sharing the same language was crucial) where job opportunities were evident.

29 OIM.

82

In t he n ext c hapter I de scribe how s everal i nstitutional d imensions a nd

organizations established at the countries of origin, at the countries of destination and at a

transnational le vel in tervened in in creasing th e mig ration f lows th at s tructured t his

emergent m igration s ystem, a nd how t hose d ynamics i n t urn, c ontributed t o s hape t he

characteristics of the social networks of migration that were active within it.

REFERENCES Istat (2007). La popol azione s traniera r esidente in Italia (al 1 gennaio 2 007). C . d. i . statistica. Rome, Istituto nacionale di statistica. Istat ( 2007). La p resenza s traniera in Italia: caratteristiche s ocio-demografiche. R ome, Istituto nacionale di statistica Massey, D., J. Arango, et al., Eds. (1998). Worlds in Motion. Understanding International Migration a t t he E nd of t he M illennium

. International S tudies i n D emography. N ew York, Oxford University Press.

OIM, INEI, e t al. (2008). Peru: Estadisticas de la migracion internacional de pe ruanos, 1990-2007.

Lima, Organizacion Internacional para las Migraciones.

Pellegrino, A. ( 2004). Migration from Latin A merica to E urope

. Geneva, I nternational Organization for Migration.

Zlotnik, H . ( 1992). E mpirical i dentification of International M igration S ystems. International M igration S ystems a G lobal A pproach

. M . M . K ritz, L . L. Lim a nd H . Zlotnik. Oxford, Clarendon Press: 19-40.

83

Chapter 4: Differing Institutional Contexts influencing Migration from Argentina and Peru to Italy and Spain

The obj ective of t his chapter i s t o s how t hat c ountry s pecific, bu t a lso

transnational in stitutions s hape mi gration f lows, and th at in stitutions a lso c ontribute to

the shaping of the networks operating within the migration flows.

I will describe how the participation of different types of public and private sector

institutional a gents i n t he c ountries of o rigin ( Argentina a nd P eru) A ND/OR i n t he

destination countries (Italy and Spain) have contributed to the formation of specific types

of s ocial ne tworks of m igration. They a re t herefore al so i n p art cau sal ag ents o f t he

specific types of changes occurring in the countries of origin of these migration streams.

The lite rature o n mig ration, w hen e xamining in stitutions tr aditionally li mits i ts

attention to the examination of laws, social security and the family. H owever, there are

other institutional d imensions that actively operate to influence migration; among them

are education and labor. This chapter will be organized in four subsections corresponding

to four institutional dimensions: education, labor, family and law.

EDUCATION

The E ducation C ouncil ( Consejeria de Educacion in Argentina) is th e

representative office of the Spanish Ministry of Education in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay

and Uruguay and is part of the Embassy of Spain in Buenos Aires. It is located in Buenos

Aires, but i s a r egional C ouncil s o i t a lso a dministers t he e ducation pr ograms a nd

activities of the other three countries. The Council administers and promotes a variety of

programs, bilateral agreements and activities all related to education, but during the last

years, one of the most requested services and tasks performed by the Council has been

84

the of ficial r ecognition of pr ofessional t itles a nd e ducation a ccreditations. T his i s done

for d ifferent l evels o f e ducation a nd for A rgentineans o f di fferent a ges ( from

approximately the age of 15 a nd up) who travel to Spain to work or to study. This was

particularly pronounced after the severe economic crisis that was suffered by Argentina

in 2001, i n w hich year A rgentine emigration t o S pain a nd Italy b ecame a c ommon

strategy to cope with the effects of the crisis (Pellegrino 2004). In an interview with the

Council advisor (Consejera) or the main authority in the Council in August of 2007, she

briefly described the activities of the Council:

Q.: Part of the work of the Council are the services that relate to the official recognition of professional titles. In recent years, more or less from 2001, there has been an increase in the amount of Argentines, who with or without Spanish citizenship travelled to Spain to work. Has that trend been felt in the demand for those services of the Council? Yeah, actually the time of the crisis 2000 - 2002, affected of course the number of people who passed through this Council to submit the recommendation previous to the a pproval of pr ofessional t itles in S pain. We ha d a m oment of a bsolute increase t hat r oughly corresponds t o 2005 w here t he C ouncil of E ducation officially recognized 6,000 titles of Argentine citizens who went to Spain, both at secondary and university level, and now (2007) that level has dropped with regard to t he Argentine citizens, but t he f igures r emain high, corresponding to 2 5% of the total approvals by the Ministry of Education and Science of Spain throughout the world. (EXP_INT_4_ARG)

Significantly the activities of the Spanish education system through its Council in

Argentina compared to its institutional activities in other countries of South America like

Peru, show differences that need to be taken into account. In fact, this clearly was a very

influential type of institutional impact, and had a decisive effect on the types of networks

we will describe in chapters 5 and 6. The first part of our argument is that in Argentina,

university level education, and specifically some professions like Medicine were offered

an important bridge of access to the education and labor worlds of Spain. T he Council

advisor de scribed t his c ontext i ndirectly almost at t he be ginning of t he i nterview “ you

85

probably know, A rgentina ha s a great uni versity” referring to th e u niversity l evel in

Argentina. T he i nterview w ith t he s tatistics t echnician of t he C ouncil w ho a lso w as

responsible f or p rocessing t he l arge num ber of r ecognitions, c learly d escribes t hese

trends. Asking for a quantitative notion of the increase of the requests and activities of the

Education Council in Argentina a fter 2001 ( before I was aware that the technician was

not sure that he was allowed to give me that information), I obtained this description:

Q.: (…) what is the percent increase of the recognitions that have been made… during the last years? To give you an idea…the professional title most recognized by Spain at the world level (compared to a ll the countries of the world) i s that of Argentine Medicine (Argentine medical profession), just to give you an idea…that i s to begin. Now the most recognized professional title but with an abysmal difference is Argentine Medicine, I'm also speaking about psychologists, lawyers, engineers, etc., let say; the influence of Argentine homologations in Spain is the highest. (EXP_INT_5_ARG)

According t o t his m ember of t he s taff of t he C ouncil, a fter 2001, official

recognitions not only increased in number but were also processed faster. If before, the

time expected to process an official recognition was 1 year or so, in 2007 that time was

reduced t o 3 t o 6 m onths. A ccording t o t his s taff m ember, t he C ouncil be came r eally

experienced i n doi ng t hese of ficial r ecognitions. T hey would ha ve ve ry s pecific

knowledge on t he s yllabus of t he di fferent c areers f or t he case o f t he most i mportant

public universities in Argentina (which were characterized by the statistics technician as

the m ost r ecognized a nd f or w hich i t w as e asier t o m ake t he of ficial r ecognitions

compared to new private universities).

The Council has adapted to the reality of the Argentine emigration and probably

is not f ollowing a s trategic pl an t o s hape t he t ype of m igration r eceived i n Spain, but

nonetheless it has been and is currently a very influential institutional force that has had

those ef fects. It s eemed t hat e ven w hen t he a ctivities of t he C ouncil d id not ha ve a

86

planned or ientation t o c onnect e ducation pr ograms a nd a ctivities implemented i n

Argentina w ith w ork op portunities or l abor m arket de mands i n S pain, t he c onnection

existed and it was strong and clear in the daily activities of the Council. Maybe because

of that the Council advisor, who really s eemed concerned about this s trong association

between Argentine education and work in Spain, talked about a designed effort to ‘renew

the operation of the Council following other lines…”: Q.: On the relationship of education to the world of work, is there an interest in making a stronger coordination, in terms of job training in college or in high school for specific occupations in Spain? We w ould be t ending therefore, I m ean, i n t he w ay you formulated i t, t o a preparation of a flow of migrant labor, and I think that's a policy that is a task of the states and governments more than anything else. No. I think there are market trends t hat s how w hat k ind of pe ople m igrate a nd w hat ki nd of pe ople do not migrate. In S pain t here ha s be en a de mand for m edical doc tors, construction workers h ave be en r equired, t o g ive t wo e nds of t he w ork s pectrum, but w e should not pr omote i n a ny w ay on e or t he ot her ne eds. E ach country i s responsible for their own training, we can endorse an integration, we can say how the vocational training works in Spain, how to create mechanisms for workplace training, etc., but we do not organize professional information here at all so far, there ha s be en no r equest or a ny t ype of a greement t hat c ould ope rate i n t hat direction. (…) Well, le t's s ee immig ration a s s uch i s n ot th e p rimary goal o f th e C ouncil, however, clearly w e work i n r elation t o c ertain types o f i mmigration. To do a project, we always… let me clarify this; we always intend to promote a return (a return t o A rgentina). ( …) F or e xample r elated t o t he s ystem of s cholarships, I certainly, by a minimum of decency to all national ministries, I always try to put a clause about t he r eturn of c itizens t o t heir country. S ince i t i s he re where t hey have obt ained t heir de gree, a nd obvi ously ... t he s tate ( the A rgentine s tate) i s losing an important income in this respect30

. That said, this Council is yes having this very specific task in recent years effectively connected to such a huge number of of ficial recognitions, but we a lso want to renew the operation of the Council following other lines…

30 In Argentina public university education is almost completely funded with public funds, at no charge for the students.

87

The four other important activities of the Education Council in Argentina were, as

described b y t he C ouncil a dviser, t he bi lateral p romotion of S cience i n A rgentina, t he

promotion and bi lateral cooperation of Sports t raining, t he d evelopment of ‘ continuous

education’ pr ograms f or s chool t eachers a nd t he a dministration of a l arge num ber of

bilateral a greements b etween e ducation in stitutions o f th e tw o c ountries a nd th e

administration of fellowships of different sorts: [The C ouncil a dvisor, d escribes t he n ew l ines t hat t hey w ant t o t ake t o a void working onl y on t itle approvals i n t he Council, m any ar e programs that ex isted before t he years of m assive A rgentine e migration: s he m entions t he t raining of school t eachers, t he m ore d ynamic a dministration of t he “ more t han 600 agreements” ex isting b etween ac ademic d epartments o f S panish an d A rgentine universities] …and two other major lines: Science we have a great area of work that is science. We are promoting both the Spanish scientific system here, as well as doing a great job of popularizing science at school level. (…). Also the inclusion of Argentine scientists in mu ltinational p rograms in w hich S pain p articipates, o r s imply national programs that now become bi-national, and the creation of a bi-national center of plants genomics in the city of Rosario. And then we have a fourth way which i s sports which a lso belongs to the Ministry o f Education and Science in my country. A rgentina i s one of the m ajor agreements i n s ports w e ha ve completed. There are fifty-four international agreements (sports) and Argentina is one of the priorities. (EXP_INT_4_ARG)

While t his s trong c onnection be tween e ducation a nd w ork e xisted i n A rgentina

and a complete state agency of the Spanish ministry of education was in function there,

the education approximation of that ministry in Peru and other countries was minimal. If

we e xamine th e d ifferent t ypes o f in stitutional p rograms o r a ctivities th at th e S panish

education system has established in other countries of South America such as Peru, where

there i s not any meaningful regional Education Council nor i s Peru a member in an y

other regional Education Council. In fact, the only other regional Education Councils in

America a re t he Education C ouncil of B razil ( it i ncludes onl y Brazil), the E ducation

Council of C osta R ica, t he E ducation C ouncil of M éxico, t he E ducation C ouncil of

88

United States and the Education Council of Canada31

The previous description however should not lead to the idea that Peru and other

countries in Latin America where there are not regional councils are not benefitted in any

way b y a s pecial relationship w ith S pain. T here a re t he t races o f a s pecial t ype o f

treatment offered by the Spanish state to all the Spanish speaking countries. These are not

expressed formally in formal written regulations, but are expressed in their institutional

approach s uch as t he t ypes o f ed ucation cr edentials r equired t o em igrate, t heir eas ier

access, pr ograms of s cholarships a nd f ellowships a mong ot her elements. Interestingly

that view of the Spanish state as a benefactor to the Spanish speaking countries seems to

be pr evalent a mong S panish of ficials. B oth i nterviewees i n t he E ducation C ouncil i n

Argentina used the word “generous” to describe the position of the Spanish state in these

regards: “Spain is a very generous state” they would repeat.

. In Peru (as well as in Bolivia and

Ecuador) according to the description of the offices of the Ministry of Education in the

world “ The S panish M inistry of E ducation i s p resent” t hrough a Literacy a nd A dult

Basic Education Program (Programa de Alfabetizacion y Educacion Basica de Personas

Adultas -PREABOL – EDUCACION).

If uni versity e ducation f rom A rgentina i s c onsidered good a nd credentials of

professions s uch a s M edicine a re easily t ransferred t o S pain, t he ot her s ide of t he

transferability of hum an c apital f rom A rgentina t o S pain and Italy was r elated t o

technical o ccupations. T echnical ed ucation, t echnical t raining o r a s emi-skilled t ype of

occupation h as be en and i s a lso v ery i mportant i n t he Argentine e ducation s ystem. In

Argentina there is a tradition of secondary schools where some type of technical skill is

taught and that a re appreciated as good education centers. In f act, when discussing the

opportunities of work available a t Spain for Argentines, there were a lways mentions to

31 http://www.educacion.es/educacion/actividad-internacional/oficinas-centros-exterior.html.

89

the i mportance o f t he Argentine “o ffices” o r “trades” ( oficios) i n S pain a nd Italy.

Argentines (and Peruvians too, in a different way as I will explain below) are sought for

having those skills that for many have been already “lost” or forgotten in Spain and Italy:

“matriceros” (designers and makers of automobile parts), “torneros” (technicians who

work w ith m etals t o make s mall m achine pi eces), carpenters; but a lso f or ha ving

technical occupations of the new generation, like marketing, TV production, design, fine

arts; m usic s ound, a ll of t hem oc cupations ta ught a t th e te chnical in stitutes ( called

Terciarios). R afael d el C astillo (EXP_INT_7_ARG) a young S panish l awyer w ho was

sent from Spain to Argentina with the objective of establishing an agency dependent of a

law f irm of M adrid, onl y because m any l egal c ivil c ases ( including t he acquisition of

Spanish c itizenship i n Argentina) s tarted i ncreasingly i nvolving bot h Argentina a nd

Spain, described the labor characteristics of his clients and also Argentines in general, as

seen by the Spanish. He also provides some explanations about the origin of the technical

skills among Argentines of Spanish origins who travel to work in Spain.

I a m s peaking of families, e specially S panish f amilies. H ere you know t hat i n Buenos A ires, t he S outh w as a ve ry i mportant i ndustrial cen ter w hich a ttracted many immig rants ( Spanish immig rant f amilies to A rgentina). W aves d uring mainly t he 1950 ’s, 1930 s, m any S panish, m any Spanish f amilies s ettled i n t he South. I have had many, many p eople ( clients) i n t he South, I mean, i ndustrial, industrious i n t hose years, but l ogically t hey c losed t heir bus inesses a fter a ll, I have ha d m any pe ople, t he m ajority h ad t heir secondary s tudies m any pe ople university also but m ostly s econdary, a nd people pr epared academically, prepared, A rgentines for a ll lif e c ircumstances, Argentines as they say i n Spain they are “little hands” (handy?), i t is ...they can do... everything. They fix a car , they paint a house, and that was very important when joining the labor market in Spain... I have people, who had their t itles approved, now they a re giving c lasses!, they are people who wanted to have their own business. They moved up fast. Now I get m any phone calls, pe ople w ho t ell m e ne ws, " Rafael, t hey p romoted m e," even i n ot her c ompanies, m arketing, t he Argentine i s g ood f or m arketing, t he Argentine is very good for publicity, advertising companies for example located in the Barcelona area, they want Argentines because they are capable.

90

Peruvians al so h ave s ome o f t he s ame f ame o f A rgentines r egarding t echnical

occupations i n S pain, b ut m ostly as a rtisans and c arpenters, a nd i n t erms of t echnical

occupations, technical nursing is probably the most important technical level occupation

both in Spain and Argentina.

In addition Diaspora related organizations established in Argentina and in Spain

and Italy a re also i mportant s haping t he c haracteristics of t he n etworks. F or example,

organizations f rom t he “ Autonomous C ommunities” of S pain l ike G alicia f requently

lobbies for shorter and direct procedures for official recognitions of professional titles at

the Education Council of Spain in Argentina. Also promotes fellowships and scholarships

for Argentines with Galician origins (interview with statistics technician of the Education

Council of Spain in Argentina: EXP_INT_5_ARG). Also, organizations of the South of

Italy promote employment related projects to help their Argentine- Italian “cousins” with

work t raining i n A rgentina, a nd a lso e ncouraging Italian m unicipalities/ r egions t o

provide e asier c hannels of i mmigration f or Argentines w ith or igins i n t hose r egions of

Italy (interview with Claudio Farabola. Italian Chamber of Commerce in Buenos Aires:

EXP_INT_3_ARG).

Another or ganization of t ransnational a ctivities c ontributing t o s hape A rgentine

social networks in this case to Italy is the Italian Chamber of Commerce in Buenos Aires.

This or ganization i s a ssociated w ith t he A rgentine s ection of t he International Labor

Organization (ILO) and the Italian government to establish the Italia Laboro Program, a

program to benefit young descendents of Italians in Argentina, in labor training and re-

training, and employment a cquisition i n A rgentina. A lthough t he obj ective of t his

program is not taking them to Italy but “helping them in Argentina” (Interview with the

responsibles of I TES and I talia L aboro: EXP_INT_6_ARG), ma ny p articipants o f th is

91

program a ctually de cide t o m igrate t emporarily, not ne cessarily t o Italy but t o S pain

(interviews with tw o p articipants o f th e p rogram Italia Laboro: INT8_ARG and

INT9_ARG). In addition, the Italian Chamber of Commerce had another program to train

Argentine cooks in Buenos Aires and them take them in groups to work to Italy.

LABOR

In 2009, I interviewed M.A. Julio Mendiburu, a male nurse in his forties and Dean

of the Professional Association of Nurses of Peru (Colegio de Enfermeras y Enfermeros

del Peru- CEEP). He seemed to be promoting and continuing (from the previous Dean)

an i mportant pr oject w ith t he obj ective of a ssuring t he qua lity of t he t raining i n t he

Nursing pr ofession i n P eru. S pecifically o f t he ai m w as t o en sure t he q uality care

Peruvian nurses could offer in the country and now secondarily internationally32

Dean M endiburu de scribed t he m any o ccasions i n w hich the P rofessional

Association of Nurses of Peru had been approached by institutions in the United States,

Canada, A ustralia a nd Italy, i nterested i n r ecruiting P eruvian nur ses t o work i n t hese

countries. S ome of t hose i nstitutions s eemed t o be pr ofessional a nd academic: f or

example, he mentions with familiarity and respect the work with Dr Barbara Anderson

.

33

associated w ith t he U niversity of S eattle a nd a ccording t o D ean M endiburu a lso

representative of t he N ational C ouncil of N ursing ( sic), C anadian r epresentatives of a

university i n Quebec the Federation of Nursing of I taly (Federatione Nazionali Collegi

Infermieri – IPASVI) and the North American Nursing Diagnosis Association NANDA

an institution that became a referent for standardized nursing diagnostic terminology34

32 As other professional associations in Peru and other countries, in order to work in the profession, professional nurses must register in the CEEP after having passed an evaluation.

.

33 Associate Dean for Academic Affairs and Professor of Nursing at Seattle University.College of Nursing. 34 NANDA International is a (2002) institution based in the United States that first nationally (1982) and then internationally (2002) became a referent for standardized nursing diagnostic terminology. They present themselves as “supportive and energetic global network of nurses, who are committed to improving the quality of nursing care and improvement of patient safety through evidence-based practice” (…) that

92

Q.: Have they sought contact with the CEEP? Or have the CEEP contacted them? There are s ome relationships t hat ar e p ersonal, f or ex ample i n t he cas e o f D r. Barbara A nderson. S he w as h ere as p art o f h er academic i nterests ( she s tudied global s hortages of he alth c are w orkers f rom t he pe rspective of t he nursing profession), s he w as t eaching at a uni versity and w e t ook a dvantage of t hose connections. Or in the case of the representatives who come here from NANDA, they come to our congress, we are constantly interacting and we see opportunities to strengthen these cooperative ties, yet formally is not formally well established. In f act th ere a re tw o o ther u niversities w ith w hich w e mi ght get c lose in th is process, but these things are still in its incipient stage. Yet there is no doubt there are intentions from both their side and also from our side. (…) In the case of Italy we have more advanced conversations with Italy, i t is l ikely that t his en d o f year we can m ake a t rip t here, j ust a f ew d ays a go I w as coordinating with the Peruvian association of nurses working in Italy, the 30th of August i s t he da y of t he nur ses, s o w e w ill e xchange greetings w ith P eruvian nurses working in Italy and with regards to the Italian case we even had meetings here in Peru with representatives of the Federation of Nurses35

, which is how it is called there. They came here, Milan representatives, representatives of nursing in Rome a nd we advanced some talks to have an agreement, signing a framework agreement on pa rtnership and cooperation and then a lways in this di rection that they will t ransfer the Italian experience on he alth care, in remuneration policies, in research to Peru. That is the closest thing to Peru nowadays (Peruvian nurses going to w ork to Italy), th e c losest…so b ased o n th is e xperience it is e asier to specify the f ollowing other commitments w ith o ther c ountries. (EXP_INT_5_PER)

Some ot hers i nstitutions a pproaching t he C EEP s eemed t o b e o r pr esented

themselves as philanthropic religious associations (institutions based in the United States

and A ustralia) a nd i mportantly, t here w ere a lso f or pr ofit r ecruiting companies l ike

“Obiettivo Lavoro” and a branch of “Euro Job” that also periodically approach the CEEP.

The relationship of the CEEP with the latter recruiting companies were characterized by

Dean Mendiburu as formal and cordial “but not close” (given the for-profit orientation of

the companies) but also involving a appropriate level of suspiciousness since there have

aims “to facilitate the development, refinement, dissemination and use of standardized nursing diagnostic terminology”. 35 Federatione Nazionali Collegi Infermieri – IPASVI.

93

been r ecruiting co mpanies t hat h ad al ready co mmitted f raud, af fecting r ecruited n urses

(particularly to Italy) very negatively.

The treatment of South American nurses is different to the t reatment of Filipino nurses. Like a m onth a go, ( an o rganization) c ame he re t o r ecruit f ive hundr ed nurses. Q.: Who came? An or ganization that I d o not r emember r ight no w the n ame….I would h ave to look around the card, five hundred nurses. Q.: Did they come here to the CEEP? Here, and then they were suggesting a collaboration for a selection evaluation. A set of que stions w ere a sked. T hey wanted hu man r esources t o t ake car e o f children, they would commit themselves to train them, so that they can fulfill the first part of the stage there… Q.: To take them to the United States. Yes. Q.: It was a private company? I think it was a philanthropic organization, not specifically religious, because we asked for their credentials… but then they made the decision, a technical decision it s eems ( a s udden p roblem a rose) t o r eturn t o t he U nited S tates, but l eft t heir email. They say that they will write soon and that they are keen to attract more nurses The United States clearly has an interest in attracting more nurses to meet their demands, their needs. (…) Q.: What is the relationship of the CEEP with the companies that recruit nurses for other countries? We know right now there are three leading companies that take nurses to Italy so far w e h ave n ot r eceived a f ormal co mplaint f rom an yone ab out an y o f t hese companies out t here. But w e ha ve not ha d either a n agreement or a formal relationship with these companies, on the one hand because of the fear that these could be companies that can negatively affect our nurses, so the CEEP must be very jealous, very careful to maintain a formal relationship with these companies. But on the other side at the same time this unpleasant experiences of mistreatment of nurses requires us and compels us to secure, and to be aware and vigilant with these c ompanies, th at is w hy we also ma intain a c ordial relationship w ith th eir representatives,. Some of these companies are even collaborating in the training of nur ses but t here i s no f ormal r elationship and w e a re s till e valuating t he possibility of both using the Peruvian consulate in Italy and the Italian consulate to en sure f ormal co ntrol m echanisms w ith r espect t hese co mpanies. (EXP_INT_5_PER)

94

Although Dean Mendiburu mentioned only those two recruiting companies, there

were also s ome ot her c ompanies t hat dur ing t he previous a dministrations of t he C EEP

were allowed to di stribute brochures and information t o t he population of r egistered

nurses of Peru at least in the Lima headquarters of the CEEP, although probably also in

all or many of the 17 regional councils of the CEEP in the country. Here is what Piedad

(31) a registered nurse, specialized in Public Health, and a resident of the populous low

middle c lass di strict of S an J uan de M iraflores described regarding t he interaction a nd

visibility of such companies in the CEEP:

I entered the Social Security Hospital in 2002. And my friend Roxana had been already registered (in o ne o f t hose r ecruiting companies, a dministered b y a n Italian, o r Italian –Peruvian bus iness man) (…). That a gency was going to t ake her (to Italy). Well “OSA” (Operatori Sanitari Associati –OSA-Peru) 36 is one of them, but R oxana ... ha s g iven m e ... t he na me of A lvaro G utierrez37

who i s leading th at c ompany b ut th ere is a lso a n I talian ma n, h e is p art o f th e Italian family Lorenzo. Roxana actually had registered with him, but he ... reserves the right t o a dmission, s o t o s peak, he doe s not a ccept a nyone w ho i s not recommended. To s ay, Roxana r ecommends m e, or s omeone w ho kno ws m e does, so I'm not going to disappoint him ...

Q.: What would be the way to disappoint him? Disappoint. He said, “many nurses, before, once they arrived, they got there, well maybe they did not like the pressure, or the (work, financial) pressure drove them away s o t hey be came i nformal, i llegal a nd a bandoned m e, s o I ha d i nvested i n them in their airplane ticket invested in the paperwork ... “ (Explains i n de tail f or me) S o he g oes t o Italy to m ake c ontacts, t o w ait f or answers, be cause t here are pr ocedures a nd pa yments t o m ake, a nd pr esumably also the nurse (who was taken to Italy) for a period more or less than 1 year and a half or 2 years will be deducted f irst a p art of her salary. I mean he would help you financially the first 2 months, but then you already have to pay, because you already receive your salary. He was affected by that because the nurses sometimes

36 Brach office of OSA, a company that states that “it is a non-profit association” (http://www.osaperu.org/qsomos.htm) although it is not so much like that (http://www.osaperu.org/qhacemos.htm), based in Rome and founded in 1985 as a “healthcare and social workers' cooperative (...) by a group of doctors, psychologists and social workers.” 37 The owner, or one of the owners of one of these companies is Alvaro Gutierrez Cueva a known Peruvian congressman of moderate political views, lately suspended by the Congress due to irregular use of public funds in trips abroad, of provincial origins (Arequipa) and an ex-migrant to Italy himself, where he established businesses that he still continues administering from Lima.

95

would l eave hi m... t hen he di d not w ant t hat. And s ome ot hers be ing a t t he embassy (ready t o m ake t he f inal p aperwork i n the E mbassy o f Italy i n P eru) would ba ck do wn ... s o he c omplained “ that c an’t be , s o m any pr ocedures, s o much t ime i nvested. T hat's w hy he chose t o onl y s ee nur ses w ho w ere recommended. R oxana r ecommended m e, I h ave t he a ddress of t his m an, but I want to be sure, I know i f I'm going, I can no l onger reverse, unless something serious happens. It depends on me, I told him I'm going to look for him when I am sure. Q.: Is all this paperwork legal, so your friend Roxana goes legal? The gentleman (Lorenzo) has done the paperwork, yes i t i s legal. In the case of the nurses, if they go through these agencies, they are legal. Q.: These agencies are many? Few. “OSA”, Mr. Lorenzo... “Integra” is another. Alvaro Gutierrez they mention too, this Italian guy too. Q.:Do they advertise? The one I met who did advertising was Alvaro Gutierrez. He even went on T V and ev erything, h ere h is n ame w as f airly w ell-known a nd m any nur ses w ent looking for him. On the t elevision show, he even had an ad in t he P rofessional Association of Nurses (CEEP) here in Santa Cruz street, I remember that I went to find out ... a nd the CEEP said we have no a greement with any agency, but then the secretary just got in with info on Alvaro Gutierrez (recruiting company) ... so she (maybe an authority there in the CEEP at that time) said “good Alvaro is an exception, because somehow their work i s known”, but we the only thing we're going t o g ive you g uys (nurses) i s t he l egal c redentials t hat you a re r egistered members, or t hat you are qua lified t o w ork a nywhere, s o i f t hat t hat serves Alvaro too, well OK... Q.: And everybody talks about and Alvaro in a very personal way, do you also know him? No, I onl y t alked with h is s ecretary, she even gave us a checklist to see all the requirements n eeded to pursue it a nd a t th at time it w as th e s um o f 5 00 s oles ($180). (PRE_INT1_PER).

Following the many institutional pressures from abroad, but also and maybe most

importantly t he e ndogenous de velopment of t he Nursing pr ofession i n P eru a nd a n

authentic w ish f or of fering qua lity he alth c are w ithin t he c ountry, t he P rofessional

Association of N urses of P eru ( CEEP) ha s s tarted de veloping a m ore i nternational

outlook. Therefore, dur ing these years t hey not have on ly adopted t he NANDA (North

96

American Nursing Diagnosis Association ) diagnostic procedures but also have as one of

their ma jor p rojects in process and for th e n ext years th e establishment o f th e r e-

certification process of nurses every 5 years. For that according to Dean Mendiburu the

CEEP is taking as reference the procedures of certification of other countries, and going

beyond t he i nternational s tandards a lready followed b y t he i nstitution, such t he North

American Nursing Diagnosis Association NANDA nursing diagnoses and being affiliated

to NANDA international.38

Q.: …and this certification has international validity also, in coordination with professional associations of nurses in other countries? Or is by now only a national process? It is a n ational process but w e w ill w ork w ith an i nternational out look, i n f act during the process there has been the experience of Canada, USA and in the case of S outh A merica in C olombia, w ell in C olombia ( certification) h as b een a different p rocess anyway … b ut yes there h ave b een (certification) p rocesses which ha ve b een t aken a s r eference and w e hope f or t he future t o ha ve agreements, w ith s ome countries i n t his r egard so t hat t his m igration of nur ses could also bea guarantee for developed countries that nurses who are leaving the country, t hat t hey will a lso have qua lity care t here no? W e have not di scussed that yet but I do not think we are far from this …the world is so global now that requires t he pr ofessions, i ncluding pr ofessionals a ssociations t o be actually interrelated. (EXP_INT_5_PER)

With a s omewhat s ad a nd a t t he s ame t ime r esigned vi ew on t he m igration of

nurses t o Italy, S pain and ot her c ountries, D ean M endiburu de scribes s ome of t he

possibilities of obt aining s ome pos itive returns t o P eru’s de velopment n eeds ( he

mentions r emittances, and t he e fforts o f t he C EEP t o m aterialize t he exchange an d

appropriation of knowledge, training, management tools). Additionally examining what is

happening i n t he r eceiving c ountries r egarding s hortages of h ealth c are workers (h e 38 NANDA International is a (2002) institution based in the United States that first nationally (1982) and then internationally (2002) became a referent for standardized nursing diagnostic terminology. They present themselves as “supportive and energetic global network of nurses, who are committed to improving the quality of nursing care and improvement of patient safety through evidence-based practice” (…) that aims “to facilitate the development, refinement, dissemination and use of standardized nursing diagnostic terminology”.

97

mentions the intensive promotion of the career in Italy, shortages of nurses in Spain) he

expects this big emigration trend to reduce in some more years.

Q.: And on the side of the school what is expected? How does the CEEP position itself? And part of their (he refers to the professional organizations from other countries that g o t o P eru t o e xplore t he pos sibilities of r ecruitment of nur ses) concerns I guess i t i s that the human resources they take must have or must be at the least minimum quality standard and from our side …. because the nurses leave, for us it is like a great loss of our workforce is lost, at present almost 8,000 nurses have already l eft and this r epresents an average o f s lightly more than 17% of l oss of labor f orce, on o ne s ide b ecause al l o f t hem h ave b een educated w ith t he resources of all the Peruvians39

Until now I have described the operation of professional organizations of nursing

and recruiting companies associated to the labor migration of nurses to Italy. In terms of

the labor migration of Peruvians to Spain, the most important role in terms of recruitment

has be en pl ayed b y t he S panish g overnment. T he International M igration O utlook of

SOPEMI/OECD f or 2 009 s ummarizes th e v ery in teresting s ystem o f recruitment th e

Spanish government e stablished in t he year 200 0 to channel l abor migration. Basically

there two channels: The General Regime and the “Contingente” (referring to “in a l arge

group”). T he first c hannel “ allows e mployers t o a sk f or a uthorization t o hi re a f oreign

because many of them have taken the resources of a ll Peruvians, that ends up s ubsidizing a developed country, but on t he other hand I am a lso pl eased that ot her c ountries v alue, ap preciate an d r ecognize t he training of nurses and even the salary, wages, fees are much better in the U.S. like an hour i s a pproximately paid $24 on a verage, he re t hat ha rdly w ill ha ppen, because here on the contrary nurses are marginalized, proof of this is for example that 92% of medical doctors are appointed (get tenure) but in the case of nurses only 30% got tenure. Seventy percent is deprived of the minimum social r ights, all of this makes the CEEP more open (tolerant) at the end because nothing and nobody will impede that nurses continuing leaving for the United States, Australia or Canada or Italy, while here at home no attention is paid to the problem of the profession de spite t he f act t hat h ere w e ne ed to a pproximately 12,00 0 m ore nurses. (EXP_INT_5_PER)

39 He refers to the characteristics of the university level Nursing education (which by the way is different than the technical schools of nursing, that are technical and not professional occupations) that is mostly offered in public universities, funded almost entirely by public funds.

98

worker by name (nominative system), while the Contingente is for anonymous requests

when employers have not identified a specific candidate” (OECD 2010 : 148). The latter

channel was the systems used at countries of origin and according to the OECD in 2008,

43,000 foreign workers arrived to Spain under that system,, “while three times this many”

(around 129,000) arrived to Spain under the General Regime.

There ar e m any interesting as pects t o de scribe r egarding t his s ystem. T he

Contingente channel, the one directed to employ “anonymous” workers, depends on t he

Public Employment Service (PES) that within Spain has regional level agencies but has

also agencies abroad, at the Spanish embassies. The PES with the participation of other

agents ( employers, uni ons) f orecasts t he l ist of a nnual s ingle n eeded oc cupations. T he

system s tarts working when employers request t he recruitment of a number of workers

that s hould a t l east be 10, a lthough a group of e mployers w ho do not c omplete t he

minimum can associate to request a larger number of workers. Importantly, the employer

can s elect t he c ountry of or igin of t he w orkers. T his e lement i s de terminant i n t he

processes that shape the social networks of migration because different nationalities are

associated t o s pecific oc cupations. It w ould b e i mportant t o e xamine i f t here a re s ome

ideological pa tterns t o r equest w orkers f rom di fferent c ountries a mong S panish

employers, and apparently there are, considering the descriptions offered by the members

of t he S panish E ducation C ouncil a nd t he l awyer of t he bi national l aw f irm. A nother

important aspect in this system is the participation of the Spanish state subsidizing labor

migrations. The employer pays a small fee of 170 Euros per application and the rest of

the costs are subsidized by the Spanish government. The employer should pay half of the

cost of the travel costs for a round trip, and the channel can be used for permanent and

temporary workers (if its permanent, the occupation of the worker must be in the annual

lists of occupations needed). The latter is probably another way of shaping immigration

99

flows and in turn social networks of migration: some occupations and workers from some

countries of origin can be requested for temporary work and some others for permanent

work.

In t he ne xt c hapters, da ta c ollected t hrough i n- depth i nterviews r egarding t he

labor trajectories of different members of migrant sending households in Spain will show

the evidence of the workings of this recruiting system.

FAMILY

In previous chapters I mentioned that the different ethnic origins of the Argentine

and Peruvian populations could have resulted in different family systems. In fact, in the

interviews with members of the migrant sending households, differing opinions regarding

the necessary adjustments to process in the family after the emigration of a close relative

occurred, allowed me to observe some important differences between Argentina and Peru

family systems and kinship.

I posit that Argentina and Peru have two different contemporary family systems.

European immigration to Argentina f rom Italy a fter the Second World War (1945) and

from S pain a fter t he S panish C ivil War ( 1939) s eem t o ha ve i nvolved ve ry dr amatic

experiences o f s eparation f rom t he o riginal f amily, experiences o f w ar an d d ifficult

adjustment to Argentina and resulted in the production of a very closed nuclear type of

family . These reflections b y Amparo (37) an Argentine l inguist, w hose ol der s ister,

nephew, ni ece a nd br other i n l aw l ive i n S pain, could he lp unde rstand t he a ssociation

between European immigration and the prevalence of the nuclear family in Argentina: My parents came to Argentina in the year 1953, having passed the war era, people came, my grandparents and my great-grandparents came to Argentina and Brazil to work, at the beginning of the century (…) To my parents [that trip] represented an obl iged s olution be cause a ll pe ople w ould c ome t o Buenos Aires, o r somewhere i n A merica. A nd t hey h ad t o, t here w as not m uch c hoice and t hat meant being unable to return because they sold what they had there to come here and it was impossible any return. (…) at that time that meant that because of [my

100

parents i deas], t heir s tructure, be cause t he c onvenience of liv ing in a s mall community w as l ost, t hat m eant a nd pr obably for ot her m any i mmigrants l ike them, that they would only stayed within their social circle, really, only the colony of immigrants or the family. There were many that not even made friends. In this respect my parents have not made friends in Argentina (...) I think that is part of maybe t he i nsecurity or r epression or pe rhaps the r equirements of r unning a family and working as it was in the late 60s. My mother was at home and my dad at work and taking care of us my mother and my grandmother and there was no exit to the outside. It was a family…what I mean is this; it was a family that was always behind closed doors. My s ister being the f irst, o r being the first child of a couple of immigrants was quite shy, married very young, had her first child when she was very young, we for be tter o r f or worse (the younger s iblings) got out of t hat pa ttern b ut t he characteristics o f th e f amily remain, it is s till v ery, v ery s ecluded to th e f amily issues….you know.

At t he s ame t ime, adult c hildren and elderly parents i n A rgentina a re ve ry

independent of e ach ot her. A mong A rgentines, t here i s t his e xtended i dea t hat “ each

individual should take care of their own nuclear family”. Maybe that is one of the reasons

explaining t hat m igration of pa rents w ithout t heir c hildren i s not f requent a mong

Argentines. Survey data for Argentina, presented some cases of children left behind, but

in those cases, children were already teenagers of 17 to 19 years of age that studied in the

university or had the their own plans to stay in Buenos Aires, and did not want to travel

with their parents to Spain or Italy.

In P eru, on t he ot her h and e xtended f amily i s pr evalent. S iblings c an a ct a s

parents of younger s iblings, unc les and aunts c an a ct l ike t hat t oo, gr andparents a nd

cousins are very important. This could be related to another type of migration experience,

not immig ration a s in A rgentina b ut rural –urban m igration f rom t he m ore i ndigenous

provinces of P eru t o t he c apital city of Lima. In t hose pr ovinces, extended ki n i s

prevalent.

101

LAW

With regards to the institutional dimension of law, the main influential forces in

shaping m igration f lows be tween A rgentina, P eru a nd S pain a nd Italy; and t he s ocial

networks of migration operating within them have been immigration regulations designed

and implemented a t countries of destination. Despite t hat importance, t hese r egulations

that f or m any a nalysts of E uropean i mmigration l aws ha ve be en hi ghly reactive and

inconsistent o ver time , have pr obably b een t he l east e ffective i n s haping m igration

streams and networks, particularly when they intended to restrict immigration.

In ve ry general t erms, immigration pol icies bot h f or S pain a nd Italy can be

characterized as t ransitioning f rom a unproblematic pe riod i n w hich pe rmissive

regulations were clearly determined by nation states and had a simpler format (1980s) to

a increasingly problematic period in which more restrictive regulations were established,

first a t a n ational le vel, b ut th en in c onjunction w ith ot her m embers of t he na scent

European Union (beginning of the 1990s onwards) (Wenden 2004).

A cr ucial el ement t hat d istinguishes t he cas es of A rgentina an d P eru, i s t he

importance of t he e xtensive E uropean citizenship a mong A rgentines c ompared t o

Peruvians e specially since 2001 ( year i n w hich s tarting t he p aperwork t o a cquire

European citizenship became massively important, not only among prospective migrants

but in general. Citizenship would constitute a resource to escape severe economic crisis,

and m igrate i f ne cessary. C itizenship a llows A rgentine e migrants t o r eturn f requently,

and if they want to return they can always migrate again. For Peruvians those decisions

are harder to take, return trips to Peru take place after more years.

In conclusion, having expanded appreciation of institutions could help explaining

variations between the characteristics of migration flows and with that also between the

characteristics of social networks of migration.

102

REFERENCES:

OECD (2010). International Migration Outlook: SOPEMI 2009. Paris, Organisation for

Economic Cooperation and Development. Pellegrino, A. ( 2004). Migration from Latin A merica to E urope. G eneva, I nternational

Organization for Migration. Wenden, C . W . d. ( 2004). A dmissions P olicies i n E urope. International M igration.

Prospects an d P olicies i n a G lobal M arket. D. Massey and J . E . T aylor. N ew York, Oxford University Press: 286-294.

103

Chapter 5: Characteristics and relationships between ego and network partners in the migration flows

In t he pr evious c hapter I a rgued t hat c ountry s pecific but a lso t ransnational

institutions s hape m igration f lows, a nd i n t hat process, t hey also p robably s hape t he

networks ope rating w ithin t hem, t herefore m aking t hem di fferent f rom s ocial ne tworks

operating i n ot her m igration f lows. In t his c hapter, I w ill e ngage i n a m ore de tailed

presentation of those differences, through the means of examining the socio-demographic

characteristics of t he r espondents ( ego) a nd t heir ne twork pa rtners, as w ell a s b y

discussing t he r elationships t hat c onnect t hem. The t ask o f t his chapter i s a n ecessary

initial s tep t o pur sue t he a nalysis of bot h S TRUCTURE a nd R ESOURCES of s ocial

networks of migration, to be presented in the next chapter.

In th is a nd th e n ext c hapter I w ill d emonstrate th at th e s ocial n etworks o f

migration operating in the four migration flows between Argentina and Peru to Spain and

Italy, differ importantly. And that is important because the characteristics of the networks

and their members i s representative o f the t ypes of connections ex istent between South

America and the two main receiving countries of the emergent South European migration

system, Spain and Italy.

The m ain di fferences a re f ound be tween c ountries a nd not w ithin f lows, w hich

indicates that i t i s the or igin institutions that have a preponderant role in shaping these

ego-centered networks of social migration. This is perhaps to be expected given that the

respondents and ego of those networks are residents in the countries of origin, Argentina

and P eru, e ven w hen ne twork pa rtners are not n ecessarily r esidents i n t he countries of

origin ( since t hey c an b e m embers of t he non -resident s egment of t he network). E ven

when di fferences be tween c ountries a re t he m ost i mportant, t here a re still not iceable

104

differences between streams, indicating that countries of destination, Spain and Italy also

imprint specific characteristics on the networks.

1. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EGO (RESPONDENT)

Several o f t he d escriptive t ables p resented i n this an d t he n ext ch apter a re

organized by flow or migration s tream. A s explained in chapter two, each sample was

drawn from a sampling frame specially elaborated for that stream, with exception of the

survey in Argentina where I constructed only one sampling frame for both streams given

the obvious overlapping between the places visited by persons having family members in

Spain a nd t he one s w ho ha d f amily m embers i n Italy. In t he P eru case w hen t he

respondent had relatives in both Spain and Italy, in order to avoid having duplicates I just

considered t he obs ervation a s pa rt of t he c ountry s pecific or iginal s ample. In t he

Argentina s ample w hen a r espondent h ad r elatives i n bot h S pain a nd Italy, i n or der t o

avoid dupl icates, I d ecided t o count t he obs ervation a s p art o f t he Argentina-Italy

migration stream since that was the sub-sample with fewer observations.

Respondents to the questionnaire were male or female in similar proportions (see

table 5.1). H owever s light di fferences a re e vident be tween c ountries ( but not be tween

migration s treams) given th at in P eru w e in terviewed s lightly mo re ma les ( 54.14% for

Peru- Spain a nd 58.25% f or P eru-Italy) t han f emales an d i n Argentina we i nterviewed

more females than males (56% in the case of the stream Argentina-Spain, and 60% in the

case o f A rgentina-Italy). A s e xplained i n c hapter t wo, pa rticipants of t he s urvey w ere

contacted a ccording t o a r andom s election of c ombinations of SUB-LOCATIONS a nd

TIMES w here a nd w hen i ndividuals w ere a pproached and i nvited t o a nswer t he

questionnaire. There was not any type of quota by sex or age to fulfill, just the fact that

the possible r espondent was older t han 18 r esiding i n A rgentina/Peru a nd ha d f amily

members a s mi grants to Italy or S pain ( in addition, a t le ast o ne o f th e migrant f amily

105

members to Italy or Spain should have been abroad for a period of at least 6 months at the

moment of application of the questionnaire; and the possible respondent was frequently

in contact with the migrant family member). Therefore the slim imbalance between male

and f emale r espondents i s pr obably random but t he s ex of t he i nterviewers ha d s ome

influence: in Lima, the team was composed of three male and three female assistants (and

I myself was an interviewer); while in Buenos Aires the team was composed of only one

male and five female assistants (I was an interviewer as well).

In t erms of age, t he r espondents w ere m ostly 2 5 t o 35 years ol d f or t he f our

streams ( from 2 4% t o 2 8 % i n al l t he cas es) b ut t here ar e s ome d ifferences b etween

countries: in the Peru sample the second most important age group was the one from 36

to 45 years of age, and in the Argentine sample, the second most important age group was

the one f rom 55 a nd m ore years of a ge ( 22% a nd 20 % f or A rgentina-Spain a nd

Argentina-Italy r espectively c ompared t o onl y 11.78% a nd 16.5% f or t he s treams of

Peru-Spain a nd P eru-Italy r espectively). The m ean a ge f or t he f our s treams i s f airly

similar being close to a mean age of 40 years old.

106

Table 5.1: Demographic composition of the respondents, by flow

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy chi2

%Male 54.14 58.25 44.49 40 %Female 45.86 41.75 55.51 60 Pr =.003 % age 18-25 21.3 18.93 18.78 16 % age 26-35 25.56 24.27 28.16 25.33 % age 36-45 24.81 22.82 16.73 16 % age 46-55 16.54 17.48 14.29 22.67 % age 55+ 11.78 16.5 22.04 20 Pr = .051 Mean age 38.2 40.02 40.66 41.68 % with primary education 12.78 16.02 11.84 16 % with sec. education 29.32 20.39 24.08 17.33 % with non-univ. educ. 32.83 29.61 19.59 22.67 % with univ. educ. 25.06 33.98 44.49 44 Pr =.000 % never married 35.97 36.76 35.1 36.49 % cohabiting 11.48 7.84 9.8 13.51 % married 46.43 49.02 41.63 29.73 % separated 3.06 3.43 4.08 6.76 % divorced 0 1.47 2.86 9.46 % widowed 3.06 1.47 6.53 4.05 Pr =.000 N=924 398 206 245 75

The education level of the respondents was different for Argentine and Peruvian

respondents: T he m ost i mportant pr oportion of A rgentine r espondents ha d a ttained

university tertiary level education (44.49% for Argentina-Spain and 44% for Argentina-

Italy) w hile in the P eruvian s ample i n t he case of t he P eru-Spain s tream th e mo st

important proportion of respondents had attained non-university tertiary l evel education

(32.83%) a nd i n t he c ase of t he P eru-Italy s tream t he m ost i mportant pr oportion of

107

respondents ha d a ttained uni versity l evel of e ducation ( 33.98%). In bot h countries, t he

group of r espondents w ho ha d a ttained onl y s econdary e ducation i s ve ry important. In

general, in both countries we see a v ery educated socio-economic group, corresponding

to the urban middle classes in both countries.

In t erms o f marital status, r espondents i n t he t wo P eru s amples are m ainly

“married”: 46% and 49% fo r P eru- Spain and Peru-Italy r espectively. In t he Argentina

sample, onl y t he s tream A rgentina-Spain s hows a s imilar p attern, but n ot a t t he s ame

level as i n t he P eru cas e, s ince t he p ercent m arried ar e o nly 4 1.63%. V ery clearly t he

stream A rgentina-Italy shows a di fferent pa ttern ( only 29.73 % m arried) but t he

respondents for this s tream are only 75, correspondingly in this s tream the percents for

“cohabiting” “separated”, “ divorced” a nd “ widowed” are 13.51% , 6.7 6%, 9.46% a nd

4.05% respectively . T he second most important group in the four migration streams is

the proportion never married (from 35.1% to 36.76 % in all the cases).

In t erms o f position in their household (see table 5.2), t he r espondents i n t he

situation of e go i n t he ne tworks de scribed i n t his c hapter w ere m ainly “heads of

households” (59.3% for Peru-Spain, 64.56% for Peru-Italy, 65.31% for Argentina-Spain,

and 6 2.67% f or A rgentina-Italy). In t erms o f t he s ex of t he he ads of h ouseholds, t hey

were mostly male heads of household with the exception of the Peru-Italy f low. In that

flow, 57% of t he r espondents w ho oc cupied t he pos ition of he ads o f h ousehold w ere

female. Also, in terms of the sex of the respondents who occupied the position of head of

household, P eru h as more f emale h eads of household. In A rgentina, t he h eads of

household were mostly male.

Second in importance were “son/daughter” of the household head: in the case of

the s tream P eru-Spain, 2 2.36% of r espondents o ccupied t his pos ition. In t hird pl ace of

108

importance w ere “spouse of the head of household”: in the case of the Argentina-Italy

stream, spouses were 18.67%.

Table 5.2: Household position of respondents, by flow.

Peru- Peru - Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy TOTAL

Head of household (HH) 59.3 64.56 65.31 62.67 62.34 Female heads of household (%) 37 57 18 12 25

Spouse of HH 12.56 11.65 15.1 18.67 13.53 Son/Daughter of HH 22.36 20.87 17.55 14.67 20.13 Son/Daughter in law of HH 0.25 0 0.41 0 0.22 Grandchild of HH 0.5 0 0 0 0.22 Other relatives of HH 4.52 2.91 0.82 1.33 2.92 Trabajador/a del hogar 0 0 0.41 0 0.11 Other no relatives of HH 0.5 0 0.41 2.67 0.54 100 100 100 100 100 Total 245 75 398 206 924 Pearson Chi2: p=0.125 Note: Maid/houseboy? who lives in house

In t erms o f place of birth (see tables 5.2 and 5.3) , th e g reat ma jority o f

respondents in both Argentina and Peru were born in the capital cities; however there are

also respondents born in other departamentos (Peru) and in other provinces (Argentina).

In the Argentina sample the great majority was born in Capital Federal (city of Buenos

Aires) or in the Province of Buenos Aires, both segments of what is called Great Buenos

Aires, the complete metropolitan area o f the cap ital o f Argentina. Capital Federal i s an

autonomous c ity but i s l ocated within B uenos A ires pr ovince, t he l argest and m ost

populated province of Argentina. In that sense, 40% of the respondents for the Argentina-

Spain s tream w ere bo rn i n B uenos A ires p rovince, a nd 38.37% w ere born i n C apital

Federal ( 78.37% of t he s ample bor n i n G reat B uenos A ires). For t he A rgentina-Italy

109

stream 38.67% were born in the Buenos Aires province and the same percent in Capital

Federal (77.34% of the sample was born in Great Buenos Aires). Slightly more important

for the stream Argentina-Italy but also much less important than Buenos Aires province

and Buenos Aires city as in the case of Argentina-Spain, the provinces of Santa Fe and

Cordoba, are also mentioned as the place of birth of respondents (5.33% and 2.45% of the

Argentina-Italy stream answered they were born in Santa Fe and Cordoba respectively).

Both provinces contain major cities and are economically important. They are adjacent to

the North East of Buenos Aires province.

There i s an additional interesting characteristic in the case of the respondents to

the A rgentina s urvey: not i nfrequently w e i nterviewed i ndividuals who ha d a ll t he

requisites of the population of interest but were not born in Argentina, and since this was

a frequent situation I decided to consider these respondents also since they represent two

other dimensions of the economic migration from Argentina to Spain and Italy: (a) some

of the members of the population of interest are themselves migrants from Italy and Spain

in Argentina (in the sample 5.31% of the Argentina-Spain sub-sample were Spanish and

5.33% of the Argentina-Italy subsample were Italians) ; and (b) some of the members of

the popul ation of i nterest a re na tionals of A rgentina’s ne ighboring countries, ba sically

Peruvian, Bolivian, Chilean and Paraguayan. In fact, doing fieldwork both in Peru and in

Argentina, Two trends appeared in the migration from Argentina to Southern Europe: one

is st ep-migration a nd th e o ther th e f amily d iversification o f in ternational mig ration. In

terms of the former strategy, families or individuals migrants to Argentina, mostly from

Peru and Bolivia and lately from Paraguay, after some years of staying in Argentina, and

sometimes a fter obt aining A rgentine pa pers, c ontinue t heir t rajectories of m igration, t o

the f arther d estination o f S pain a nd/or Italy. In te rms o f th e la tter s trategy: mi grant

Peruvian, B olivian a nd Paraguayan f amilies in Argentina “ branch” th eir mig ration,

110

settling i n t wo or t hree c ountries ( some m embers i n t heir country o f or igin, s ome

members in Argentina and other members in Spain and/or Italy).

Table 5.3: Percentage distribution of place of birth of respondents, by flow (Argentina sample).

Argentina – Spain

Argentina – Italy Total

Capital Federal 38.37 38.67 38.44 Chubut 0.41 0 0.31 Cordoba 1.22 2.67 1.56 Corrientes 0.41 0 0.31 Entre Rios 0.82 1.33 0.94 Formosa 0 1.33 0.31 Mar del Plata 0.41 0 0.31 Mendoza 2.04 0 1.56 Provincia de Buenos Aires 40 38.67 39.69 Rio Negro 0.82 0 0.63 Salta 0.41 1.33 0.63 Santa Fe 2.45 5.33 3.13 Bolivia 0.82 0 0.63 Chile 0.41 0 0.31 Colombia 0.41 0 0.31 Italy 1.22 5.33 2.19 Mexico 0 2.67 0.63 Paraguay 0.82 0 0.63 Peru 3.27 2.67 3.13 Spain 5.31 0 4.06 Uruguay 0.41 0 0.31 100 100 N=320 245 75 320 Pearson Chi2: p=0.142

Peruvian r espondents f or bot h s treams w ere m ostly bor n i n t he Lima

departamento: 53.27 for Peru- Spain and 53.4% for Peru-Italy (see table 5.3). In contrast

to Argentina, a relatively higher proportion of respondents were born in the interior of the

111

country. Interestingly, the other two most important departamentos mentioned as place of

birth of respondents are La Libertad (8.79% for Peru-Spain and 7.28 for Peru Italy) in the

North coast of Peru, and Junín (5.53% for Peru-Spain and 9.71% for Peru- Italy) in the

Central A ndes. S ince at l east 2 005, t hese a re d epartamentos al ready identified a s

important senders of migrants to Spain and Italy but also to the United States, given the

important amount of remittances they receive40

40 a) According to the Inter American Development Bank and the 2005 report by Bendixen & Associates frequently used by the IADB (Public Opinion Survey of Remittance Recipients in Peru, 2005): the city of Huancayo in Junín and the city of Piura in Piura were the first and third most important cities in receiving remittances from abroad that year (17% and 14% of the total received in Peru respectively). Lima was the second most important (16%). According to this report, half of the recipients (49%) in 2005 had the sender relatives in the United States and 26% had them in Europe (mostly in Spain or Italy). (b) The city of Trujillo in La Libertad has been also recognized as an important sender of migrants, given numerous organizations of migrants settled there (personal communication with Johanna Yancari, researcher of the Institute of Peruvian Studies).

compared to other departamentos of Peru.

112

Table 5.4: Percentage distribution of place of birth of respondents, by flow (Peru sample).

Peru – Spain Peru – Italy Total

Amazonas 0.5 0.49 0.5 Ancash 4.02 5.83 4.64 Apurimac 2.26 1.46 1.99 Arequipa 3.52 2.91 3.31 Ayacucho 1.01 4.85 2.32 Cajamarca 4.27 1.94 3.48 Callao 0.75 0 0.5 Chimbote 0 0.49 0.17 Cusco 1.76 3.4 2.32 Huancavelica 0.5 0.97 0.66 Huánuco 1.76 0.49 1.32 Ica 3.02 1.46 2.48 Junín 5.53 9.71 6.95 La Libertad 8.79 8.25 8.61 Lambayeque 3.27 1.94 2.81 Lima 53.27 53.4 53.31 Loreto 0.5 0.49 0.5 Madre de Dios 0.25 0 0.17 Moquegua 0.5 0 0.33 Pasco 0.5 0 0.33 Piura 3.27 0.97 2.48 Puno 0.5 0 0.33 San Martin 0.25 0.49 0.33 Ucayali 0 0.49 0.17

100 100 100 N=604 398 206 604 Pearson Chi2: p=0.035

2. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NETWORK PARTNERS

The individuals with whom the respondent regularly converses on i ssues related

to migration to Italy and Spain are considered her/his network partners. Section f ive of

113

the s urvey que stionnaire, w hich c ollected d ata o n t he s ocial ne tworks of m igration i n

which the respondent was EGO, started with the following question:

“With how many people do you talk about issues related to the migration of Peruvians/ Argentines to Spain/ Italy (possibilities of work, life in those societies, paperwork necessary to travel there)? (see figure 5.1).

The s ection continues with a r equest t o na me the f our m ost i mportant persons

with whom the respondent talks about those issues. Complete names were not asked, and

fake names or nicknames were used to formulate the questions referring to each one of

the possible f our ne twork pa rtners. F rom t his poi nt on, the f ollowing a re que stions

oriented to characterize in detail each one of those four network partners (or one, or two

or three network partners since the respondent can have less than four network partners,

or m ore, but t he que stions a re f or onl y t he f our m ost i mportant) D escriptive da ta

presented in this and the next subsection come from using those questions and sections.

Figure 5.1: Segment of Section 5, survey questionnaire (social network of migration).

114

In t erms of t he sex of network partners, pr oportions of m en a nd w omen a re

mostly s imilar w ithin e ach mig ration s tream. H owever, a lthough th ere is n ot mu ch

difference between the percents of male and female network partners in the cases of the

streams P eru-Spain a nd Argentina- Italy ( less t han 1 .7% d ifference b etween m ale an d

female n etwork p artners), t here a re contrasts between t he p roportions o f m ales an d

115

females in the stream Argentina- Spain, where respondents named 53.25% male network

partners and 46.75% female network partners (6.5% difference). There is even a higher

percent di fference be tween the proportions of male and female ne twork partners i n t he

stream P eru-Italy, w here r espondents na med a hi gher pr oportion of f emale ne twork

partners: 54.74% females, compared to 45.26% males (9.48% difference) (see table 5.4).

Table 5.5: Percentage distribution of network partners by sex and flow

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

Males 50.76 45.26 53.25 49.15 50.59 Famales 49.24 54.74 46.75 50.85 49.41 100 100 100 100 100 Total 922 380 830 236 2368 Pearson Chi2 :p=.03

These t rends a re s upported b y t he qua litative d ata c ollected t hrough i n-depth

interviews. T hose i nterviews s how t he i mportance of f emale b ased n etworks i n t he

migration f rom P eru t o bot h S pain a nd Italy, but i t i s i n t he s tream P eru –Italy w here

female based networks a re p rominent. Here I describe three o f those cases, the case o f

Pablo (32), whose older sister and mother migrated to Spain, and the cases of Paz (30),

and Pilar (31), whose mothers also migrated to Spain.

When asked about the process by which his sister and mother traveled to work to

Spain in 2004 and 2005 respectively, Pablo (30), an administrative/ computer technician,

who acts as tutor of his three teenage half-siblings and of his three teenage nephews and

116

niece41 with whom he lives in a Villa El Salvador42

, describes the events that lead to the

migration of bot h h er s ister ( 33) and hi s mother ( 54). In t hat na rration i s e vident t he

operation of a female and family based network:

What happened is that from the beginning, her husband ... I mean the economic problems that they experienced, started when her husband lost his job, where he earned an average of money that could serve to live in peace, and then he began to seek for temporary work, and money was not enough, then my sister started to be desperate a t t he l ack of money, be cause s ometimes t hey ha d not e nough t o e at during the week. So that forced my sister. Also her children were already in high school, her younger son was entering first grade, seeing that their children would need several things that their dad was not going to be able to provide. She worked cleaning houses, but it was not enough. Then my aunt, who was alive at that time, my m om a nd m y s ister he rself, t alked t o m y c ousin ( female cousin) w ho w as already in Spain ....at first it was for my mom to go (she was going to travel first to help her daughter go to Spain and to help her grandchildren) ... but the type of work that was sought, or found ( the work contract available), was for (a person like) my sister, then my sister was the one who went first. (…) Then the contract arrived for my sister and my mom stayed in Peru a year, then her motivation changed in my mom in direction of their children. She said to me, "you cannot keep giving so much for them, because you also have to get married, you have to study, and they will be in school, they will need more, they will have to prepare f or c ollege a nd no l onger i t's f air t hat you ke ep giving.” T hen m y mother also left. (INT7__PER) 43

Among th e in terviewees th at h ad r elatives in Italy, th e imp ortance o f female

based n etworks i s clearer. A ll o f t hem i dentified f emale b ased n etworks of m igration

41 Even when the father of his nephews and niece lives with them, in the same household with Pablo and the father of Pablo (separated from his mother), their tutor is Pablo. This happened because his brother in law was not taking good care of them and even when he helps economically (he worked as a truck driver) he had not much time or interest in having the primary responsibility of his children. 42 Villa El Salvador is a paradigmatic huge district of Lima, located on the south outskirts of the city. It is paradigmatic because it was completely formed by rural – urban immigrants who invaded the desert lands of the area in the 1970s driven by the need of urgent housing. It started as a shanty town and along the years it evolved into a district. Inhabitants of the district largely built its urban structures and supplied themselves of electricity, water and sewage services through self-organizing. 43 This is the code that identifies the interview. All the names of the interviewees are pseudonyms. A table with the codes and non anonymous characteristics of each one of the respondents and the interviews can be found in Appendix X.

117

when a sked a bout t he s tory of ho w t heir ho usehold e xperienced f or t he first t ime t he

emigration of one of its members.

Another of the interviewees, Paz (29) a university graduate and c lerk, describes

the social ne twork of migration of he r mother (which was also he r o wn ne twork). Her

mother had lived and worked 7 years in Genova (Italy) at the moment of the interview.

She m igrated i n 2000 t o Italy but t hree years e arlier ( 1997) m igrated t o Argentina but

returned t o P aramonga, pr ovince of t he departamento of Lima44 after t hree m onths.

Paramonga is where the family is originally from and where they were living at the time.

Her m other’s n etwork consisted of f emale coworkers o f a H ospital i n P aramonga ( the

Hospital of Agro-Industrial Paramonga S.A the sugar company located in a district that

has been described as the “first industrial district of Peru” 45

.

You said before that the decision of your mother to migrate, was also influenced by her friends, because many of them were traveling abroad? Yes, yes, my mother worked in a hospital (a hospital for the workers of the sugar company, she worked as a s ecretary) and nurses were l eaving. The f irst ones in leaving to Italy were four nurses. They were doing really good there. They earned thousands of dol lars an d t hey t old h er t hat i n Italy t here was w ork, m ore especially for women. And always her friends would comment to her, “so this so-and-so arrived and brought this, and this other one, brought this, and they are taking their family too, and they are being very well paid, etc.etc.” and my mom saw that. My mom went to her friend and asked, “how was that?”, and little by little s he s tarted u nderstanding t he b est w ay f or l eaving … b ecause h er f riends would tell he r “you need to do this, go this way, cross the border, this way…” they put m any i deas i nto he r m ind. B ut s he was not a fraid. T he pr oject i n he r mind was leaving. They told, they narrated, they informed… “if you go through

44 Paramonga is located in the Province of Barranca. Departamento of Lima (North of Lima province, where Metropolitan Lima is).

45 Many factories dedicated to the production of sugar cane, sugar, and paper are established in that province, but the most important has been even until now Agro-Industrial Paramonga, a very important company for the economy of the region (families of at least three generations have worked there). Some of those factories are closed nowadays after several decades of industrial crisis, and the population of workers has needed to move to other cities and change their livelihoods.

118

the frontier it will be the worse, you will lose your money, you will get deported to Peru”. They told them that, but she was never afraid. (INT5_PER)

Paz’s mother was not a nurse but a member of the administrative s taff, and had

only s econdary e ducation. S he obt ained t hat j ob be cause h er f ather ha d it be fore ( “my

mom started working at 18, because her father died, my grandpa, who worked in the

sugar company. At that time, when someone died, someone of his/her family would enter

to work”). N evertheless s he w as a ble t o us e t he r elevant i nformation p rovided b y a n

occupation ba sed ne twork of nur ses a nd s trategize a ccording t o he r c onditions a nd

occupation o r l evel of education. T herefore, t he ope ration of t his ne twork, not onl y

influenced women who were nurses, but also affected women who access the information

transmitted th rough th e network. Apparently t he ba sic pr inciple o f s olidarity i n t hat

network was being a female in a work place.

The s ame pr inciple of s olidarity w as e vident i n the a ccount o f P iedad, a nur se,

who ha d not t ravelled t o Italy, but w ho e xperienced h er m other’s m igration f irst to

Argentina and then to Italy.

Could you explain the history of how your family started this experience of migration ...your mother went first to Argentina and the to Italy right? ... tell me everything, how came the idea? Let's say the pioneer of this whole idea is my mother, she is a character so much more a dventurous, m ore i ndependent, I'll t ell you. M y f amily h as a lways be en devoted to business, my parents have only completed high school, and they could not s tudy i n c ollege. So t hey are f rom t he pr ovince, m y f ather is f rom Huancavelica my mother was born in and grew up i n here in Lima. She is really who s tarted with the idea of migrating. What happened? She was working very well ( in a ma rket s tall), w e w ere n ot in a b ad s ituation, s ay th at the t wo ol der children were studying in college, in a public university but everything was OK. So, during those years a new Mayor entered to administer the municipality (where the market was located)... What year was that? That was in the year 96-97. The mayor began to formalize informal business. My mother worked in a market, then she w as a ffected b y that, b y t his formalization, t he bus iness was i nformal. Since t hat, t he bus iness w as w eakened, a nd I was j ust f inishing c ollege a nd

119

following the s teps to obtain the t itle. The t itle was expensive and even when i t was a public university. She made a great effort for me to obtain the title and with that I was able to work. But since I already graduated and even started working, she thought in migrating and said ‘here we will not have enough ... you help me with your income’ -is true- and I covered what she used to pay for us, especially for food and for my brother to finish college. And s he a lready h ad s ome s isters i n A rgentina, he r t wo younger s isters. T hey motivated my mom to travel. At that time, Argentina was in a good situation, the dollar was equal to the Peso, they were 1-1 and yes, it was possible to save. My mom r eally di d not t hink t wice, a nd t hrough her s isters s he got t o t ravel t o Argentina. You have information about how did that idea of migration appeared in your mother's sisters? The one w ho s tarted i t w as t he t hird s ister. S he ha d a ba d e xperience with he r partner, had to split up, she was left with two children, including one three year-old, it was only then when she decided to migrate. It was independently, there was no one there, I think the reason was that of passing a difficult situation, being left without the support of her partner. Since this formalization (of the market stalls) she too (the third sister) was affected, she also worked in a market, but she did not think t wice, i t w as d ecided l ong b efore m y m other, s ome t hree years earlier. When she started, she was obviously illegal, because it was not easy... Did she, your aunt, receive information from their friends...? That's right. In the market right where they worked, more or less there were three or four l adies who had al ready migrated. There i s a p assage there at the market that is Punta Atacocha is unrecognizable now looks l ike a boardwalk, beautiful, they were working a round t hem, a nd i n t his passage m ost o f t he l adies ha d migrated i llegally… I s uppose t hat be cause of h er f riends t here, s he de cided t o travel… but in our extended family she was the one that started this migration. And then followed by the younger sister? Then t he younger s ister f ollowed he r ... t he younger s ister w as s ingle but ve ry attached t o t he t hird on e a nd a lso s he w anted t o s ave m oney, and s he was not studying either. She also worked in the market? The younger sister also worked in the market… There was the information, everything was born there. (PRE_INT1_PER)

After 2 years i n A rgentina, w orking i n a G eriatric i nstitution w ith one of he r

sisters, Piedad’s mother returned to Peru in 1999, when the economic crisis developed in

Argentina. The s isters s tayed in Argentina, a nd three years after (2002-2003) P iedad’s

120

mother decided to migrate with another of her sisters to Italy, where she had some female

cousins (cousins of her husband and father of Piedad) who had been in Italy for at least 5

years at that time and had already taken some of her children with them to Italy. Those

cousins e ven recommended t he p erson w ho “ gets you” t o Italy. S ince she a rrived as

illegal.

The i mportance o f f emale b ased n etworks i n t he P eru-Italy s tream, an d l ess

importantly in the Peru-Spain stream is as described in chapter 4, another c onsequence

of the types of occupations preferred for Peruvian migrants in Italy and Spain. Attached

to the profile of those gendered occupations associated to personal and health care, are

necessarily socio-demographic characteristics that would put gender as a very important

organizing pr inciple of t he ne tworks and w ith t hat f or t he s haping pr ocess o f t he

migration flows.

The d ata co llected t hrough i n de pth i nterviews i n t he c ase of t he A rgentina

migration s treams s how t hat g ender i s not a n important or ganizing pr inciple of t he

networks. Interviewees of bot h A rgentina-Spain a nd A rgentina-Italy mig ration f lows,

identified mixed gender networks at the moment of describing the events that made their

families /households experience the migration of one of their members.

However, c ertainly s ome of t he i nterviews I conducted i n Buenos A ires w ith

relatives of migrants to Spain presented cases in which networks are formed by brothers,

maybe s howing th e r elative imp ortance o f m ale mig ration a nd th erefore th e r elative

importance of male based networks in the case of the Argentina- Spain flow. Ana (54),

who was a housewife living in Merlo, a poorer partido of the Province of Buenos Aires

(but pa rt of G reat B uenos A ires) ha d t wo s ons w ho m igrated t o S pain, but t hey ha d

already returned. Her older son Sebastian (30) traveled to Spain in 2001 to work first in a

restaurant as a cook and then in construction and after 1 year he promoted the trip of his

121

younger brother Christian (23). But they returned after the terrorist attack on the Madrid

subway in 2004. A na said that i f her sons would have s tayed, the following one would

have be en he r hus band (and f ather of he r younger s on C hristian) w ho also w anted t o

work in Spain, but states that she was never interested in going with them even though

she was the daughter of Spanish parents since she observed that her sons were not well

treated, di d not ha ve e nough economic r esources an d ev en were “d enied a s andwich”

(PRE_INT1_ARG).

A similar case is the one narrated by Adriana (25) a graduate in Communications

who or iginally m oved with s ome of he r s iblings from C inco S altos, i n R io N egro a

province in Patagonia, to Buenos Aires, in order to study at the university. She described

the t rip of he r t wo ol der br others, m entioning t hat a t t he m oment of t he i nterview he r

teenage brother (18), the youngest of all the siblings who was still living in her parents’

household in Rio Negro, was planning to travel to Spain to work as his older brothers:

And the first brother went there how he started working. He began working in construction. In construction and now in what is he working? And now he's working teaching gymnastics classes. (…) And your younger brother? … He also started working in construction, and now he is working on a real estate and loans company. But he was always doing different things. Construction, then he was a salesman person in El Corte Ingles, was passing through various places, and is now [in this place is] most stable. So if your older brother was already there, the youngest one went with a work visa? Of course… Your older brother submitted the work contract for your second brother from Spain? Yes, yes, yes…. (INT4__ARG).

122

In t erms of t he age of network partners, i n P eru c ontrasting w ith A rgentina,

network partners are mostly 31 t o 40 years old for both s treams while in the Argentina

streams t hey t end t o be di stributed i n m ore a ge gr oups, a nd di fferent t han i n P eru,

network partners in Argentina were at the very young age groups (17-20 and 21-25 years

old) and at the very old age groups (61-70 years old). In fact, 44% and 46% of network

partners are 31 to 40 years old in the Peru-Spain and the Peru-Italy streams respectively,

while in Argentina similar proportions of network partners were 26 to 30 years old, 31 to

35 years old, 36 to 40 and 41 to 45 years old (see table 5.5).

123

Table 5.6: Percentage distribution of the mean age of network partners by network and flow

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

17-20 y.o. 2.17 0 4.64 1.43 2.33 21-25 y.o. 4.89 5.41 7.59 4.29 5.7 26-30 y.o. 14.4 14.59 12.66 12.86 13.84 31-35 y.o. 21.74 23.78 15.61 15.71 20 36-40 y.o 22.01 22.16 14.77 14.29 19.42 41-45 y.o. 15.49 15.68 19.41 15.71 16.63 46-50 y.o. 12.23 7.57 10.55 10 10.58 51-55 y.o 4.35 5.41 5.06 10 5.23 56-60 y.o. 1.63 3.78 3.8 5.71 3.02 61-70 y .o. 0.82 1.08 5.06 7.14 2.56 70 + 0.27 0.54 0.84 2.86 0.7 100 100 100 100 100 Total 368 185 237 70 860 Pearson Chi2: p=0.001

Note: This table shows a decreased number of social networks of migration (not 924 but 860) because respondents with "0" network partners are not considered.

The data on educational attainment for network partners shows trends similar to

the data on educational attainment of respondents. For the migration flows originating in

Peru, the most important levels of educational attainment were secondary education (40%

for both Peru flows) and tertiary non-university education (25% for both), while in the

case o f th e mig ration flows o riginating in A rgentina th e mo st imp ortant le vels o f

education at tained am ong n etwork p artners w ere t ertiary-university e ducation ( around

40% f or bot h A rgentina f lows) a nd s econdary education ( around 3 0%). T he onl y

differences w ithin c ountries w ere: in th e A rgentina-Spain s tream th ere w ere mo re

124

network partners with secondary education and less network partners with non-university

tertiary education than in the Argentina-Italy s tream; and in the Peru-Italy s tream there

were s lightly m ore n etwork pa rtners t hat obt ained onl y pr imary e ducation t han i n t he

Peru-Spain stream (see table 5.6).

Table 5.7: Percentage distribution of the level of education of network partners, by flow

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

Primary education (only) 2.5 4.4 10.5 13.3 6.8 Secondary education (only) 40.3 42.1 34.5 27.1 37.2 Non-university tertiary education 25.3 24.4 15.0 20.0 20.9 University education (includes 32.0 29.1 39.9 39.6 35.2 postgraduate studies) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Total 851 340 791 225 2207 Pearson Chi2 :p=.000

We can al so co nsider t he t ypes o f s ocial r elationships t hat c onnect r espondents

and network partners. For that I present four types of measures: (i) if the respondent and

network pa rtner was b orn i n t he s ame “provincia” (in A rgentina) o r i n t he s ame

“departamento” (in P eru), (i i) i f t he ne twork partner i s or w as a n eighbor of t he

respondent (only non-relative neighbors), (iii) if the network partner is a family relative

of t he r espondent ( iv) i f t he ne twork pa rtner ha s t he same pr incipal occupation as t he

respondent; and to specify the type of connections preponderant in the networks (v) the

type of relationship the network partner has with Ego (the respondent).

125

As explained earlier, the maximum number of network partners described by each

respondent i s 4. A ccording t o t hat i n table 5.7 data ar e p resented h aving as u nit o f

analysis t he n etwork (n=925, t he s ame as t he number of r espondents), pr esenting t he

percentage of networks which had 0, 1, 2 , 3 or 4 ne twork partners who share the same

characteristics (place of birth, neighborhood, family tie or occupation) with the ego of the

network.

The s ocial n etworks o f migration o perating w ithin th e s treams P eru-Spain a nd

Peru-Italy seem to be mostly based on family ties between the respondent (ego) and their

network partners. Second in importance, these networks seem to be based on having the

same place of birth. Other types of relationships such as being neighbors and having the

same principal occupation seemed unimportant for the Peruvian case.

In fact the percentages of networks composed by “0 network partners” who had

the same occupation as the respondent are high (82.41% for Peru- Spain, and 87.86% for

Peru-Italy). T he same is evident with the percentages of networks that were composed

by “0 network partners” who were neighbors of the respondent (69.85% for Peru- Spain,

and 80.1% f or P eru- Italy). A lthough not a s hi gh a s t he pr evious c ategories t he

percentages o f n etworks co mposed b y “0” an d “1” n etwork p artners b orn i n t he s ame

departamento/province as t he r espondent a re r elatively hi gh as w ell: “ 0”=21.86% for

Peru- Spain, 27.18% for Peru- Italy; and “1”=30.9% for Peru- Italy and 34.95% for Peru-

Spain. On the contrary, the percentages of networks composed by “0 network partners”

who are relatives of the respondent are low (17% for Peru-Spain and 20.39% for Peru-

Italy), and the percentages of networks formed by “1” and “2” network partners who are

relatives of the respondent are high: basically 58% and 66% of these networks are formed

by 1-2 relatives of the respondent in the Peru-Spain and Peru-Italy respectively.

126

The fact that the Peruvian social networks seem to be formed by relatives and not

by individuals with the same place of birth shows a trait of the urban populations of Peru,

particularly l arge P eruvian ci ties s uch as Lima, t hat r esults f rom in ternal mig ration:

families ( extended an d nuclear families) ar e co mposed b y m embers w ho w ere b orn i n

different departamentos of Peru. Actually, it is frequent to find family households where

parents and older children are born in the departamentos of origin, and younger children

are born in the destination city, in this case, Lima. In addition, inhabitants of big urban

centers marry and form families with individuals who have different origins within Peru.

The r elatively l ow p ercentages o f networks c omposed b y “ 2”,”3” or “4” n etworks

partners with whom the respondent (ego) shares the same place of birth in the case of the

Peru s treams also s how t he i mportance of ol d (INEI 1995 ), but a lso current, i nternal

migration in Peru. Because in ternal migration had and s till has as its main destination

Lima, the capital city, 46

In t he c ase of A rgentina, i n c ontrast, t he d ata s how t he r elevance o f s ocial

networks of m igration ba sed on pl ace o f bi rth a nd l iving ( or ha d l ived) i n t he s ame

neighborhood with the respondent and, less importantly, having the same occupation as

the respondent.

the urban population of this city is formed by internal migrants of

different generations, f acilitating d aily s ocial in teraction b etween in dividuals c oming

from different regions of Peru whether or not they are part of the same age group or not.

In f act, t he p ercentages of n etworks f ormed b y “4 ne twork pa rtners” w ho w ere

born in the same place as the respondents are very high, particularly in the case o f the

stream Argentina-Spain (42.04%). However, we need to qualify these data: in 2006, 91 %

the total population of Argentina was urban47

46 Peru has a urban system characterized by Primacy.

(in 2010 is 93%) , and the preponderance of

the ur ban popul ation i n the c ountry w as e stablished s ince e arly i n t he 1 960s a nd e ven

47 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Statistical Yearbook 2009 (page 33).

127

earlier, co mpared t o o ther Latin A merican co untries (Roberts a nd W ood 2005: 2;

Roberts and Wilson 2009:16). A lso, a major segment of the total population, has from

very early on b een concentrated in Great Buenos Aires, the main metropolitan area of

Argentina as a r esult of Import-Substitution Industrialization f rom the 1930s onwards.

Internal migration ceased to be an important component in urban growth (Filgueira and

Filgueira 2002: 137; Groisman and Suarez 2009:40-41) In fact, in 1990, 34.5% of the

population l ived i n G reat B uenos A ires, a nd i n 2010, t his pe rcentage was 33.2 48

The other characteristic of the networks operating within the Argentina migration

streams is associated with living/having lived in the same neighborhood. In those terms,

networks c omposed b y “ 4 ne twork pa rtners” w ho l ive or h ad liv ed in th e s ame

neighborhood of the respondent are 24% in the Argentina-Spain stream and 20% in the

Argentina-Italy s tream w hich i s m oderately hi gh, a nd ve ry hi gh i f w e a dd t o t hat t he

percentages of the networks composed by “3” and “2” network partners who shared this

characteristic with ego (“3”=16.33% and 16%; “2”= 19.59% and 14.67% respectively).

. B y

1999, 70 percent of the populations living in the Federal District and metropolitan area of

Buenos Aires had been born there (Roberts, 2002, Table One). Therefore, what that high

percentage of 42.04% of networks formed by “4 network partners” who were born in the

same p lace m eans i s t hat respondents a nd ne twork pa rtners w ere bo rn i n t his m ajor

concentration of popul ation, G reater Buenos A ires, but not ne cessarily t hat t heir

relationship i s based on the solidarity created b y having the same pl ace of bi rth i n t he

provinces of Buenos Aires, as could be the case in Peru.

Also, ha ving t he s ame o ccupation a s t he r espondent i s a nother characteristic of

the A rgentina f lows, although not a t t he s ame l evel of i mportance o f t he previous

categories, but much more than in the case of the Peru flows: 19.18% and 14.67% have at

48 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Statistical Yearbook 2009 (page 34).

128

least “1 n etwork p artner” i n t he n etwork w ho s hare t he s ame o ccupation as t he

respondents for both Argentina flows and 13.47% and 8% have “2” network partners who

share t he s ame oc cupation w ith t he r espondent. Interestingly, i n t he f low A rgentina-

Spain 12.25% of t he n etworks ha ve 3 t o 4 n etwork pa rtners w ho s hare t he s ame

occupation w ith t he r espondent. T he i nterviews w ith e xperts de scribed i n c hapter 4,

shows this trend (interview with the Statistics Technician of the Education Council of the

Embassy of Spain in Argentina - Consejería de Eduación de la Embajada de España en

Argentina).

The i nterview w ith A mparo ( 37) i n Buenos A ires br ings out t he i mportance of

networks f ormed b y m embers w ith t he s ame or s imilar oc cupations. Amparo w as a

linguist, one of the three children of a Spanish couple who migrated to Argentina after the

Spanish C ivil W ar. Her older s ister M ercedes, and the nuc lear f amily of t he s ister h ad

migrated t o S pain f or w ork r easons, but t wo oc cupation ba sed ne tworks r elated t o

Mercedes’ n uclear f amily o perated m ore o r l ess at t he s ame t ime, cau sing al l t he

members of the family to migrate. One was a network of the husband and the other one a

network of the eldest son Federico (30):

He ( her br other i n l aw) ha d a j ob c ontract s ecured i n B arcelona as matricero (design and drawing of the models of different automobile pieces, and installation and testing of them in different testing machines). How did he get that job contract in Barcelona? Through contacts is that he went working there. There was an acquaintance that worked with him some years b efore and that pe rson told him that i n Barcelona there w as a matricería, this pe rson a sked m y b rother i n l aw i f he w as w orking because t hey would ne ed hi m ( my brother i n l aw) ur gently t here. S o be fore h e travelled he already got the job proposal. (…) And what did Federico study? Federico s tudied Fine A rts i n Buenos A ires i n a tertiary a rt s chool a nd worked here i n Buenos A ires. He w orked i n an o ffice t hat i s a cu ltural cen ter t hat i s affiliated to the university, the Ricardo Rojas Cultural Center.

129

So he had already started working here... Yes, but he a lso ha d a pr oposal t o g o t o w ork f or a nother a cquaintance i n Argentina that had a company that works Bijouterie. Then he started doing some Bijouterie de signs, dr awings a nd he l iked i t, it w as a n a ttractive pr oposition because it was growing following another route that had to do with his career. And you say the proposal he received was apart, or was that acquaintance a friend of his parents? No it was by their place of work. It was a coworker person in Argentina… No, i t was the s ister of a colleague in Argentina, who had a lready been long in Spain. (PRE_INT2_ARG)

Finally, i n t he c ase of t he A rgentina s treams a nd contrary to t he n etworks

operating in the Peru-Spain and Peru-Italy streams, networks are not based on the family

ties b etween t he r espondents an d t heir n etwork p artners. In f act, t he p ercentages o f

networks c omposed b y “0 ne twork pa rtners” w ho a re r elatives of t he r espondents a re

high: 43% f or Argentina-Spain a nd 42.67% for A rgentina-Italy r espectively. T he

Argentina-Italy stream present moderate percentages of networks composed by “2”, “3”,

and “4” network partners who are relatives of the respondent: 20%, 13.33 % and 10.67%

respectively. T his i s p artly d ue t o t he f act t hat as w e w ill s ee i n t he n ext ch apter,

respondents i n t he Argentina-Italy s tream usually had as network p artners o lder f amily

members who were born in Italy and migrated to Argentina.

130

Table 5.8: Similarities and connections of network partners with respondents

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total chi2

NPs born in the same province/departamento as respondent 0 Network partners 21.86 27.18 20.41 17.33 22.29 1 Network partner 30.9 34.95 7.76 10.67 24.03

2 Network partners 21.86 22.82 12.24 21.33 19.48 3 Network partners 11.56 9.71 17.55 21.33 13.53 4 Network partners 13.82 5.34 42.04 29.33 20.67 100 100 100 100 100 Pr = 0.000 NPs who were/are neighbors of respondent (non-relatives only) 0 Network partners 69.85 80.1 25.71 37.33 57.79 1 Network partner 15.58 11.65 14.29 12 14.07

2 Network partners 7.54 5.83 19.59 14.67 10.93 3 Network partners 3.77 0.49 16.33 16 7.36 4 Network partners 3.27 1.94 24.08 20 9.85 100 100 100 100 100 Pr = .000 NPs who are relatives of respondent 0 Network partners 17.09 20.39 43.67 42.67 26.95 1 Network partner 33.42 34.95 16.33 13.33 27.6

2 Network partners 24.37 31.07 15.1 20 23.05 3 Network partners 12.06 7.77 15.92 13.33 12.23 4 Network partners 13.07 5.83 8.98 10.67 10.17 100 100 100 100 100 Pr = .000 NPs who have the same occupation as respondent 0 Network partners 82.41 87.86 55.1 68 75.22 1 Network partner 9.55 7.77 19.18 14.67 12.12

2 Network partners 4.52 3.88 13.47 8 7.03 3 Network partners 2.01 0 5.31 8 2.92 4 Network partners 1.51 0.49 6.94 1.33 2.71 100 100 100 100 100 Pr = .000

N=924 (social networks of migration) 398 206 245 75 924

131

In d ifferent p reliminary in-depth i nterviews (as pa rt of t he de sign of t he

instruments of da ta c ollection f or t he qua ntitative a nd qua litative i nterviews) I br ought

together information regarding the ways migrants and non m igrants in the family of the

interviewee had received information on the possibilities of migration to Spain and Italy.

In those accounts, neighbors and neighborhoods played an important role. People recalled

that when t alking with n eighbors, or /and in t he s mall r etail s tores of t he neighborhood

(bodegas). At least in the Peru case, a multitude of migrant sending households reside in

at least two identified districts and neighborhoods that concentrate families of migrants,

who go mostly to Spain. Those are the neighborhoods of Santa Rosa in Puente Piedra and

some neighborhoods in El Callao and La Punta which are near to the port of Callao (in

Lima)49

However, as seen in the data presented in table 5.8 ( second section of the table)

networks formed by neighbors (considering only neighbors who are not also relatives of

the respondent) are important mostly in the case of Argentina (and more in the case of the

stream A rgentina-Spain). S till, a m oderate p ercent of ne tworks i n t he P eruvian s ample

(15.58% for Peru-Spain and 11.65% for Peru-Italy) are formed by 1 network partner who

is a neighbor and not a “relative and a neighbor”. The percents shown in that table were

calculated a fter d istinguishing r elatives a nd n on-relatives i n t he t otal of obs ervations

obtained f rom t he qu estion “Is/has been network partner X your neighbor? Thus, w e

need to consider also the relatives (mostly extended family) who are also neighbors.

.

Table 5.9, shows the composition of the neighbor network partners, distinguishing

non-relatives and r elatives. In t he case of P eru, 63% of a ll t he n etwork pa rtners w ho

reside/d i n t he s ame ne ighborhood w ere r elatives of t he r espondent. In t he c ase of

49 PRE_INT2_PER (participation speeches of relatives of migrants to Spain in international migration workshop held in July, 2006, Lima); EXP_INT_4 (interview with the responsible of the Health Community Center of Santa Rosa, Puente Piedra, Lima).

132

Argentina, only in the case of the Argentina-Italy stream is there a moderate proportion

of neighbors who are also relatives. Table 5.9: Percentage distribution of types of neighbors (relatives and non-relatives), by flow

Peru- Peru- Arg.- Arg.- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

Relatives (nuclear and extended family) 63.01 71.61 0.00 21.12 38.86 Non-relatives (friends, acquaintances) 36.99 28.39 100.00 78.88 61.14 100 100 100 100 100 Total: (NPs who live or had lived in the same neighborhood as respondent). 592 236 483 161 1472

Pearson Chi2 :p=.000

3. TYPES OF SPECIFIC RELATIONSHIPS NETWORK PARTNERS HAVE WITH EGO (THE RESPONDENT)

The da ta on t he s pecific t ypes of r elationships t hat ne twork pa rtners h ave w ith

respondents shows the importance of family connections in the case of the networks in

Peru a nd t he i mportance of f riends/acquaintances a s ne twork pa rtners i n t he A rgentina

networks. In the Peru-Spain s tream the p reponderant t ype of relationship between ego

and network partners is friendship (13.75%) of which 56% are male and 44% are female

friends (see table 5.10). Just some points below, categories such as “sister” (12.32%) and

“brother”(10.78%) a re s imilarly i mportant. T he gradient of i mportance continues w ith

“male cousins” (6.16%), “acquaintances” (5.94%) of which 59% are male and 41% are

female acquaintances; and “female cousins”(4.73%). In this migration stream 54% of the

network partners occupy a horizontal, same-generation, type of connection. Friends and

acquaintances, mostly belong to the same generation of the respondent, and this is even

more evident in horizontal types of kinship, as with sisters, brothers, and male and female

133

cousins or “collateral relationships, l inked through siblings and other kin of similar age

status ” (Johnson 2000: 625). (see Graph 5.1).

Graph 5.1: Relationship of network partners with respondent (EGO)/ Peru-Spain

134

Many o f our i nterviews br ought out t he i mportance of r elatives o f t he s ame

generation l inked t o t he i nterviewee b y co llateral r elations. A s o ne of t hose m any

examples, there i s t he case of Paquita (30) the wife of a m igrant to Barcelona, Spain,

who t hrough a w ork c ontract, t raveled t o w ork i n S pain i n 2006 a year b efore t he

interview was conducted. They have a 9 year old boy, who had some problems adjusting

to the absence of his dad. So the father came back for some days to see him. The plan of

the family is to emigrate (husband will petition family re-grouping visas for his wife and

child).She works as an administrative clerk in a Hospital in Puente Piedra an emerging

populated d istrict o f L ima, f ormed b y f amilies o f in ternal mig rants to Lima f rom th e

1960’s 1970’s and 1980’s of low socio-economic status, but who have at least built their

houses with hard construction material.

Paquita ( 30) de scribes having c ontact w ith a t l east t wo s ocial ne tworks of

migration, one w as t he s ocial ne twork of m igration of he r hus band ( composed b y hi s

siblings and friends of his siblings), which had the key role in facilitating his migration to

Spain , s ince his work contract was obtained through that network. The other one is her

own ne twork o f m igration, w hich s he m ight us e or not , a lmost f ully composed b y h er

cousins, ni ne o f t hem, w ho a re in t he U S, i n Italy a nd S pain. A t t he m oment of

describing these other networks she organizes two sets, one first degree cousin who had

been 15 years in the US and another l arger nu mber of cousins, e ight, who are now in

Italy (most importantly) and also in Spain (less importantly). However she also mentions

that between the two networks her husband’s felt closer and more naturally situated to be

used by him.

135

How many members of your family have experience of having traveled to another country to work? I have my cousin and my nephew in the United States. Is he a first- degree cousin? Yes, f irst d egree, m y cousin-brother50

(…)

. C asually, he w as l ike ou r ol der brother because we have always lived with him. He traveled to the US 15 years ago. He could take his son with him 7 years ago. Now both of them are there. We always communicate also with them. They are also close, close. Then there are also my cousins w ho l ive he re a t our s ide ( another dw elling c lose t o he r hom e). A ll of them are in Italy, in Spain… and now the older one of my cousins has also left. They are 8 abroad.

Your husband never wanted to go to Italy? Not thorough them (the cousins in Italy) no. Why? Because we never said “you know what, get me a contract” we never asked them a f avor. N o, f or that pa rt ( of t he f amily) no. N ever l ook f or f avors f rom ot her people. F rom t he c lose f amily, t he one w e t rust ( de confianza) yes. W e h ave never thought in asking a favor from them. But to my cousin who is the US yes. We a sked hi m, yes. But he c ouldn’t help us . B ecause t he U S i s m ore di fficult. (INT4__PER)

Paola (42), administrative employee in the same Hospital in Puente Piedra (Lima)

where P aquita w orked, had he r hus band i n S pain s ince 2006.T heir pl an i s t hat t he

husband will stay in Spain working for some more years. She and their daughter (but not

the older daughter of Paola who is 19 a nd from her previous marriage) would t ravel to

Spain too, but only to stay for 10 years. They plan to return to Peru and start a business

with saved money. Paola describes the importance of siblings in the her husband’s ego-

centered social network of migration, who were actually the ones who obtained a work

contract for him:

How was this trip decided (her husband’s work migration to Spain)?

50 That is the way first degree cousins are called in Spanish cousin-brother or cousin-sister.

136

His si sters, he has si sters t here i n Spain. He has two s isters and a brother, t hen they w ere t he one s w ho e ncouraged hi m, be cause ... t o s olve t he e conomic situation more than anything. I was a lready working here, but he had no s teady work and the economic situation led to take this decision on t ime .... I could not go ... Did he go to work directly; did he already receive a work contract? They sent him a contract but f ictitious, he did not reach the same company, but thank God, he went straight to work in another company. Was it like a friend of his sisters made him the favor? Yes, they send a work contract but he did not work in that factory, but in another one. (INT3_PER)

Considering t hat t he p revious group o f hor izontal, s ame-generation n etwork

partners i s t he f irst gr oup in t his “ structure” of s pecific t ypes of r elationships, t he

remainder of the network partners in the f low Peru-Spain a re o rganized in two groups.

The s econd group i s s till c omprised of c lose r elatives; but di fferently t o t hat i n f irst

group, in this group the kin ties are of the vertical type or “lineal relationships formed by

intergenerational link-ages”(Johnson 2000: 625), since network partners and respondents

belong to two different generations. The categories such as “aunt”, “mother” “daughter”

“son” (after “tramitadores / gestores” see next paragraph) are preponderant in this second

group: 4.51% f or “ aunt”, 3.85% f or “ mother”, 3.74% f or “ daughter” . A fter t hose

categories ar e given, t he l ast group of categories i s di verse, but composed m ainly by

spouses ( “wife” i s 3.19 % of t he t otal n etwork partners, “husband” 2.4 2% a nd “male

partner ( in a uni on)” 0 .11%), r elatives of t he s ame or di fferent g enerations, w here

different categories of in-law relationships become visible. There are also some neighbors

(0.77%).

An interesting category in the case of the Peruvian networks is “ tramitador”. In

Peru and in Argentina, especially around the official/administrative institutions similar to

several of the locations where the survey was conducted (embassies, consulates, national

137

directorate o f m igration, s tate ag encies t hat i ssue p assports), t here ar e s everal p ersons

offering i nformal s ervices of c onsultation a nd help w ith pa perwork ( trámite is t he

Spanish word for paperwork). Tramitadores are persistent in approaching the visitors to

those of fices w ith que stions a nd l ikely solutions t o pr oblems, di stributing flyers and

forms. They are very resourceful, or they try to sell that image, in order to obtain clients.

Their resources could be legal and also illegal. The objective is to solve the problem of

the c lient i n t he t ime ne eded. In P eru t hose pe rsons a re called “tramitadores” and i n

Argentina “gestores”. R ecently, s ome of t hem, t he one s w ho m ostly rely o n l egal

resources, ha ve evolved i nto m ore f ormal oc cupations a nd e ven ha ve formed s mall

offices located close to embassies, consulates, and other agencies, where many of them

work unde r t he c oordination of a n e xpert pe rson i n t hese a ctivities w ho us ually h as

studied law. In Buenos Aires these offices are called “Gestorías”. They can be effective

or not, and can involve fraud when clients are requested to pay for unnecessary services.

In t he s tream P eru-Spain 3.63% of t he ne twork pa rtners a re “ tramitadores”, w hich is

moderately important. A proportion slightly more important is present in the stream Peru-

Italy, but in the case of Argentina, the category “gestor” is not visible.

Pilar ( 27), i s a hous e w ife, a nd he r hus band w ent t o S pain in 2007 ( 6 months

before t he m oment of t he i nterview). H er hus band f irst w orked i n t he f ields, i n D upin

(close t o Barcelona) no w he w orks i n t emporary jobs (construction) i n Barcelona. S he

lives in her mother in law’s household in San Martin de Porres a emerging middle class

district of Lima, with her 5 year old daughter and 13 ot her relatives (her parents in law,

the s iblings of h er hus band a nd t heir f amilies). T heir pl an i s t o m igrate t o S pain.

Describing the type of ego-centered social network of migration of her husband, which is

actually h er ow n t oo, be cause s he di d not ha ve s imilar c onnections of he r ow n, s he

mentions these interesting association between friends and male “tramitadores”:

138

How did you guys decide that he was going to Spain, to a country he does not know, where you guys did not have relatives? They had done his papers earlier…but i t did not work out . After that, his friend told hi m, now F elipe, I w ill do your pa pers for t he s econd t ime. M y husband thought oh no this time too it will not work. If it does not work, Ok well, what to do. And unexpectedly, in January, they told him, your visa is ready (…) How many years before he had done his papers the first time? Like three years ago. Yes but that time, they did fake papers. How fake papers? Fake, I mean, t he bo y ( tramitador) w ho w as m aking t he p apers gave t he documents to a lawyer and the lawyer was (part of) a phantom business (empresa fantasma51

(INT10_PER). ), a business that did not exist, that is why he got rejected.

A s imilar “s tructure” o f specific t ypes of relationships between respondents and

network pa rtners i n w hich hor izontal, s ame-generation co nnections ar e t he m ost

important i s e vident i n t he s ocial ne tworks of m igration of t he s tream P eru-Italy ( see

Graph 5.2), but i n t his c ase t he f irst group o f c ategories of “ sister” ( 11.05%) a nd

“brother”(8.50%) a re t he most important. Following in importance as ne twork pa rtners

are “friends” of the respondent (8.50%) of which 53% are male and 47% female friends

(see table 5.10). An important set of categories in the Peru case, are cousins. In this flow,

“female cousins” represent 7.93% and “male cousins” 7.65%. “Sister in law” can also be

considered in the group of horizontal, same generation connections. All together, all the

previously described categories (horizontal, same-generation categories) make up to 50%

of all the network partners.

Graph 5.2: Relationship of network partners with respondent (EGO)/PERU-ITALY

51 A “phantom business” is one that it does not have a formal registration or anything like that. The clients do not know this and after investing some amount of money they are defrauded (the office, the employees, everything disappear). In terms of migration paperwork it might be the case that the clients know/ accept that the business is not formal, if they do not have another choice or need something that will be attained only using informal/illegal means.

139

The r emainder of t he ne twork pa rtners i s di stributed a s i n t he P eru-Spain f low,

first in a second group of categories of relatives who are still of close kinship but whose

140

ties a re l inear i nvolving r elationships be tween t wo generations ( respondent i s pa rt of a

different generation t han ne twork pa rtner). Thus, “ aunt” ( 5.95%), “ daughter” a fter

“tramitador” (5.10%) “uncle” (3.97%) and “son”(3.97%) are important. In contrast to the

Peru-Spain s tream, “ tramitador” i s m ore i mportant i n pe rcentage t erms ( 5.38%) a nd

appears as the other relatively important category among the non-relatives (many places

below “ friends”) t ogether w ith “ acquaintances” ( 3.97%) of which 57% a re m ale and

43% female acquaintance. Finally the last group of categories are as in the case of Peru-

Spain, di verse, m ostly composed of r elatives ( neighbors a re onl y 1.13% ) i n l ineal an d

collateral r elationships w ith e go, a nd s pouse a nd i n-law r elationships a re imp ortant a s

well.

In t he Argentina-Spain a nd A rgentina-Italy f lows, t he s tructure of r elationships

between respondents and network partners is clearly dominated by the importance of the

categories of friends and acquaintances. The categories of relatives are much less central

than i n t he P eru f lows a nd among t hem, l ineal a nd collateral ki n r elationships a re

important in the same proportion. The most important type of kin relationships is related

to the original nuclear family of the respondent (parents, siblings). In contrast to the Peru

flows, i n t hese ne tworks of s ocial m igration t he c ategory of “gestor”is n ot v isible ( the

name given in Argentina to tramitadores or paperwork informal consultants ).

In t he A rgentina-Spain mig ration s tream ( see Graph 5.3), ne tworks a re m ainly

composed b y n etwork partners w ho are “friends” of e go, w ith 49.76 % of t he t otal

(remember t hat i n t he P eru s treams t his c ategory only reaches14% ) . O f the to tal o f

friends, 55% a re m ale a nd 45% f emale f riends. In s econd or der of importance a re

“acquaintances” which are 7.49% of the total of network partners for that flow, and are

distributed be tween 63 % m ale and 37% f emale a cquaintances. T he r emainder of t he

categories are grouped, first, in a s et of categories that are based on the original nuclear

141

family of the respondent. The second and final set of categories is diverse, as in the Peru

flows, t his f inal di verse g roup i s c omposed b y spouses ( and a lso by m ale an d f emale

partners in a union, and boyfriends), in-law relatives and neighbors. Interestingly, in both

Argentinean streams the category “mother” and one sibling are the most important within

the group of nuclear family relatives. In the Argentina-Spain networks 5.80% of the total

of ne twork pa rtners a re m others of t he r espondent a nd 4.71% a re s isters. B elow t hat

dyad, almost in the same proportion, are “father” (4.35%) and “brother” (3.86%).

142

Graph 5.3: Relationship of network partners with respondent (EGO)/ ARGENTINA-SPAIN

143

As an example of the importance of acquaintances, I give the description of Alejo

(27), who l ived by himself in Villa Urquiza an old agricultural and industrial barrio of

Capital Federal, graduated with a t echnical degree in marketing, whose father was from

Galicia (Spain). He had visited Galicia when he was a teenager with other teenagers in a

tourist pa ckage or ganized f or de scendents of Galician m igrants t o A rgentina. A t t he

moment of the interview he was only three days away from travelling to Spain, to work

and study stage acting. He did not have any concrete job, nor did he know where he was

going to study; but he knew how he could find some jobs in the restaurant industry, as a

waiter, o r in e ntertainment g roups, a ctivities t hat a ccording t o hi s ne twork i nformants

were pr evalent among Argentines i n S pain. A ll t he m embers of hi s network w ere

acquaintances, young adults who worked in those occupations in Spain and had returned

to Argentina after some months or a year, or acquaintances living in Argentina who had

relatives i n S pain and who m ore o r l ess h ad t he s ame o ccupational i nterests as Alejo

(stage acting).

Now I'm going with t he i dea of doing theater ( stage a cting) and the about “my contacts”, I do not have one completely clear, I can’t say "I will begin a work that day", that I don’t have but I know something will arise…. Do you have acquaintances who are there, doing theater (stage acting)? I recently met a girl who says her s ister there s tudies stage acting and the other day I got an email saying that she had a place in her house, that I can hang out there in the house in Barcelona, and that at least she will tell me more about the acting “scene”. Is there someone that you have asked mainly regarding the formalities that had to be done to make the trip? Yes, when I was working as a waiter, there was this dude who was four years in Barcelona and talking about it, I decided that Barcelona was the place to start, I'm not g oing t o B arcelona f or s ome ot her r eason. I don’ t r eally know a nything or wanted t o s ee pi ctures because I pr efer t o get t here and s ay "wow!" (…) A nd pretty much he told me there it was a v ery cultural place in Spain and had many people f rom m any s ides of t he w orld. H e a lso worked in A rgentina's c onsulate there in Spain, so he told me "che Alejo, if you studied you take the high school certificate certified b y t he Foreign Ministry h ere” and I got i t. Then he said " if

144

you'll take the drivers license with you go to the racetrack or to the ACA to have that va lid f or a year, i f not i t w ill onl y be valid a m onth". P erfect I di d. (INT7_ARG)

In t he Argentina-Italy migration s tream ( see Graph 5.4), ne tworks a re f ormed

primarily by “friends” of the respondent (48.95%), which are 44% male and 56% female

friends. As in the case of Argentina-Spain, members of the original nuclear family of the

respondent (parents, s iblings)in lineal and collateral relationships with them are next in

importance.

145

Graph 5.4: Relationship of network partners with respondent (EGO)/Argentina-Italy

146

In f act, a fter “ friend” t he c ategories of m ost i mportance a re “ brother” ( 8.44%)

and t hen “ mother” ( 6.75%), be low i s “ acquaintance” ( 4.22%) a nd t hen continues w ith

other m embers of t he original nuc lear family such as “s ister” ( 3.80%) an d “f ather”

(3.80% as well). Finally the categories below are diverse but male and female cousins are

relatively important (2.53% and 2.11% respectively), and almost all of them are relatives

(spouses, in-laws and grandchildren).

Table 5.10: Female friends and acquaintances by flow

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

Female FRIENDS (total) 55 14 184 65 318 FRIENDS total 125 30 412 116 683 % Female FRIENDS 44% 47% 45% 56% 47% Female ACQUAINTANCES (total) 22 6 23 4 55 ACQUAINTANCES total 54 14 62 10 140 % Female ACQUAINTANCES 41% 43% 37% 40% 39%

Resident and no-resident segments of the social networks of migration

I mentioned earlier in chapter one that it is methodologically useful to distinguish

between t he por tion of a s ocial ne twork of m igration ope rating a broad, w hich c an be

called the non-resident segment of the network, and the portion of the network operating

in the country of origin, or the resident segment of the network. In chapter four I argued

that t he t wo por tions o r s egments a re e xposed, a nd t o s ome de gree also s haped b y

different in stitutional c ontexts, s ituated a t th e o rigin o r a t d estination c ontries ( at th e

147

transnational level too, but that is part of both origin and destination). When examining

ego-centered social networks of migration, a valid way of distinguishing both segments is

by de termining t he num ber of ne twork pa rtners w ho r eside a broad (the non-resident

segment of the network) and the network partners who reside in the country of origin, in

Argentina or Peru (the resident segment of the network).

Data presented in table 5.11 shows interesting variations regarding the importance

of both segments in each migration flow. The Peru migration flows are the ones in which

networks a re formed b y an important non-resident segment, th is is c lear particularly in

the cas e o f t he f low P eru-Italy, i n w hich 63% of t he t otal of 380 ne twork pa rtners f or

whom d ata were co llected w ere r esidents of a c ountry abroad; as e xpected, m ainly

residents in Italy. In the f low Peru-Spain, 55% of the 922 ne twork pa rtners for whom

data were collected for that flow, were residents of a country abroad, mainly in Spain. In

contrast, the social networks of migration operating within the Argentina flows had 80%

(Argentina- Spain) a nd 83% ( Argentina-Italy) o f t heir n etwork p artners as r esidents o f

Argentina. In t hese n etworks, t he r esident segment of t he ne twork i s c learly

preponderant.

148

Table 5.11: Place of residence of network partners by flow and by country of residence.

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total Argentina 1 3 0 0 4 Australia 0 0 1 0 1 Bolivia 1 0 0 0 1 Brazil 0 0 2 0 2 Canada 0 1 1 0 2 Chile 3 1 0 0 4 Colombia 0 0 2 0 2 France 0 0 2 1 3 Germany 1 0 0 0 1 Italy 11 198 3 27 239 Japan 2 0 0 0 2 Mexico 1 0 0 0 1 Peru 0 0 0 1 1 Spain 468 30 151 7 656 Sweden 0 0 0 1 1 UK 0 0 2 0 2 US 12 8 4 4 28 Venezuela 3 0 0 0 3 Total 503 241 168 41 953 Abroad 55% 63% 20% 17% 40% At origin 45% 37% 80% 83% 60% 100 100 100 100 100 Total 922 380 830 236 2368 Pearson Chi2: pr=0.000

149

REFERENCES: Filgueira, C. H. and F. Filgueira (2002). Models of Welfare and Models of Capitalism: The Limits o f T ransferability. Models o f C apitalism: L essons f or Latin America. . E.

Huber. University Park, PA, The Pennsylvania State Press.: 127-157. Groisman, F. and A. L. Suarez (2009). Residential Segregation in Greater Buenos Aires.

Urban S egregation and Governance i n t he Americas. B. R . R oberts a nd R . H . Wilson. New York, Palgrave Macmillan.

INEI (1995) Migraciones Internas en el Peru. Johnson, C. L. (2000). "Perspectives on American Kinship in the Later 1990s." Journal of

Marriage and the Family 62(623-639). Roberts, B. R. (2002) Citizenship, Social Policy and Population Change, in C. Abel and

C. Lewis (eds.), Exclusion and Engagement London: ILAS: pp.111-130 Roberts, B. R. and R. H. Wilson (2009). Residential segregation and Governance in the

Americas:An Overview. Urban Segregation and Governance in the Americas. B. R. Roberts and R. H. Wilson. New York, Palgrave Macmillan: 1-20.

Roberts, B . R . a nd C . Wood ( 2005). Introduction: R ethinking D evelopment i n L atin

America. Rethinking Development in Latin America. B. R. Roberts and C. Wood. University Park, PA, The Pennsylvania State Press.: 1-23.

150

Chapter 6: The Structure and Resources of the Social Networks of Migration Operating within the Migration Streams from Argentina and

Peru, to Italy and Spain

This ch apter p resents t he a ggregated l evel ch aracteristics o f t he ego-centered

social ne tworks of m igration ope rating i n t he m igration f lows unde r examination. T he

assessment of those characteristics will allow me in the next chapter, to, show how these

networks develop into mechanisms of change in the societies of origin of the migration

streams.

In the previous chapter, I presented some of the socio-demographic characteristics

and t ypes of social relationships that connected the ego and network partners. In this

chapter, I advance one more s tep i n a bstraction a nd f ocus on t hem a s s mall s tructures

with features that are somewhat autonomous and less dependent on t he particularities of

the pa rticipants o f t he ne tworks. I w ill de scribe a nd di scuss t he d ifferences a nd

similarities between the social networks of migration in terms of their STRUCTURE, i.e.

in te rms o f th eir size, degree of heterogeneity and density. Also, I w ill describe a nd

discuss the differences and similarities between the social networks of migration in terms

of t heir R ESOURCES, i .e. de scribing t he a ggregated ( network l evel) r esources of t he

four or l ess ne twork p artners f or w hich da ta ha s be en c ollected. T hose r esources

comprise: having relatives in Spain/Italy, the previous or current experience of

international migration, the acc ess t o financial resources, an d t he as sociated r esources

that attaining certain level of education, can bring.

151

1. THE STRUCTURE OF THE NETWORKS

Size:

There ar e b asically t wo ap proaches t o co llect d ata o n s ocial n etworks: t he ego-

centered ap proach an d t he s aturation s ample ap proach. If t he f irst approach i s u sed,

researchers onl y c ollect da ta on t he ne twork pa rtners l isted b y t he i nformant. If the

second approach is used it is necessary to collect data on the complete social network and

for that reason i t i s appropriate when s tudying a small closed population (Kholer 2001:

70; Rindfuss, Choe et al. 2004: 839; Jackson, Kirkland et al. 2005: 50). In this study, I

use the first approach: the ego-centered approach, which refers to a personal network.

In those terms, the size of the network is the number of individuals that participate

in the social network and i s measured b y the number of ne twork partners l isted by the

informant. These network partners share with the informant a specific type of interaction:

for example, social networks related to reproductive behavior are based on interactions

with individuals with whom ego discusses family issues, contraceptive methods, sharing

information and resources specific to that type of interaction.

With th e o bjective o f id entifying th e s ocial n etworks o f mig ration o perating

within the migration flows to Spain and Italy, and to prepare the respondent for the set of

questions t hat w ill be a sked i n S ection 5 ( “Section 5: A bout t he s ocial ne tworks of

migration operating in the emigration streams to Spain and Italy” see Figure 5.1) we read

the following fragment to the respondent:

“Generally, we obtain information about themes that interest us on the daily life from acquaintances, relatives, friends, since we trust their criterion and experience. For example: In order to know about themes on how to go working, studying or living in Spain/Italy, and guaranteeing that everything goes OK, any of us would talk with persons that have traveled to those countries; or that have relatives, friends, or contacts in those countries; or that know how to make the paperwork. Now I will ask you about that type of person…”

152

The question used to collect data on size was this:

Question RS1: With how many people do you frequently talk about themes related to the migration of Argentineans to Spain/Italy? (Possibilities of obtaining job, how is life in those societies, what paperwork is necessary).

Size i s i mportant b ecause a l arger s ize o f t he networks, l arger i mpacts o n t he

migrant sending household are expected. In correspondence, smaller social networks of

migration would tend to have smaller impacts on the migrant sending household.

The a nswer t o que stion R S1: va ried not ably, s ome of t he r espondents w ould be

moderate and say “5” “8” or a one digit number while others would answer with a large

number and exclamations about how large the group was, those would usually round the

number to “20”, “30” “50” and even a “100”. There were respondents that they did not

talk w ith a nyone about t hose t hemes, be cause i t w as a s ad t heme. T hose r espondents

were mostly Argentine, older people, mostly women older than 60 who became sad at the

moment of talking because one or more of their children had migrated to Spain or Italy.

The answers to that question have been recoded and organized in the sections A and B of

the following table (table 6.1). Below those sections I p resent another t ype of data that

also r efers t o t he s ize o f t he ne tworks. A fter t he que stion on t he nu mber of ne twork

partners, w e r equested data on t he f our m ost important i ndividuals w ith w hom t he

respondent discussed and shared information regarding the migration to Spain/Italy, that

last pa rt of t he t able s hows t he num ber of ne twork pa rtners a ctually d escribed b y t he

respondent, and i t s eems a m ore r ealistic, o r at l east l ess undetermined measure o f t he

size of the networks, however, b y definition, it is limited to 4 . I consider a ll the three

possibilities in the table.

According to the data presented in table 6.1, section A, Peruvian networks are mainly

formed by 1 to 5 network partners: 81.4% of the networks are formed by 1 to 5 N.P.s in

the flow Peru-Spain; and 87% of the networks have that size in the flow Peru-Italy. From

153

those, according to s ection B of t he t able, i n t he f low Peru-Spain, t he main proportion

corresponds to networks that have only 1 network partner (27.89%) or 2 network partners

(25.63%). Slightly different in the case Peru-Italy, section B of the table shows that the

major proportions c orrespond first to network s ize 2 ( 37.38%), and second to network

size 1 (31.55%).

In addition, in the Peru-Spain flow there are larger networks than in the case of the

networks ope rating i n t he P eru-Italy f low. In f act 8.29% of ne tworks f or i n t he P eru-

Spain s tream w ere f ormed b y 6 t o 10 NPs; 1.76% w ere formed b y 11 to 15 N Ps a nd

3.02% w ere f ormed b y 15 or m ore N Ps. I n the P eru-Italy s tream t he pr oportions

corresponding to those categories are smaller.

In the case of the Argentine networks, proportions are distributed in more categories

than in Peru and according to section A of the table, the largest proportions are the ones

formed by 1 to 5 N.P.s: 51.43% for the flow Argentina-Spain; and 56% for the flow Peru-

Italy. In t he f low A rgentina-Spain, t he l argest n etwork cat egroeis ar e 3 n etwork

partners (17.97%), 2 networks partners (13.47%) and 10 network partners (12.65%). For

Argentina-Italy the distribution is similar: 17.33 of the networks are size 4, while 16% are

size 2, and 10.67% were size 10.

In t he final s ection of the t able, s howing t he size of t he ne tworks l imited a t 4,

Argentina ha s t he l argest pr oportion of ne tworks w ith t he s ize of 4: 64.49% f or

Argentina-Spain and 58. 67% f or A rgentina-Italy. In contrast, t he P eruvian f lows ha ve

27.39% (Peru-Spain) and 10.68% (Peru-Italy) in the s ize 4 c ategory of networks. Also,

networks that have Italy as destination both in Peru and in Argentina (particularly in the

flow Peru-Italy) tend to be smaller than the ones with Spain as destination. Also, both in

Peru a nd A rgentina, t he pe rcentages of n etworks s ize “ 0” a re hi gher i n t he f lows w ith

Italy as destination than the networks with Spain as destination (8.25 for Peru Italy and

154

6.67% for Argentina- Italy, compared to 4.77% and 2.86% of the flows Peru-Spain and

Argentina-Spain).

This recoded version of the variable size of networks limited to 4 is the most realistic

and va lid m easurement o f s ize s ince i t d oes n ot r eflect t he s ubjective an d i mprecise

accounts that respondents are l ikely to give about the number of ne twork partners with

whom s /he talks about issues related to Spain/Italy. Therefore this i s the version of the

variable I will use when calculating the different ratios and measures of heterogeneity of

the networks, to be presented in the remainder of the chapter.

155

Table 6.1: Size of the network, by flow (2 diff. variables, A &B diff. coding

of same)

Peru- Peru- Arg.- Arg.- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total chi2

With how many people do you frequently talk about themes related to the migration of Argentines/Peruvians to Italy and or Spain? ("frequently"= 3 or more times): A. 0 4.52 8.25 2.86 6.67 5.09 1 to 5 82.41 86.89 51.43 56 73.05 6 to 10 8.29 3.4 24.08 17.33 12.12 11 to 15 1.76 0.97 6.94 9.33 3.57 15+ 3.02 0.49 14.69 10.67 6.17 p=0.000 B. 0 4.52 8.25 2.86 6.67 5.09 1 27.89 31.55 2.04 4 19.91 2 25.63 37.38 13.47 16 24.24 3 13.82 10.19 17.96 12 13.96 4 10.05 3.88 10.61 17.33 9.42 5 5.03 3.88 7.35 6.67 5.52 6 1.51 0.49 6.12 4 2.71 7 0.75 0.49 2.86 0 1.19 8 1.01 0 2.04 2.67 1.19 9 0.5 0.49 0.41 0 0.43 10 4.52 1.94 12.65 10.67 6.6 12 0.5 0 1.22 2.67 0.76 13 0 0 0.82 0 0.22 14 0.25 0.49 0 1.33 0.32 15 1.01 0.49 4.9 5.33 2.27 20 2.26 0.49 6.94 5.33 3.35 more than 20 0.75 0 7.76 5.33 2.81 p=0.000 Number of network partners actually described by respondent (limited to 4): 0 4.77 8.25 2.86 6.67 5.19 1 27.89 32.04 2.04 4 20.02 2 25.63 37.38 13.06 16 24.13 3 14.32 11.65 17.55 14.67 14.61 4 27.39 10.68 64.49 58.67 36.04 p=0.000 N=924 (social networks of migration) 398 206 245 75 924

156

Degree of heterogeneity of the network:

We now consider the degree of similarity or dissimilarity between the members of

the s ocial n etwork w ith respect t o v ariables s uch as : s ex, a ge, l evel o f education, and

socioeconomic status. This attribute is important because, it is likely that individuals with

the same characteristics tend to converge in the same network (Entwisle, Rindfuss et al.

1996: 9; Kholer 2001 mentions it but does not work with it; Rindfuss, Choe et al. 2004).

In addition, ha ving a n etwork w ith m ore o r l ess he terogeneity h as i ts co nsequences:

heterogeneity i s g enerally as sociated w ith “w eak t ies” G ranovetter (1973) or

“heterophilous r elations”(Rogers 1995 c ited b y Kholer 2001) , an d w eak t ies ar e

associated with opportunities for new information, innovation and change. In contrast, the

opposite t rend i s e xpected f or hom ogeneous n etworks i n t hat t hey d o not pe rmit

innovation given that the same type of information is found in everyone (Bongaarts and

Watkins 1996: 662).

In t his s tudy, I de -emphasize t he cau sal c onnection b etween d egree o f

heterogeneity a nd i nnovation, or be tter put , I explore a nother di mension of t he c ausal

possibilities of heterogeneity. My research questions do not concentrate on innovation but

on the types of effects migration exerts on t he migrant sending households. Moreover, I

posit t hat t he t ype of s ocial ne tworks I s tudy, s ocial ne tworks of m igration, m ight not

necessarily be well interpreted with the idea of innovation. The decision to migrate can

probably b e c onsidered an i nnovative be havior, but i n a ne twork i n w hich e veryone i s

interested and directly or indirectly implicated with international migration, what would

be innovation?

The dimension of heterogeneity that I see as causually important for my study is

that o f w eak tie s. W eak tie s are imp ortant b ecause th ey limit th e p ossibilities o f

recruiting individuals who share the same socio-demographic characteristics. If a s ocial

157

network o f mig ration is h eterogeneous it w ill n ot b e e ffective in r ecruiting in dividuals

with similar characteristics and involve them in migration. This in turn will mean that the

network effects of international migration on the migrant sending household are weaker.

Therefore, he terogeneous ne tworks w ould ha ve f ewer i mpacts ( and i mpacts l ower i n

intensity) on t he hous ehold. O n t he ot her ha nd, hom ogeneous ne tworks ha ve m ore

important impacts (and those impacts would be higher in intensity).

I u se t hree m easures t o an alyze t he d egree o f h eterogeneity among n etwork

partners, (i) the degree of heterogeneity according to sex, (ii) the degree of heterogeneity

according to age, and (iii) the degree of heterogeneity according to level of education.

(i) Degree of heterogeneity according to sex:

The following table shows the percentage distribution of the networks according

to seven possibilities of ratios, which represent the number of the network partners who

are female to the total number of network partners or actual size of the network from “0”

to “4” (data p resented in the l ast section o f t able 6 .1). S ince female i s the category o f

reference (and there are only two possibilities: “female” or “male”), a easy interpretation

of these ratios is that “0” means that the network is composed only by men and “1” that

the network is composed only by women. In that sense, both end points of this continuum

of r atios a re r epresentative of t he hom ogeneity of t he ne twork education but e ach one

means a different thing.

Data presented in table 6.2, show that the social networks of migration operating

in t he t wo s treams t hat have P eru a s or igin, a re s lightly m ore hom ogeneous t han t he

social networks of migration that operate in the two migration streams that originate in

Argentina. For i nstance, i n t he migration f low Peru-Spain, 28.42% of t he ne tworks a re

composed only by men (ratio = “0”) and 27.32% of them are composed only by women

(ratio = “1”). In the migration flow Peru-Italy, those percentages are also relatively large,

158

since 27.51% of t he ne tworks a re formed onl y by men ( ratio= “0”) and 37.57% of t he

networks are formed only by women. Importantly, there is a difference of 10 percentage

points between this and the percentage for the similar cell in the flow Peru-Spain and 24

and 15 percentage points of difference with the migration flows of Argentina- Spain and

Argentina-Italy respectively. That makes the stream Peru-Italy the most homogeneous in

terms of sex, specifically in terms of female network partners. Also, the Peru-Spain flow

would be t he second most homogeneous, and the most homogeneous i n terms of m ale

network partners.

159

Table 6.2: Degree of heterogeneity -SEX (“Female= category of reference).

"0" "0.25" "0.33..." "0.5" "0`.67" "0.75" "1" Total Peru-Spain 28.42 6.32 4.47 22.63 5.00 6.84 27.32 380 100 Peru-Italy 27.51 2.65 4.76 21.16 4.23 2.12 37.57 189 100 Argentina-Spain 22.27 13.45 4.62 24.79 6.72 14.71 13.45 238 100 Argentina-Italy 18.57 17.14 1.43 18.57 5.71 15.71 22.86 70 100 Total 25.77 8.32 4.3 22.58 5.36 8.67 24.97 877 100 Pearson Chi2:pr=0.000 Note: "0" Network is composed only by men "0.25" 1 woman in a network of 4 network partners "0.33" 1 woman in a network of 3 network partners "0.5" 1 woman in a network of 2 network partners OR 2 woman in a network of 4 network partners "0.66" 2 woman in a network of 3 network partners "0.75" 3 woman in a network of 4 network partners "1" Network is composed only by women

In t he f low A rgentina-Spain, 22.27% o f t he n etworks a re formed onl y by m en

(ratio= “0”), and 13.45% are formed only by women (ratio = “1”). In the flow Argentina-

Italy, 18.57% of t he n etworks a re f ormed onl y by m en ( ratio= “ 0”), and 22.86% a re

formed onl y b y w omen (ratio = “ 1”). C onsidering onl y t he A rgentine f lows, t he m ost

homogeneous in terms of sex seems to be the Argentina-Italy flow, and that in terms of

female network partners.

160

Regarding the percentage distribution around the intermediate ratios in the table,

it is c lear th at a lthough s ome f lows s eemed to h ave n etworks th at w ere mo re

homogeneous t han ot hers, a ll of t hem ha ve ne tworks w ith a n i mportant m ixed

composition, s ince t he r atio= “ 0.5” corresponds to ha ving 1 woman i n a ne twork of 2

network pa rtners or 2 w oman i n a ne twork of 4 ne twork pa rtners, i t c oncentrates

important pe rcentages: 22.63% f or P eru-Spain, 21.16% f or P eru-Italy, 24.79% f or

Argentina-Spain and 18.57% for Argentina-Italy.

(ii) Degree of heterogeneity of the networks according to age:

To observe the degree of heterogeneity among the networks operating within the

migration f lows unde r s tudy I us e t wo m easures of di spersion: t he range or d ifference

between the ages of the oldest and youngest network partners calculated for each one of

the ego-centered social networks of migration (limited to 4) and the standard deviation of

the a ges o f t he n etwork p artners cal culated for ea ch o ne o f t he e go-centered s ocial

networks of migration (limited to 4).

According t o t he range52

In f act, 57.26% of t he n etworks ope rating w ithin t he P eru-Italy flow s howed a

difference of 0 to 9 years of difference between the oldest and youngest network partner,

while t he p ercents o f n etworks h aving t he s ame r anges o r d ifference of years w ere

(see t able 6 .2 t hat p resents t he r anges f or t he a ges o f

network pa rtners r ecoded i n f ive c ategories b y f low), t he m ost he terogeneous s ocial

networks in terms of age, were the networks operating within the stream Argentina-Italy.

Following in level of heterogeneity were networks operating within the other migration

flow that had origin in Argentina, the stream Argentina-Spain. The networks in the Peru-

Spain f low w ere l ess h eterogeneous a nd t he ne tworks ope rating i n t he Peru-Italy f low

were the least heterogeneous among all four migration flows.

52 Since networks could be formed only by 0 to 4 network partners, the range could only be calculated for 693 networks of migration.

161

44.24% for the flow Peru- Spain, 42.92% for the flow Argentina-Spain; and 32.84% for

the flow Argentina-Italy. In addition, the networks of these flows represented the lowest

percents i n t he categories 3 0 t o 3 9 years o f d ifference, an d 4 0 an d more years o f

difference. O n the contrary, the flows with the more heterogeneous networks were part

of the flow Argentina-Italy: 17.91% of them showed 10 to 19 years of difference between

the oldest and the youngest network partner, 22.29% of them showed 20 t o 29 years of

difference, 20.9 % of t hem s howed 30 t o 39 years of di fference a nd 5.97% of t hem

showed 40 and more years of difference.

162

Table 6.2: Degree of heterogeneity - AGE by flow (measured by the range of the ages of the network partners, network size censored at 4)

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

0 to 9 years of difference 44.24 57.26 42.92 32.84 45.02 10 to 19 years of difference 28.25 25.81 14.59 17.91 22.22 20 to 29 years of difference 15.61 12.1 19.31 22.39 16.88 30 to 39 years of difference 8.92 4.03 16.74 20.9 11.83 40 and more years of difference 2.97 0.81 6.44 5.97 4.04 100 100 100 100 100 Total 269 124 233 67 693 Pearson Chi2: p=0.000

Graph 6.1 ( that presents the ranges of the ages of network partners recoded in 28

categories by flow) also serves to show how the Argentina-Italy flow is the one with most

heterogeneous networks. According to the graph, although with ups and downs, it is the

line r epresenting the f low Argentina-Italy that is above the o ther lines r epresenting the

other migration flows in the categories “21 to 22 years of difference, in categories “24

to 25 years of difference”, “30 to 31 years of difference”, “38 to 39 years of difference”

and other categories showing the largest numbers of years of difference. Below that line

are t he l ines r epresenting t he m igration f low of A rgentina t o S pain a nd t hen t he l ines

representing the flow Peru-Spain and finally the flow Peru-Italy.

Graph 6.3: Degree of heterogeneity – AGE, by flow

163

164

The s econd t ype of m easurement o f t he de gree of h eterogeneity by age i s t he

standard deviation of the ages of network partners53

A large standard deviation indicates that observations are far from the mean age

of the network partners in each ego-centered network of migration and a small standard

deviation indicates that the observations are clustered closely around such mean age. In

those t erms n etworks with s maller s tandard d eviations ar e l ess h eterogeneous t han t he

ones w ith l arger s tandard de viations. In t able 6. 3 t he va lues of t he s tandard de viations

have be en grouped i n ni ne c ategories. A ccording t o t hose da ta, t he pe rcentage

distribution of the ne tworks of t he f low P eru-Italy co ncentrate i n t he c ategories w ith

smaller standard deviations: 31.67% of the networks in the Peru-Italy flow had standard

deviations (age of network partners) of “0 to 2.99”; 24.17% of the networks had standard

deviations (age of network partners) of “3 to 5.99”, that means that 56% of the networks

had standard deviations between 0 and 5.99. Following in level of low age heterogeneity

is the P eru-Spain f low where 45% of the networks had s tandard deviations between 0

and 5.99; a nd a lso 45 % of t he n etworks i n t he A rgentina-Spain f low ha d s tandard

deviations be tween 0 and 5.99. H owever, t he percentages o f ne tworks w ith s tandard

deviations of “15 to 17” and “18 to 20” are higher in the latter flow than in the flow Peru-

Spain, t herefore, a l arger pr oportion of t he ne tworks i n t he A rgentina-Spain f low ar e

heterogeneous compared to the Peru-Spain flow. Finally, only 34.11% of the networks in

the Argentina-Italy flow had standard deviations between 0 and 5.99, while 42% of these

networks had standard deviations between 12 and 20.99.

. It shows a s imilar pattern to that

showed by the range. The only difference is that the level of heterogeneity showed by the

standard deviation for the networks operating within the Argentina-Spain flow is smaller

than the level of heterogeneity showed by the range for the same networks.

53 Since networks could only be formed by 0 to 4 network partners, the standard deviation for the age of the network partners could only be calculated for 678 networks of migration.

165

Table 6.3: Degree of heterogeneity - AGE by flow (measured by the standard deviation of the ages of the network partners, network size truncated at 4)

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

0 to 2.99 21.32 31.67 29.61 16.42 25.52 3 to 5.99 23.26 24.17 15.45 17.91 20.21 6 to 8.99 19.77 12.5 10.3 10.45 14.31 9 to 11.99 10.85 10.83 6.87 8.96 9.29 12 to 14.99 8.91 10.83 13.73 13.43 11.36 15 to 17.99 6.59 5.83 9.01 13.43 7.96 18 to 20.99 4.65 2.5 11.16 14.93 7.52 21 to 23.99 3.49 0.83 3 1.49 2.65 24 to 29 1.16 0.83 0.86 2.99 1.18 100 100 100 100 100 Total 258 120 233 67 678 Pearson Chi2: p=0.001

(iii) Degree of heterogeneity according to level of education:

The following table (table 6.4) shows the percentage distribution of the networks

according t o s even pos sibilities of r atios of t he num ber of ne twork pa rtners w ho ha d

completed secondary education to the number o f the network partners o r actual s ize of

the network, which is the size limited to “0” to “4”. S ince having completed secondary

education is the category of reference and since this variable was coded in four categories

(“attained onl y primary education” “attained only secondary education” “attained onl y

tertiary non uni versity education” and “attained uni versity education”) a n adequate

interpretation of t hese r atios i s t hat “ 0” m eans that t he ne twork i s c omposed onl y b y

166

network partners who have not completed secondary education OR they have attained

another higher level of education (tertiary education) and “1” means that all

Different than in the interpretation of similar ratios for the degree of heterogeneity

according to sex (table 6.2) in this case we do not consider the ratio “0” as representative

of homogeneity, because this t ime the ratios are calculated considering 4 categories and

not onl y 2 a s i n t he va riable s ex. In f act “ 0” c ould be t he r atio c orresponding t o ve ry

heterogeneous networks (such as one composed by four members, in which one member

had only primary education, another one tertiary no-university, and the other two tertiary

university education). In a ny c ase i t i s onl y t he r atio of “ 0.5” onw ards that i dentifies

some level of homogeneity in terms of having secondary education and a ratio such as

“1” m eans t hat al l t he m embers o f t he n etwork h ave ex actly s econdary education. In

order to interpret the percentage distribution shown in table 6.4 I will only focus on the

percentage importance of categories correspondent to ratios “0.67”, “0.75” and “1”.

the network

partners in that ego-centered network of migration have exactly secondary education (no

more no less).

According t o t hose da ta, i n g eneral t he f our m igration f lows a re m ore

heterogeneous t han hom ogeneous i n t erms of s econdary education a ttainment be cause

important percentages of networks of all four migration flows are grouped in values such

“0”. In f act, 46.05% ( Peru-Spain), 46.56% ( Peru-Italy), 38.24 % ( Argentina-Spain) a nd

47.14% (Argentina-Italy) of the networks in each one of those flows are grouped in the

category “0”.

Despite th at, th ere are imp ortant d ifferences b etween countries, s ince t he

networks operating in flows originating in Peru have a higher proportion of them in the

category corresponding to “1”, i.e. a higher proportion of networks operating in the Peru

flows are homogeneous in terms of secondary education (all the members of the networks

167

have exactly secondary education). In addition, if the percents for “0.67”, “0.75” and “1”

are added together, 32% of the Peru-Spain networks and 26% of the Peru-Italy networks

are formed by members whom all had secondary education or the major part of them had

secondary education. On the contrary: only 20% of Argentina-Spain networks and 14%

of the Argentina-Italy networks are formed by members whom had exactly the same level

of education, secondary education or in which the major part of the members had exactly

secondary education.

Table 6.4: Degree of heterogeneity – EDUCATION ("Secondary" = category of reference)

Peru- Peru- Argentina

- Argentina

- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total "0" 46.05 46.56 38.24 47.14 44.13 "0.25" 6.84 4.23 16.39 21.43 10.03 "0.33..." 2.63 2.12 5.88 4.29 3.53 "0.5" 12.63 20.63 19.33 12.86 16.19 "0.67" 2.37 1.59 3.36 1.43 2.39 "0.75" 5.26 1.06 7.56 5.71 5.02 "1" 24.21 23.81 9.24 7.14 18.7 100 100 100 100 100 Total 380 189 238 70 877 Pearson Chi2: pr=0.000

Note: "0" No NP has ONLY or AT LEAST secondary education "0.25" 1 NP in a network of 4 NPs has secondary education "0.33" 1 NP in a network of 3 NPs has secondary education "0.5" 1 NP in a netw. of 2 OR 2 NPs in a netw. of 4 has secondary educ. "0.66" 2 NPs in a network of 3 NP has secondary education "0.75" 3 NPs in a network of 4 NPs has secondary education Do All NPs have attained secondary education (no more, no less)

168

Regarding de gree of he terogeneity of t he ne tworks i n t erms of e ducation, but

having as cat egory o f r eference u niversity t ertiary education, I f ollow t he s ame

interpretation a s w ith t he r atios ha ving s econdary education a s c ategory of reference

(table 6.4) . Table 6.5 shows that in general, t he networks are more heterogeneous, but

there are important differences between countries, in this case, a higher proportion of the

networks ope rating with t he f lows or iginated i n A rgentina a re grouped i n c ategories

corresponding t o t he r atios “ 0.67”, “0.75” and “ 1”. In f act, adding t he pe rcents

corresponding to those categories, 32% of the networks of Argentina-Spain and 30% of

the networks in the flow Argentina-Italy were formed by members whom all had exactly

the same level of education, in this case university education or in which the major part

of them had university tertiary education. On the contrary: only 23 % of the Peru –Spain

networks a nd 16% of t he P eru-Italy n etworks w ere f ormed b y m embers w ho h ad

university l evel of education or in which the major part of the members had university

level of education.

169

Table 6.5: Degree of heterogeneity – EDUCATION ("University tertiary" = category of reference) Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total "0" 57.11 62.96 33.19 27.14 49.49 "0.25" 7.37 5.29 13.03 20 9.46 "0.33..." 3.95 3.7 3.36 2.86 3.65 "0.5" 8.95 11.64 18.07 20 12.88 "0.67" 1.84 0.53 4.2 1.43 2.17 "0.75" 3.68 1.06 8.4 12.86 5.13 "1" 17.11 14.81 19.75 15.71 17.22 100 100 100 100 100 Total 380 189 238 70 877 Pearson Chi2: pr=0.000

Note: "0" No NP has ONLY or AT LEAST university education "0.25" 1 NP in a network of 4 NPs has university education "0.33" 1 NP in a network of 3 NPs has university education "0.5" 1 NP in a netw. of 2 OR 2 NPs in a netw. of 4 has university educ. "0.66" 2 NPs in a network of 3 NP has university education "0.75" 3 NPs in a network of 4 NPs has university education "1" All NPs have attained university education (no more, no less)

Density of networks:

Density i s t he “ degree of s ocial c onnectedness a mong t he ne twork pa rtners”

(Kholer 2001: 65) , a nd i s m ainly a ssociated w ith t he m uch c ited a nd w ell know n

preoccupation of Granovetter (1973) about the “strength of t ies”. It is measured by the

ratio of the number of ties actually observed to the number of ties theoretically possible

(Granovetter 1976: 1288).

170

In t he f ollowing f ormula, N t i s t he num ber of the t ies a ctually obs erved. T he

number of t ies theoretically possible is defined by N (N-1)/2 where N is the size of the

network, in the case of this study; the size is some number between 0 and 4. Finally, the

ratio that measures the density of the networks is defined by Nt/N [(N-1)/2] (Granovetter

1976: 1290; Knoke and Kuklinski 1982: 45).

According t o K holer (2001), de nsity can b e us ed t o unde rstand i f i t i s “ social

learning”, o r “s ocial i nfluence” t hat o ccurs w hen an i nnovative m essage i s d elivered.

Thus in his research about the role of social networks in fertility decline in Kenya, “social

learning i s m aximized ( all e lse be ing e qual) w hen t he s tructure of t he ne twork i s s o

sparse that network partners do not interact with one another but rather serve as relatively

independent sources of information” and “very dense networks in which all the network

partners know e ach other can be expected to exert a s tronger normative i nfluence than

isolated ne twork pa rtners” (Kholer 2001: 62 ). Density can al so b e as sociated w ith t he

economic development context in which the network emerges. Low density of a social

network i s a ssociated with m odernization (Granovetter 1976) and with t he p resence o f

market a ctivities (Kholer 2001: 63) . In co ntrast, i n ar eas w ith l ow p resence o f m arket

activities, the density of networks tends to be high.

Similar t o w hat I di scussed w ith r egards t o t he degree o f he terogeneity of t he

networks, i n t his s tudy, m y focus i s not on i nnovation, but on t he m agnitude of t he

influence of the effects of international migration in the migrant sending household.

Put in other way, weakness of social ties (or low density) in the social networks of

migrations that are associated with a migrant sending household entail that the effects of

international migration on the household would be of lower intensity (social networks can

be t hought as m ediating be tween t he f ormer a nd t he l atter). C orrespondingly, s ocial

171

networks of migration with stronger social ties (higher density) can have more important

effects on the migrant sending household.

The pe rcent di stribution of ne tworks a ccording t o t heir de nsity b y flow i s

presented i n table 6.6. The ne tworks operating w ithin t he f our m igration f lows unde r

analysis are mostly networks of high density, but there are important differences between

countries, and the migration f low with a hi gher proportion of hi gh density n etworks i s

Argentina-Spain. For instance, 74.29% of the networks of the Argentina- Spain migration

flow have a density of “1”. In other words, all the members of the network know each

other. In s econd pl ace of i mportance, 66.67% of t he A rgentina-Italy f lows ar e h igh

density networks. A t lower levels of density, only 52.01% of the networks operating in

the P eru-Spain m igration f low a re ne tworks w ith de nsity “ 1” and onl y 45.63% of t he

networks in the Peru-Italy flow are networks with density “1”.

In the same table I have also considered the number of networks size 0 and 1 for

which de nsity r atios c annot be c alculated. T here a re a hi gher pr oportion of ne tworks

formed b y only 1 me mber ( size 1 ) in th e P eru f lows, p articularly in th e P eru-Italy

migration f lows: 27.89 % of t he P eru-Spain ne tworks a nd 32. 04% of the P eru- Italy

networks a re f ormed b y only 1 m ember, w hile m uch l ower pe rcents a re found f or

networks of the same size in the flows originating in Argentina.

172

Table 6.6: Density of the network, by flow Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total "0" 5.53 8.74 4.9 4 5.95 0.2 1.01 0 1.63 2.67 1.08 0.3 3.52 3.4 2.86 6.67 3.57 0.5 1.51 0.97 6.53 4 2.92 0.7 2.26 0.97 2.04 2.67 1.95 0.8 1.51 0 2.86 2.67 1.62 "1" 52.01 45.63 74.29 66.67 57.68 Networks size 1 27.89 32.04 2.04 4 20.02 Networks size 0 4.77 8.25 2.86 6.67 5.19 100 100 100 100 100 Total 380 189 238 70 877 Pearson Chi2: pr=0.000

2. THE RESOURCES OF THE NETWORKS

The resources of the network

Gurak and C aces (1992), s tudying m igrant n etworks, a lso s tate t hat n etworks

have different types and amounts of resources and that the magnitude of these resources

impacts th eir me mbers. Describing h ow immig rants a re i mpacted b y t hese a ggregated

refer to the aggregated set of abilities and attributes

of t he m embers of a n etwork, w hich aggregated, i n a s pecific context, w ould he lp

members of the network obtain favorable social and economic outcomes. Bagchi (2001),

mentions f ollowing D avern ( 1997) t hat “ the di stribution w ithin ne tworks” of e lements

that d ifferentiate among i ndividuals l ike “ ability, know ledge, e thnicity, estate, gender,

and cl ass” could co nstitute r esources t hat can impact t he “am ount an d q uality” t he

members of a networks bring to social exchange (Bagchi 2001: 23).

173

resources, these authors mention that ne twork resources can speed or s low a long term

adaptation to the country of destination. For instance, if a migrant network does not have

many resources, such as for example facility with the language of the country, that would

result in insulating the migrants in the destination country, and put them in marginal jobs

(Gurak and Caces 1992: 155). I add that if the resources of migrant networks can speed

or s low a daptation, th ey c learly m ediate th e p rocess b y w hich in ternational mig ration

causes change, most probably influencing the timing during which the process of change

occurs.

In th is study, I a m not examining m igrant ne tworks but e go-social ne tworks of

migration that are associated to a migrant sending household given that ego is a member

of t hat hous ehold. A nd t he c hanges I a m t rying t o e xamine a re v ery s imple ( living

arrangements of children) which occur in the migrant sending household and not abroad.

If resources are important in mediating the effects caused by international migration on

household l iving a rrangements, t herefore t he amount of r esources would be pos itively

associated t o t he e xistence/ i mportance of t hose changes. In m y s tudy, t hose r esources

comprise: having relatives in Spain/Italy, the previous or current experience of

international migration, the access to financial resources, and level of education.

2.1. Having relatives in Spain/Italy

The great Spanish and Italian immigration flows to Argentina, occurred at

the e nd o f t he ni neteenth c entury and t he be ginning of t he t wentieth c entury, after t he

Spanish C ivil War ( after 1939) , a nd t he S econd World War ( after 1945 ). T he s ize o f

these f lows m ade Argentina a s mu ch a n immig rant n ation as th e United S tates a nd

explains t he l arge p ercentages of ne twork pa rtners w ho ha ve 3 or 4 r elatives i n S pain

or/and Italy among the networks corresponding to the migration flows Argentina- Spain

and Argentina-Italy (see table 6.7)

174

Table 6.7: Network partner has currently relatives in

Spain/Italy (Total)

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

0 20.79 24.87 25.42 14.29 22.4 1 25.53 30.69 16.95 27.14 24.46 2 26.32 30.69 25 24.29 26.74 3 15.79 8.47 16.1 17.14 14.4 4 11.58 5.29 16.53 17.14 12

100 100 100 100 100 Total 380 189 236 70 875 Pearson Chi2 :p=.001

Adding the percentages representing the networks in which respondents had “3”

and “4” network partners who had relatives in Spain/Italy at the time of the survey, it is

noticeable that the Argentina-Italy flow had the highest percent of networks that had 3or

4 network partners with relatives at the destinations (34.28%). The Argentina- Spain flow

counted w ith t he s econd hi ghest pe rcent of n etworks t hat ha d 3 or 4 ne twork pa rtners

with relatives at the destinations (34.28%). The Peru flows were characterized by lower

percents respect to Argentina: 27.37% of the networks in the flow Peru-Spain had 3or 4

network partners with relatives in Spain or/and Italy; and only 13.76% of the networks in

the flow Peru-Italy had 3or 4 network partners with relatives at the destinations.

The interviews conducted in Buenos Aires, are particularly interesting regarding

the description of the “other family” in Spain or/and Italy, the family from which the the

respondent’s grandparents and parents originally came. Whereas in the past it was more

difficult to get in c ontact w ith t hat s egment of t he f amily, l ately i t ha s not be en s o

difficult T he r econnection w ith th e f amilies o f origin h as facilitated th e mig ration o f

175

great grandchildren to Italy and Spain. An illustration of this trend is provided by Adriana

(25), w hose i nterview I used to e xemplify ma le based s ocial n etworks o f mig ration in

Argentina:

(My br others w ent di rectly t o S pain), be cause w e ha ve r elatives t here, not s o close, t hey are t he s isters o f m y grandmother, m y p aternal grandfather's brothers…the f amily of m y grandparents. S o f irst i t w as m y ol der br other, h e stayed i n a n aunt’s pl ace, got a j ob t here a nd w ell, s tarted t o w ork, got a n apartment, he had friends there too, and then the next year it was my other brother (second brother). (INT4__ARG)

2.2. Previous or current experience of international migration

The four f lows had s imilar percents of ne tworks characterized by having 3 or 4

network partners who were current or ex-migrants at the moment of the survey: 12% in

the Peru-Spain flow, 6.3% in the Peru-Italy flow, 11.43 in the Argentina-Spain flow and

9.33% in the Argentina-Italy flow (see table 6.8).

176

Table 6.8: Network partner is a current or ex-migarnt to

Spain/Italy (Total)

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

0 31.23 42.23 57.96 57.33 42.9 1 34.51 28.16 20.41 20 28.17 2 21.66 23.3 10.2 13.33 18.31 3 7.56 3.88 5.31 5.33 5.96 4 5.04 2.43 6.12 4 4.66

100 100 100 100 100 Total 397 206 245 75 923 Pearson Chi2 :p=.000

Another noticeable trend is that the Peruvian social networks of migration showed

higher pe rcents of ne tworks ha ving “ 2” a nd “ 1” ne twork pa rtners w ho w ere c urrent

migrants o r ex-migrants: in th e P eru-Spain s tream 21.66% of t he ne tworks ha d “ 2”

network partners who had this t rait; and in the case of Peru-Italy s tream 23.33% of the

networks had “2” network partners who were current or ex-migrants. In contrast, in the

Argentina m igration f lows 10.2% of t he A rgentina-Spain ne tworks a nd 13.33% of t he

Argentina-Italy networks had “2” network partners who were current or ex-migrants.

2.3. Access to financial resources

Networks in th e mig ration f lows f rom A rgentina a re th e n etworks w ith mo st

financial resources compared to the Peru migration flows (see table 6.9).

Table 6.9: Network partner has financial resources

177

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

0 29.4 39.32 39.18 34.67 34.63 1 30.9 32.52 13.88 10.67 25.11 2 21.11 18.93 10.61 17.33 17.53 3 8.54 6.8 9.39 8 8.33 4 10.05 2.43 26.94 29.33 14.39

100 100 100 100 100 Total 398 206 245 75 924 Pearson Chi2 :p=.000

Adding the percentages representing the networks in which respondents had “3”

and “4” network partners who had, according to the respondent, financial resources, it is

noticeable that the Argentina-Italy flow counted with the highest percent of networks that

had 3or 4 network partners who had financial resources (37.33%). The Argentina- Spain

flow c ounted w ith t he s econd hi ghest pe rcent of n etworks t hat ha d 3 or 4 ne twork

partners w ho h ad f inancial r esources (36.33%). The P eru f lows, on t he contrary, w ere

characterized b y l ower percents r espect t o A rgentina, p articularly t he P eru-Italy flow:

18.59% of t he n etworks t hat ope rated w ithin t he f low P eru-Spain h ad 3or 4 n etwork

partners w ho ha d f inancial r esources; a nd onl y 9.23% of t he ne tworks t hat ope rated

within the flow Peru-Italy had 3or 4 network partners who had this characteristic.

The que stion us ed t o c ollect t he da ta f or t his variable was “Has X economic

resources to help you financially?”, t herefore t he an swers ar e l ikely t o b e m ore

subjective than in the case of the answers to other questions about networks resources in

the questionnaire, so i t i s possible t hat r espondents i n Peru and in Argentina t ended to

have t wo di fferent pa tterns of e valuation of t he f inancial r esources of their ne twork

178

partners. Still these data at least indicate that respondents for the networks operating in

Argentina ha d a more positive evaluation of the f inancial resources they could access,

and that the Peruvian respondents had a more negative one.

In fact among the interviews conducted in Lima, I found an example of this type

of evaluation in which the respondent had no easily available resources in their network.

However, the person who needed the resources strategized to use them, using non legal or

informal methods. That is the case of the mother of Paz (29), referred to in the previous

chapter, whose mother was in Geneva, Italy since 2000 (INT5_PER):

It was as I tell you, she saw on TV, about the Jubileo 54

So then there was this event of the Jubileo?

which was going to be in Rome. She saw that and started doing the paperwork. But they asked for a visa. You know that to obtain visa you need to have a car, a house, everything… so my mom pretended to be the wife of my uncle (the brother of her husband), because my unc le, yes, h e had money, and he gave he r hi s bank account, papers, c redit cards, e verything t o g o to t he e mbassy. M y m om s aid t hat t hey ( the e mbassy) would never grant a visa to persons like her. My mom had this idea, she went to my uncle’s house, she explained, she cried, she told him, the only way that she could obtain the visa was by pretending to be my uncle’s wife … m y uncle is a widower. W ell, m y un cle t hought a bout i t, a nd s aid ‘ OK, I will d o it f or m y brother’… a nd t hen he l ent he r m oney f or he r t icket…then t he pr oblem w as t o gather money for the trip expenses.

…yes, everything was in the airport. Like I told you, her mentality was of staying (in Italy). Because the other people who traveled with her went there just for days, therefore t o all t hose p eople t hat w ent, t hey (the t ravel a gency/program) t old them ‘ if you go, it is n ecessary th at you s ign h ere…stating th at you w ill c ome back i n 1 5 da ys, with us ’ . M y m om s igned everything. T hen s he arrived, s he went into a restroom stall and stayed there. Never came out. The group who was traveling with her (to the Jubileo event), they were l ike 20-30 people, they left. And my mom stayed there, until now.”

54 She refers to the 2000 Jubileo or Saint Year in the Catholic Roman Church is a celebration occurring each 25 years. The last Jubileo was held in Rome (2000).

179

2.4. Level of education

With r egards t o e ducational r esources, n etworks i n t he m igration f lows

originating i n A rgentina ha d hi gher pe rcents of ne tworks c haracterized b y ha ving

network partners with non-university or university tertiary education (tertiary in general).

The pe rcentages c orresponding t o t he ne tworks that ha d “ 3” and “ 4” n etwork pa rtners

who ha d a ttained uni versity or non -university l evel of e ducation a re 3 8.67% f or t he

migration f low A rgentina-Italy, 34.28% f or t he migration f low Argentina- Spain a nd

showing a ve ry l arge di fference onl y 16.59 % a nd 7.28% f or t he P eru-Spain a nd P eru-

Italy flows respectively (see table 6.10).

Table 6.10: Network partners who attained tertiary (non-university and university) education.

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

0 35.68 45.15 27.35 29.33 35.06 1 30.4 31.55 19.18 17.33 26.62 2 17.34 16.02 19.18 14.67 17.32 3 9.05 4.37 17.14 22.67 11.26 4 7.54 2.91 17.14 16 9.74

100 100 100 100 100 Total 398 206 245 75 924 Pearson Chi2 :p=.000

Focusing onl y on uni versity t ertiary education, t he r esult of adding t he

percentages c orresponding t o t he ne tworks t hat ha d “ 3” a nd “ 4” ne twork pa rtners w ho

attained uni versity l evel of e ducation i s e xplicably l ower but t he di fferences be tween

Argentina and Peru remains: 20% for the migration f low Argentina-Spain, 18.67 % for

180

the migration flow Argentina- Italy and only 8% and 2.43% for the Peru-Spain and Peru-

Italy flows respectively (see table 6.11).

Table 6.11: Network partners who attained tertiary university education.

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

0 59.05 65.53 40.82 37.33 53.9 1 24.12 24.27 20 29.33 23.48 2 8.79 7.77 18.78 14.67 11.69 3 5.53 1.46 10.2 14.67 6.6 4 2.51 0.97 10.2 4 4.33

100 100 100 100 100 Total 398 206 245 75 924 Pearson Chi2 :p=.000

REFERENCES: Bagchi, A nn. 2001. Making connections: a study of networking among immigrant

proffesionals. New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC. Bongaarts, J ohn, a nd S usan W atkins. 1996. " Social i nteractions a nd c ontemporary

fertility transitions." Population and Development Review 22:639-82. Entwisle, B arbara, R onald R R indfuss, D avid K G uilkey, A phichat C hamratrithirong,

Sarah R C urran, a nd Y othin S awangdee. 1996. " Community a nd c ontraceptive choice in rural Thailand: A case study of Nang Rong." Demography 33:1-11.

Granovetter, M ark. 197 3. " The S trength o f W eak T ies " The American Journal of Sociology 86:1360-1380.

—. 1976. " Network S ampling: S ome F irst S teps." The American Journal of Sociology 81:1287-1303.

Gurak, Douglas T , a nd F e C aces. 1992. " Migration N etworks a nd t he S haping of Migration S ystems " Pp. 150-176 in International Migration Systems. A Global Approach, e dited b y M ary M K ritz, Lin Lean Lim, a nd H ania Z lotnik. N ew York: Oxford University Press.

181

Jackson, D aniel, J ohn Kirkland, B arry J ackson, a nd D avid Bimler. 2005. " Social Network An alysis a nd Estimating th e S ize o f H ard-to-Count S ubpopulations." Connections 26:49-60.

Kholer, H ans P eter. 200 1. Fertility and Social Interaction. An Economic Perspective. Oxford: University Press.

Knoke, D avid, a nd J ames H K uklinski. 1982. Network analysis Series. B everly H ills: Sage Publications.

Rindfuss, R onald R , M inja K im C hoe, Larry Bumpass, a nd N oriko O . T suya. 2004. "Social N etworks a nd Family C hange i n J apan." American Sociological Review 69:838-861.

Rogers, Everett. 1995. Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press.

182

Chapter 7: Mechanisms of operation of Social Networks of Migration, possible paths of change in family

Findings p resented i n c hapters 5 and 6 i llustrate t he di fferences i n t he s ocial

networks of m igration operating w ithin th e mig ration s treams b etween Argentina and

Peru t o Spain and Italy. In t his chapter I out line t he mechanisms of ope ration of t hese

entities for both the cases of Argentina and Peru, and with this information explore the

possible pa ths of change i n f amily, s pecifically i n t he l iving a rrangements of c hildren

who are part of migrant sending households.

In this chapter I continue using the data collected through the household survey I

elaborated with the objective of targeting relatives of migrants to Spain and Italy, in Lima

and B uenos A ires ( “Household s urvey of M igrant S ending H ouseholds t o Italy and

Spain”). The chapter is organized in two main sections. The first section consists of the

logistic regression analysis to test if living arrangements of children at migrant sending

households depend on t he characteristics of social networks of migration. I use the total

dependency ratio and the children dependency ratio calculated at the household level (the

respondent’s hous ehold, w hich i s t he e go of t he ne tworks) a s pr oxies f or l iving

arrangements of c hildren. T he s econd s ection i s de dicated t o di scuss t he pos sible

mechanisms of operation of the social networks of migration, using both the findings of

the s tatistical in ferential a nalysis p resented i n t he f irst s ection of t he c hapter a nd t he

analysis of the in-depth interviews with members of migrant sending households.

183

Relationship between the characteristics of the social networks of migration and living arrangements of children, measured by demographic dependency

Living ar rangements o f ch ildren a re d irectly associated w ith t he t ypes o f

resources c hildren a re of fered w hen growing up. T he s pecific de mographic

characteristics ( sex, ag e, m arital s tatus) and h uman cap ital characteristics ( level of

education, employment, income) of each one of the members of the set of relatives or/and

non-relatives w ith w hom a c hild r esides, s tructure t he t ypes a nd a mount of e conomic,

education, social, and emotional resources she/he could obtain while being a dependent

member of the household (McLanahan and Sandefur 1994; McLanahan 2004).

I pos it t hat demographic dependency should not be i nterpreted onl y i n t erms of

economic de pendency. The m embers of t he h ousehold w ho a re 15 t o 64 a nd are

considered as working age population, a re not only able to perform labor activities and

contribute to the material reproduction of the family but are also able to / are required to /

or ar e p ersonally i nclined t o as sume o ther t asks, es pecially w hen t here are h ousehold

members who because of their age at any of the two ends of the life cycle (0 to 14 and 65

or more years of age according to the standard criteria to distinguish dependants) cannot

perform b y th emselves, all o f th e a ctivities th at would g uarantee th eir s afety and th eir

physical and e motional w ellbeing. In t hat s ense, m igrant s ending hous eholds c an be a

helpful r eferent to p icture a ll t he ot her c omponents t hat c onstitute de mographic

dependency. In f act, s ince t he e migration of a c lose f amily m ember i nvolves t heir

physical absence; it is likely that the household balance existent prior to their emigration

will n ecessarily b e ad justed t o t hat ab sence an d t o t he s et o f r oles e nacted b y t his

emigrant member. From the perspective of the children these changes could be drastic.

Within t he pe rspective of t he l iving a rrangements of c hildren, de mographic

dependency embodies only one of the demographic characteristics of the non-dependent

household m embers t hat c an be t ranslated i nto r esources of fered t o c hildren i n t he

184

household, and this is age. More specifically, the resource of having a sufficient number

of hous ehold m embers aged 15 t o 64 t o he lp with t he t asks required to pr otect t he

children a ged 0 t o 1 4 i n t he hous ehold ( if t here a re children). D espite t he

unidimensionality of demographic de pendency, a ge ( actually, w orking a ge) i s

definitively o ne o f t he r esources t hat m ost cl early c an b e t ranslated i nto a hous ehold

resource, along w ith education a ttainment (secondary o r te rtiary education a ttainment),

employment a nd i ncome. F or t hose reasons I think t hat i ndicators s uch a s t he t otal

dependency ratio and the children dependency ratio can be used to proxy the resources

and limita tions o f liv ing arrangements e xperienced b y children in m igrant s ending

households.

Household level Total Dependency Ratio and Children Dependency Ratio as the dependent variables:

Total dependency ratio (TDR): The d ependency ratio “relates t he n umber o f

children ( 0-14 years ol d) a nd ol der pe rsons ( 65 years or ove r) t o t he w orking-age

population ( 15-64 years ol d)”(UN 2007: 104). A lthough a s s ocial i ndicator t he r atio i s

frequently used multiplied per 100 or per 10, I use the variable simply in its ratio format,

since i t s eems m ore a dequate t o a h ousehold l evel m easure. T here are i nteresting

differences b etween f lows r egarding t his va riable ( see table 7.1). C ompared t o t he

Argentina f lows, i n both Peru f lows, t here are hi gher pe rcents o f households t hat have

total dependency ratios that can be considered “high”, i.e. total dependency ratios (TDR)

equal t o 0.6 or hi gher t han 0.6. T he c riteria t o de fine a t hreshold of 0. 6 ha s not be en

formally established bu t i s s uggested b y t he U nited N ations c omparisons of t he

dependency ratios prevalent in different regions of the world (UN 2005: 33-34). In fact,

although in the UN “methodological sheets” of the indicators of sustainable development

is s tated that “ international a greements do not specify t argets i n t erms of va lues of t he

185

dependency ratio” (UN 2007:105), when total dependency ratios are compared across the

world, t he pa ttern described b y other UN r eports i s t hat i n countries of t he developing

world, t otal de pendency r atios g o be tween 5 a nd 8 ( or 0.5 a nd 0.8) 55

55 “Population Challenges a nd D evelopment G oals” ( pages 3 3-34). In th is d ocument, th ey s pecifically discuss the TDRs of 2005 c omparing countries and regions of the developing and developed world. They mention the case of India where “the number of children and e lderly persons per 10 persons of working age” was 6 (or 0.6), China, where the TDR was 5 (0.5), Latin America and the Caribbean where the TDR was 6 (0.6) establishing that “in the least developed countries” the TDR was of 8 (0.8).

while “T he

dependency ratio in the developed world is currently under 5 children and elderly persons

per 10 adults of working age”, i.e. under 0.5. Therefore I consider that a threshold of 0.6

seems logical and convenient to define a TDR as high. According to Table 7.1 and using

the 0.6 threshold, 31.74% and 35.94% of the households associated to the Peru-Spain and

to the Peru-Italy flows respectively have “high” TDRs. In the Argentina sample, 23.28%

and 22.67% of t he hous eholds i n t he A rgentina-Spain a nd t he A rgentina-Italy f lows

respectively h ave “h igh” T DRs. C omparing b etween co untries, t otal de pendency ( both

youth and older age dependency) i s more important in the Peruvian sample than in the

Argentine sample of migrant sending households to Spain and Italy (the p-value for the

Pearson chi2 of this crosstabulation is significant at the 0.000 level).

186

Table 7.1: Total dependency ratios at migrant sending households (respondent's household) by flow Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

0 31.99 31.07 57.14 62.67 40.95 0.125 0.25 0 0 0 0.11

0.1428571 0.5 0.49 0.41 0 0.43 0.1666667 1.01 0.97 0 0 0.65

0.2 3.27 2.91 0.82 0 2.28 0.25 6.05 6.31 2.86 0 4.77

0.2857143 0.5 0 0 0 0.22 0.3333333 11.08 8.25 5.71 2.67 8.34

0.375 0 0.49 0 0 0.11 0.4 1.51 0.97 0.41 0 0.98

0.4285714 0 0.49 0 0 0.11 0.5 12.09 12.14 9.39 12 11.38 0.6 0.5 0 0 0 0.22

0.625 0.5 0 0 0 0.22 0.6666666 4.53 5.34 2.86 0 3.9

0.75 0.76 1.46 0 0 0.65 0.8 0.76 0.49 0 0 0.43

1 15.87 15.53 18.37 14.67 16.36 1.25 0.25 0.49 0 0 0.22

1.333333 1.26 0 0.41 0 0.65 1.5 3.53 5.34 0.82 1.33 3.03

2 2.27 3.88 0.82 2.67 2.28 2.333333 0 0.49 0 0 0.11

3 1.01 2.43 0 4 1.3 4 0 0.49 0 0 0.11 5 0.5 0 0 0 0.22

100 100 100 100 100 Total 397 206 245 75 923 Low TDR 68.25 64.09 76.74 77.34 70.33 High TDR 31.74 35.94 23.28 22.67 29.7 100 100 100 100 100 Pearson Chi2: pr=0.000

187

Children dependency ratio (CDR): The C hildren de pendency r atio r elates t he

number of children aged 0-14 to the number of persons aged 15-64 in the household, and

together with the old-age dependency ratio (which is the number of persons aged 65 o r

over t o t he num ber of persons a ged 15 -64) c omposes t he t otal de pendency ratio (UN

2007: 104) . In t his c ase t oo I us e t he 0.6 l evel t o i dentify a hi gh l evel of youth

dependency in t he hous ehold. There are c lear di fferences b etween f lows regarding this

variable (see table 7.2). To start, compared to the proportions with high TDR, there is a

lower proportion of households with high CDR in both the Peru and Argentina samples

(this i s l ogical, s ince t he C hildren D ependency Ratio i s a c omponent of t he T otal

Dependency Ratio). Peru, once again, has the highest dependency ratios, now in terms of

youth dependency, and in both Peru and Argentina, households involved in the flows to

Italy s how hi gher d ependency t han t hose i nvolved i n t he S panish f lows. In t he P eru

migration f lows, hous eholds w ith a hi gh C DR were 24.43% ( Peru-Spain) and 26.22%

(Peru-Italy). In the Argentina migration flows, households with a high CDR were 16.33%

(Argentina -Spain) and 19.99% ( Argentina-Italy). C omparing be tween c ountries youth

dependency i s more important i n t he Peruvian sample t han in t he A rgentine sample o f

migrant sending households to Spain and Italy.

188

Table 7.2

: Children dependency ratios at migrant sending households (respondent’s household), by flow.

Peru- Peru- Argentina- Argentina- Spain Italy Spain Italy Total

0 43.07 41.26 68.16 69.33 51.46 0.125 0.25 0.49 0 0 0.22

0.1428571 0.76 0.49 0 0 0.43 0.1666667 1.01 0.97 0 0 0.65

0.2 3.53 2.43 0.82 0 2.28 0.25 6.05 5.83 1.63 1.33 4.44

0.2857143 0.25 0 0 0 0.11 0.3333333 9.82 7.77 5.71 1.33 7.58

0.4 1.26 0.97 0.41 0 0.87 0.4285714 0 0.49 0 0 0.11

0.5 9.57 13.11 6.94 8 9.53 0.6 0.5 0 0 0 0.22

0.625 0.25 0 0 0 0.11 0.6666666 3.53 3.88 2.04 0 2.93

0.7 0.25 0 0 0 0.11 0.75 0.76 0.97 0 1.33 0.65 0.8 0 0.49 0 0 0.11

0.8333334 0.25 0 0 0 0.11 1 15.11 13.11 12.65 16 14.08

1.333333 0 0 0.41 0 0.11 1.5 1.51 3.88 0.82 0 1.73

2 1.51 2.43 0.41 1.33 1.41 2.333333 0 0.49 0 0 0.11

3 0.76 0.97 0 1.33 0.65 100 100 100 100 100 Total 397 206 245 75 923 Low CDR 75.57 73.81 83.67 79.99 77.68 High CDR 24.43 26.22 16.33 19.99 22.33 100 100 100 100 100 Pearson Chi2: pr=0.000

189

As seen in tables 7.1 a nd 7.2, t he ranges of va lues for the household level total

dependency ratios and children dependency ratios are not large (26 values for the TDR

and 24 values for the CDR). In that sense, these variables are not really continuous, as for

example a variable such as ‘income” could be. On the other hand, I am not interested in

the c omplete r ange o f values of t he hous ehold l evel T DR a nd C DR. My i nterest i s

directed specifically to t he high level TDR/CDR. In other words I want to know i f the

probability of having a high TDR/CDR

For those two reasons, I decided to recode the dependent variables TDR and CDR

into dichotomous variables. Following the idea of the 0.6 t hreshold to distinguish a high

total/children dependency ratio from a low one, I recode them into variables with values

“1” = High TDR or CDR if the total/children dependency ratio was equal or higher than

0.6 and ‘0”=Low TDR if the total/children dependency ratio was 0.5 or less (between 0

and 0.5).

in a migrant sending household depends on t he

characteristics of the migration social networks of the respondents who are members of

those households and the ego of the networks.

DOES HIGH DEMOGRAPHIC DEPENDENCY DEPEND ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOCIAL NETWORKS OF MIGRATION?

My a im h ere is to e xamine if th e p robability o f h aving a high T DR/CDR

In t his e xamination I use l ogistic regression a nalysis, h aving a s d ependent

variables the bivariate versions of the total dependency ratio (TDR) and of the children

dependency ratios (CDR) (“0”= 0-0.5, “low TDR”/ “1” = 0.6 a nd up, “ high TDR”). As

in a

migrant sending household, depends on the characteristics of a migration social network

associated t o t he hou sehold. T his ne twork i s t he s ocial ne twork of m igration of t he

respondent, w ho i s a m ember of t he m igrant s ending hous ehold a nd t he e go of t he

network.

190

predictors, I use five variables corresponding to the characteristics of the STRUCTURE

and t hree v ariables co rresponding t o t he R ESOURCES of t he s ocial ne tworks of

migration of t he r espondents. I us e l ogistic r egression be cause of t wo r easons. ( a) T he

dependent variables TDR and CDR have been recoded as bivariate in order to facilitate

the f ocus on t he hi gh t otal and c hildren de pendency ratios. In t heir ne w ve rsion t hese

variables ha ve bi nomial di stributions a nd l ogistic r egression i s t he a dequate t ype o f

analysis for d ependent variables h aving t hat t ype of di stribution. ( b) What I w ant t o

model is not how the independent variables predict different values of TDR and CDR, as

an OLS type of estimation would do, but on the contrary or in opposite direction, what I

want to model is how the probability of having a “high” total/children dependency ratio

at a m igrant s ending ho usehold l evel de pends o n t he c haracteristics of t he ne tworks56

.

The type of estimation method used in logistic regression analysis (Maximum Likelihood

Estimation) does that.

Independent variables:

The i ndependent va riables c orrespondent t o t he STRUCTURE of t he ne tworks:

size o f t he n etwork; d egree o f h eterogeneity o f n etwork ac cording t o s ex; d egree o f

heterogeneity of network according to age, and density of the network. I do not include

the v ariable o n t he d egree o f h eterogeneity according t o l evel of e ducation be cause i t

interacts w ith t he ot her va riable on education I h ad pl anned t o us e: t he num ber o f

network partners who had university level education, which is part of the resources of the

network. Since the latter variable is easier to interpret, I decided to keep it in the model

and exclude the one on the degree of heterogeneity according to education.

56 (p. 576) “Ordinary regression models the mean of the response variable. For binary response variables, the model describes how the proportion of successes depends on explanatory variables” Agresti, A. and B. Finlay (1997). Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences. New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

191

The i ndependent va riables c orresponding t o t he RESOURCES of t he ne tworks

are: num ber of ne twork partners w ho ha d a r elative i n S pain/Italy; num ber o f n etwork

partners who were current or ex-migrants to Spain/Italy; number of network partners who

had enough financial resources to help the respondent; and number of network partners

who a ttained uni versity e ducation. A ll of t hem ha ve a s m inimum va lue “0” an d as

maximum value “4”, given that data is collected only for a group of 4 ne twork partners

(the 4 most important network partners named by the respondent).

The logistic analysis i s conducted separately for each country, both when us ing

the household level total dependency ratio as the dependent variable as when using the

household level children dependency ratio as the dependent variable.

Examining the correlation between household level Total Dependency Ratio and migration network characteristics:

Using the Peru sample data (dependent variable TDR):

From 603 observations for Peru, only 389 were used in the analysis. This is due to

the missing data created particularly for the variable “density of the network” for which

there is not a d ensity ratio if the network size is 0 or 157

According t o t he p -value of t he l ikelihood r atio c hi2 s tatistic, w hich i s .0155,

model 1 that considers only the variables about the structure of the network is statistically

significant at t he 0.05 l evel. However o nly tw o v ariables a re s tatistically s ignificant:

(information not shown in the

table). I run two models, the first considering only the four variables correspondent to the

STRUCTURE of the network and the second one adding to the first model, the other four

variables about the RESOURCES of the network (see table 7.3).

57The statistical package used (STATA) excludes a case from the analysis if it has a missing value in just one of the variables involved in the model.

192

degree of heterogeneity according to sex and density of the network. The coefficients for

both of these variables show a positive association with the probability of having a high

total dependency household. When adding the variables on the resources of the networks,

the p -value of t he l ikelihood r atio of m odel 2 s lightly i ncreases but i t c ontinues be ing

significant at the 0.05 level (p-value is 0.0312). Among the variables on the resources of

the ne tworks, onl y on e i s s tatistically s ignificant: num ber of ne twork pa rtners w ho

attained university level education, which is significant at the 0.1 l evel. This variable is

negatively a ssociated t o t he de pendent va riable. A lso, w ith t he i nclusion of t he

independent variables about the resources of the networks, one of the variables referred to

the structure of the networks that was not significant in model 1, is shown as significant.

This is the variable degree of heterogeneity according to age, which is significant at the

0.1 level and is negatively associated to the dependent variable. The findings in detail for

model 2 are:

Degree of heterogeneity according to SEX: As s een i n ch apter 6 , d egree o f

heterogeneity a ccording t o s ex is act ually b ased o n a m easure of s ex hom ogeneity,

homogeneity in having female network partners58

58This variable is measured by a ratio, the ratio of the number of the network partners who are female, to the total number of network partners or actual size of the network (size goes from 0” to “4”).

. In that sense the positive association

represented in the coefficient 0.677 be tween the total dependency ratio of the household

and t his va riable, s hould be i nterpreted a s: t he l arger t he f emale h omogeneity o f t he

migration networks, the larger the value of their household TDR, this was an expected

trend in my hypotheses. The coefficient for this variable is significant at the 0.05 level (p-

value=0.048) and s hows t hat f or a one -unit in crease i n t he r atio o f f emale n etwork

partners to the total number of network partners, we should expect a 0.677 increase in the

log-odds of the dependent variable TDR of the respondent’s household, holding all other

covariates c onstant. In other w ords, t he o dds of t he pr obability o f h aving a t otal

193

dependency ratio equal or higher to 0.6 ( “high TDR”) in the respondent’s household are

96.7 % larger for a one-unit increase in the ratio of female network partners to the total

number of her/his network partners, holding all other covariates constant.

Degree of heterogeneity of the social network of migration of the respondent

network according to AGE: The coefficient f or t his v ariable i s -0.0209065 a nd i t i s

statistically s ignificant a t th e 0 .1 level ( p-value= 0.063). For a one -unit i ncrease i n t he

range o f t he ages of t he ne twork p artners (i.e. t he di fference be tween t he a ges of t he

oldest a nd youngest ne twork pa rtners), w e e xpect a 0.02 d ecrease i n t he l og-odds of

dependent va riable T DR of t he r espondent’s household, hol ding a ll ot her c ovariates

constant. In other words, the odds of the probability of having a total dependency ratio

equal or hi gher t o 0.6 ( “high T DR”) i n t he r espondent’s hous ehold are -2.1 % , or 2.1

smaller for a o ne-unit increase in the range of a ge of her/his network partners, holding

all other covariates constant.

Density of the network: The coefficient 0.877 is significant at the 0.05 level (p-

value= 0.021) . For a o ne-unit i ncrease i n t he de nsity of t he ne twork ( i.e. f or e very

additional point in the ratio of the observed ties to the theoretically possible ties between

the network partners), we expect a 0.877 i ncrease in the log-odds of dependent variable

TDR of the respondent’s household, holding all other covariates constant. In other words,

the odds of t he p robability of h aving a t otal d ependency ratio e qual or hi gher t o 0.6

(“high TDR”) in the respondent’s household are 140.3 % larger for a one-unit increase in

the density of his/her migration network, holding all other covariates constant.

Number of network partners who have university level education: The

coefficient for this variable is -0.19678 and it is statistically significant at the 0.1 level (p-

value= 0.087) . F or a o ne-unit i ncrease i n t he number of n etwork pa rtners w ho h ave

university level education (i.e. for a change from 0 to 1, from 1 to 2, from 2 to 3 or from

194

3 t o 4 ne twork pa rtners w ho ha ve uni versity l evel e ducation), w e e xpect a 0.19678

decrease i n t he l og-odds of de pendent va riable T DR of t he r espondent’s hous ehold,

holding all other covariates constant. In other words, the odds of the probability of having

a t otal de pendency r atio e qual or hi gher t o 0 .6 ( “high TDR”) i n t he r espondent’s

household a re 17.9 % s maller f or e very additional ne twork pa rtner w ho ha s a ttained

university l evel e ducation a mong t he m embers of he r/his ne twork, hol ding a ll ot her

covariates constant.

195

Table 7.3: Logistic regression models on the Total Dependency Ratio of migrant sending households/ PERU

(1) (2) Migration network’s characteristics TDR TDR

Size of the network 0.102 0.0878 (0.135) (0.158) Degree of heterogeneity (SEX) 0.677** 0.677** (0.336) (0.342) Degree of heterogeneity (AGE) -0.0164 -0.0209* (0.0109) (0.0112) Density 0.953*** 0.877** (0.365) (0.379) Num. NPs who have relatives in Spain/Italy 0.155 (0.124) Num. NPs who are current or ex-migrants to -0.0748 Spain/Italy (0.112) Num. NPs who have financial resources 0.0277 (0.103) Num. NPs who attained university level -0.197* Education (0.115)

Constant -

1.860*** -1.798*** (0.556) (0.577) Observations 389 389 Likelihood ratio (Model 1): 12.26 (p-value= 0.0155). Likelihood ratio (Model 2): 16.90 ( p-value= 0.0312). Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

196

The r est o f th e v ariables in th is f inal mo del (model 2 ) are n ot s tatistically

significant. In this group are included variables: Size of the network that has a coefficient

of 0.087808 and a p-value of 0 .579. Number of network partners who have relatives in

Spain/Italy that has coefficient 0.15465 and p-value= 0.212. Number of network partners

who are ex or current migrants to Spain/Italy: That has coefficient -0.07475 and a p-value

of 0.506. And number of network partners who have financial resources with coefficient

0.02767 and p-value= 0.789.

In conclusion, in the Peru sample of migrant sending households, the probability

of having a high total dependency ratio seems to depend on being associated to migration

networks that are homogenously female, less heterogeneous in terms of age, which have

high density, and in which l ess ne twork pa rtners have a ttained university education. In

addition, i n the P eru s ample, t he pr obability of ha ving a hi gh t otal de pendency r atio

seems to depend mostly on variables referred to the structure of the networks.

Using the Argentina sample data (dependent variable TDR):

From the 320 vi able ob servations for Argentina 298 w ere used in t he analysis.

This was mostly due to the existence of some missing values in the variables for degree

of heterogeneity according to sex, degree of heterogeneity according to age and density

of the network (information not shown in the table).

According t o t he p -value o f th e lik elihood r atio c hi2 s tatistic, w hich i s 0.9279,

model 1 t hat c onsiders onl y t he va riables a bout t he s tructure of t he network i s not

statistically s ignificant, an d i n fact n one o f t he “s tructural” v ariables ( variables

representing th e s tructure o f th e n etworks) a re statistically s ignificant (see t able 7.4) .

Only when adding the variables representing the resources of the networks, the p-value of

the likelihood ratio in model 2 decreases significantly and becomes significant at the 0.05

level (p-value of the likelihood ratio of model 2 is 0.0350). Among the variables on t he

197

resources of the networks, two variables are statistically significant: number of network

partners w ho ha ve r elatives i n S pain/Italy, w hich i s s ignificant a t t he 0.05 l evel a nd

number of network partners who are current or ex migrants to Spain/Italy which is also

significant a t t he 0.05 l evel. B oth of t hese va riables a re pos itively a ssociated t o t he

dependent variable. The findings in detail for model 2 are:

Number of network partners who have relatives in Spain/Italy: The

coefficient for this variable in Argentina model is 0.29454 and it is statistically significant

at t he 0.05 l evel ( p-value= 0.013) . For a one -unit i ncrease i n t he num ber of n etwork

partners who have relatives in Spain/ Italy, we expect a 0.29454 increase in the log-odds

of the dependent variable: total dependency ratio at the respondent’s household, holding

all other covariates constant. In other words, the odds of the probability of having a total

dependency ratio equal or higher to 0.6 ( “high TDR”) in the respondent’s household are

34.3% l arger f or every a dditional ne twork pa rtner w ho ha s relatives in S pain/Italy,

holding all other covariates constant.

Number of network partners who are ex or current migrants to Spain/Italy:

The co efficient f or t his v ariable is 0 .25621 a nd it is a lso s tatistically s ignificant a t th e

0.05 l evel (p-value= 0.0 28). For a one-unit i ncrease i n t he number of ne twork pa rtners

who ar e current o r ex -migrants, w e e xpect a 0.25621 i ncrease i n t he l og-odds of

dependent va riable T DR of the r espondent’s household, hol ding a ll ot her c ovariates

constant. In terms of odds ratios, the odds of the probability of having a total dependency

ratio equal or higher to 0.6 (“high TDR”) in the respondent’s household are 29.2% larger

for ev ery additional ne twork pa rtner who i s a c urrent or ex m igrant to S pain/Italy,

controlling for all t he o ther pr edictors. Although not s ignificant i n t he P eru case, i s

interesting that for that country, this variable had a negative type of association with the

TDR.

198

Table 7.4: Logistic regression models on the Total Dependency Ratio of migrant sending households/ ARGENTINA

(1) (2) Migration network’s characteristics TDR TDR

Size of the network -0.142 -0.247 (0.186) (0.215) Degree of heterogeneity (SEX) 0.0656 0.152 (0.421) (0.442) Degree of heterogeneity (AGE) -0.00245 -0.0104 (0.0103) (0.0112) Density 0.150 0.129 (0.493) (0.518) Num. NPs who have relatives in Spain/Italy 0.295** (0.118) Num. NPs who are current or ex-migrants to 0.256** Spain/Italy (0.117) Num. NPs who have financial resources -0.0423 (0.0977) Num. NPs who attained university level -0.0402 Education (0.115) Constant -0.844 -1.054 (0.797) (0.849) Observations 300 298 Likelihood ratio (Model 1): 0.88 (p-value=0.9279) Likelihood ratio (Model 2):16.56(p-value= 0.0350) Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

The r est o f th e v ariables in th is f inal mo del (model 2 ) are n ot s tatistically

significant. In this group are included variables: Size of the network that has a coefficient

of -0.142 and a p -value of 0.250. D egree of he terogeneity o f t he ne twork according to

SEX which has coefficient 0.152, and has p-value= 0.344. Degree of heterogeneity of the

network according to AGE which has coefficient -0.01037 and p-value= 0.354. D ensity

199

of the network which has coefficient is 0.12910 and p-value= 0.249. Number of network

partners w ho h ave f inancial r esources w hich h as co efficient -0.0423 but a nd p -value=

0.665. And number of network partners who have university level education which has

coefficient -0.0402 and p-value= 0.725.

In c onclusion, i n t he Argentina s ample of m igrant s ending hous eholds, t he

probability of ha ving a hi gh t otal de pendency r atio s eems t o de pend on m igration

networks t hat h ave m ore ne twork pa rtners w ho ha ve r elatives i n S pain/Italy and m ore

network pa rtners who a re current or ex-migrants. In a ddition, i n t he Argentina sample,

the pr obability o f ha ving a hi gh t otal de pendency ratio s eems t o de pend m ostly on

variables referred to the resources of the networks.

Examining the correlation between household level Children Dependency Ratio and migration network characteristics:

Using the Peru sample data (dependent variable CDR):

As i n t he an alysis c arried out w ith t he P eru da ta t hat i ncluded t he t otal

dependency ratio of the respondent’s household as outcome, in this case too, f rom 603

observations onl y 389 were us ed i n t he a nalysis, g iven t he num ber of m issing da ta

present at the variable density (when the size of the networks was 0 or 1).

In t his a nalysis t hat us es t he c hildren de pendency ratio a t t he r espondent’s

household as the dependent variable, model 1, that considers only the variables about the

structure o f th e n etwork is s tatistically s ignificant a t t he 0.05 l evel ( p –value of t he

likelihood ratio=0.0236). However only two variables are statistically significant: size of

the network and density of the network (see table 7.5). The coefficients for both of these

variables s how a pos itive a ssociation w ith t he pr obability o f ha ving a hi gh t otal

dependency household. When adding the variables on the resources of the networks, the

200

p-value of the l ikelihood ratio of model 2 s lightly increases from 0.0236 to 0.0720 a nd

becomes s ignificant onl y at the 0.1 l evel. Among the va riables on the resources of t he

networks added with model 2, none is s tatistically significant but , with the inclusion of

this t ype of v ariables t he va riable s ize of t he ne tworks be comes not s ignificant ( its p -

value ch anges f rom 0.081 t o 0.118) a nd d egree o f he terogeneity according t o s ex

becomes significant (its p-value changes from 0.103 to 0.093), and variable density of the

network continues being significant at the same level of significance (p-value<0.05). The

findings in detail for model 2 are:

Degree of heterogeneity of the social network of migration of the respondent

according to SEX: The c oefficient f or th is v ariable is 0 .635, a nd it is s tatistically

significant at the 0.1 level (p-value= 0.093). For a one-unit increase in the ratio of female

network partners to the total number of network partners, we expect a 0.635 increase in

the log-odds of the dependent variable CDR of the respondent’s household, holding all

other covariates constant. In other words, the odds of the probability of having a children

dependency ratio equal or higher to 0.6 ( “high CDR”) in the respondent’s household are

88.6 % larger for a one-unit increase in the ratio of female network partners to the total

number of her/his network partners, holding all other covariates constant. This variable

works very similarly when the dependent variable is total dependency ratio (similar beta

coefficients and odds ratios).

Density of the social network of migration of the respondent: The coefficient

for t his variable is 1 .110 a nd it is s tatistically significant a t th e 0 .05 l evel ( p-value=

0.014). F or a one -unit i ncrease i n t he de nsity o f t he ne twork ( i.e. f or e very additional

point in th e r atio o f th e o bserved tie s to th e th eoretically p ossible tie s b etween th e

network partners), we expect a 1.1 increase in the log-odds of dependent variable CDR of

the r espondent’s hous ehold, hol ding a ll ot her c ovariates c onstant. This me ans th at th e

201

odds of t he p robability of ha ving a c hildren de pendency ratio e qual or hi gher to 0.6

(“high CDR”) in the respondent’s household are 203.5 % larger for a one-unit increase in

the density of her/his network partners, holding all other covariates constant.

202

Table 7.5: Logistic regression models on the Children Dependency Ratio of migrant sending households/PERU.

(1) (2)

Migration network’s characteristics CDR CDR

Size of the network 0.259* 0.270 (0.149) (0.173) Degree of heterogeneity (SEX) 0.609 0.635* (0.373) (0.378) Degree of heterogeneity (AGE) -0.0104 -0.0146 (0.0117) (0.0121) Density 1.084** 1.110** (0.437) (0.453) Num. NPs who have relatives in Spain/Italy 0.104 (0.131) Num. NPs who are current or ex-migrants to -0.125 Spain/Italy (0.121) Num. NPs who have financial resources -0.0177 (0.111) Num. NPs who attained university level -0.152 Education (0.124)

Constant -

2.957*** -

2.856*** (0.652) (0.676) Observations 389 389 Likelihood ratio (Model 1): 11.28 (p-value= 0.0236) Likelihood ratio (Model 2): 14.40 (p-value = 0.0720) Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

The r est o f th e v ariables in th is f inal mo del (model 2 ) are n ot s tatistically

significant. In this group are included variables: Size of the network that has a coefficient

203

of 0.26959 and a p-value of 0.118. D egree of heterogeneity of the network according to

AGE w hich h as coefficient -0.01463 a nd p -value=0.227. N umber o f ne twork pa rtners

who have relatives in Spain/Italy that has coefficient 0.104 and p-value= 0.430. Number

of ne twork partners who are ex o r current migrants to Spain/Italy that has coefficient -

0.125 a nd a p -value of 0.3. N umber of ne twork pa rtners w ho ha ve f inancial r esources

with coefficient -0.152 and p-value= 0.873. And finally, number of network partners who

have university level education which has coefficient -0.152 and p-value= 0.222.

In conclusion, in the Peru sample of migrant sending households, the probability

of having a high children dependency ratio seems to depend on m igration networks that

are more homogeneously female, and have high density. In addition, in the Peru sample,

the pr obability of h aving a hi gh c hildren de pendency r atio s eems t o de pend onl y o n

variables referred to the structure of the networks.

Using the Argentina sample data (dependent variable CDR):

From the 320 cases collected for Argentina only 298 were used in the analysis. In

this analysis the household level children dependency ratio is the dependent variable. For

this sample, model 1 that uses only the variables about the structure of the network is not

statistically s ignificant a nd n one o f th ese v ariables is s tatistically significant ( see ta ble

7.6). W hen a dding t he va riables on t he r esources of t he ne tworks, t he p -value of t he

likelihood r atio of m odel 2 de creases f rom 0.7817 t o 0 .1590 but t he model doe s not

become s tatistically s ignificant. H owever, am ong t hese v ariables t hat r epresent t he

resources o f th e n etworks) th ere a re tw o th at were s tatistically s ignificant: n umber o f

network partners who have relatives in Spain/Italy (p-value<0.1) and number of network

partners w ho a ttained u niversity education. T he f indings i n de tail f or m odel 2 a re:

Number of ne twork pa rtners w ho ha ve relatives i n S pain/Italy: T he pa rameter

estimate f or th is v ariable is 0 .219 a nd it is s tatistically s ignificant at t he 0.1 l evel (p-

204

value= 0.096) . F or a o ne-unit i ncrease i n t he number of n etwork pa rtners w ho h ave

relatives i n S pain/ Italy, w e expect a 0 .219 i ncrease i n t he l og-odds o f the de pendent

variable: c hildren d ependency r atio a t t he r espondent’s ho usehold, hol ding a ll ot her

covariates co nstant. In t erms of odds r atios, t he odds of t he pr obability of ha ving a

children de pendency r atio e qual or hi gher t o 0.6 ( “high T DR”) i n t he r espondent’s

household a re 24.5 % l arger f or every additional ne twork pa rtner w ho h as r elatives i n

Spain/Italy, holding all other covariates constant.

Number of network partners who have university level education: the coefficient

for th is v ariable is -0.286 a nd it is s tatistically s ignificant a t th e 0 .05 level ( p-value=

0.039). For a one-unit increase in the number of network partners who have university

level education (0-4), we expect a 0.21939 de crease in the log-odds of having a “high”

children dependency ratio at the respondent’s household (CDR equal or higher than 0.6),

holding all other covariates constant. In other terms, the odds of the probability of having

a c hildren d ependency r atio e qual or hi gher t o 0.6 ( “high C DR”) i n t he r espondent’s

household a re 24.9% s maller f or e very additional ne twork pa rtner w ho ha s uni versity

level education, holding all other covariates constant.

The rest of the variables in model 2 are not s tatistically s ignificant: S ize of the

network has a coefficient of -0.132 and a p-value of 0.577. Degree of heterogeneity of the

network a ccording t o SEX ha s c oefficient 0 .113 a nd p -value=0.821. D egree o f

heterogeneity of t he n etwork according t o A GE h as co efficient -0.00441 a nd p -

value=0.727. D ensity h as c oefficient 0.548 a nd p -value=0.395. N umber of ne twork

partners who are ex or current migrants to Spain/Italy has coefficient 0.15845 with a p-

value of 0.231. F inally, number of n etwork p artners w ho h ave financial r esources ha d

coefficient -0.01597 and p-value=0.884.

205

In c onclusion, i n t he Argentina s ample of m igrant s ending hous eholds, t he

probability of ha ving a high c hildren de pendency ratio s eems t o de pend on m igration

networks that are characterized by having a high number of network partners who have

relatives i n S pain/Italy a nd a l ow num ber of ne twork pa rtners w ho a ttained uni versity

education. As with the analysis in which the dependent variable was the total dependency

ratio of the household, in Argentina the probability of having a high children dependency

ratio seemed to depend only on variables referred to the resources of the networks.

206

Table 7.6: Logistic regression models on the Children

Dependency Ratio of migrant sending households/ ARGENTINA.

(1) (2)

Migration network’s characteristics CDR CDR

Size of the network -0.157 -0.132 (0.210) (0.238) Degree of heterogeneity (SEX) 0.0709 0.113 (0.478) (0.498) Degree of heterogeneity (AGE) 0.00209 -0.00441 (0.0116) (0.0126) Density 0.620 0.548 (0.624) (0.644) Num. NPs who have relatives in Spain/Italy 0.219* (0.132) Num. NPs who are current or ex-migrants to 0.158 Spain/Italy (0.132) Num. NPs who have financial resources -0.0160 (0.109) Num. NPs who attained university level -0.286** education (0.139) Constant -1.703* -1.837* (0.945) (0.995) Observations 300 298 Likelihood ratio (Model 1): 1.75 (p-value= 0.7817) Likelihood ratio (Model 2):11.83 (p-value= 0.1590) Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Given t hat t he a nalysis i n w hich t he de pendent va riable w as t he c hildren

dependency ratio showed poor results in terms of the level of significance of the overall

final models (models 2), especially in the case of Argentina, I tried a different approach,

running t he l ogistic r egressions onl y for t he m igrant s ending hous eholds t hat ha d a

dependency ratio of “0”, i .e. did not have children aged 0 t o 14. T he results were very

207

similar and the p-values of the likelihood ratios for both Peru and Argentina (models 2)

resulted even h igher ( less s tatistically s ignificant). Although it s eems not logical to run

the r egressions w ithout excluding t he hous ehold t hat ha d C DR=”0”, i .e. t hat ha d no

children 0-14, I thought that excluding them was not necessary since a CDR of “0” will

directly r epresent t hat t here w ere no c hildren i n t he hous ehold ( it w ould be l ike s elf-

explanatory).

DISCUSSION ON THE MECHANISMS OF OPERATION OF THE NETWORKS:

According t o t he f indings pr esented i n t he previous s ection, compared t o

Argentina, hi gher proportions of migrant s ending households i n Peru have “high” total

dependency ratios and “ high” children dependency ratios. D efinitively, these l evels of

high demographic dependency are explained by different factors, many of which are not

necessarily related t o t he e xperience of l abor i nternational m igration i n the hous ehold.

My s uggestion ha s be en t o examine i f am ong t hose f actors w e can co nsider t he

characteristics o f t he s ocial n etworks o f m igration t hat ar e as sociated t o t hese t ypes o f

households.

I use the term “associated” because, as mentioned in chapter 1, informed by field

research and in-depth interviews, I based my research design on s ome assumptions. The

first a ssumption i s t hat each hous ehold m ember ha s a n i ndividual e go-centered s ocial

network of migration. The second is that each individual ego-centered network adds up to

constitute pa rt of t he r esources of t he hous ehold a s a whole. M oreover, f requently,

different m embers o f t he h ousehold s hare t he s ame n etwork p artners, t herefore i t i s

methodologically va lid t o c onsider t he i ndividual e go-centered s ocial n etwork o f

migration o f th e r espondent ( an a dult m ember of a m igrant s ending h ousehold w ith

relatives in Spain and/or Italy) as a reality connected to the reality of the migrant sending

208

household, and therefore consider the migration networks of the household members as

one m ore d eterminant of its d ynamics. T hird, v ery lik ely th e ego-centered s ocial

networks of migration correspondent to the adult members of the household are probably

the m ost i mportant i n terms of a ffecting t he internal d ynamics of t he hous ehold.

Supporting m y l ast a ssumption i s t he f act t hat ( see t able 5.2 i n c hapter 5) , t he

respondents, i.e. the ego in the networks were majorly “heads of households” (59.3% for

Peru-Spain, 64.56% f or P eru-Italy, 65.31% f or A rgentina-Spain, a nd 62.67% f or

Argentina-Italy). Considering that he ads of hous eholds t end to have more i nfluence on

the de cisions a nd d ynamics of t heir hous eholds, i t s eems a ppropriate t o c onsider t heir

networks as determinants of the level of demographic dependency and the types of living

arrangements for children at their household.

I posit t hat t he r esults of t he pr evious a nalysis s upport t he i dea t hat s ocial

networks of migration do pl ay a role in explaining demographic dependency at migrant

sending households.

In A rgentine m igrant sending hous eholds t o S pain/Italy, hi gh d emographic

dependency s eem t o de pend on va riables t hat r epresent t he r esources o f t he ne tworks,

particularly relevant are variables like the number of network partners who have relatives

in S pain a nd I taly ( positively associated t o hi gh de mographic de pendency) , a nd t he

number of network partners who are current or ex-migrants (also positively associated to

high demographic dependency). In Peruvian migrant sending households to Spain/Italy,

high demographic dependency seems to depend on variables that represent the structure

of t he ne tworks. T he most i mportant a mong t hem a re t he de nsity o f t he ne twork

(positively a ssociated t o hi gh de mographic de pendency), t he de gree of he terogeneity

according to sex, which should be interpreted as female preponderance in the networks

and i s a lso pos itively associated t o hi gh d emographic de pendency, and de gree o f

209

heterogeneity according t o a ge w hich i s ne gatively a ssociated t o hi gh de mographic

dependency (which could be interpreted as to more age homogeneity more demographic

dependency). In both Peru and Argentina the number of ne twork partners who a ttained

university l evel e ducation i s ne gatively a ssociated t o hi gh d emographic de pendency.

Why do those variables seem to be associated to high demographic dependency?

The recruitment of future migrants is one of the clearest mechanisms of operation

performed b y s ocial ne tworks of m igration. In va rious i nterviews w ith m embers o f

migrant s ending hous eholds t o S pain a nd Italy, bot h i n B uenos A ires and i n Lima, I

found references to events in which the descriptions of the subsequent migrations in the

household s eemed t o b e ba sed on t he s election of p rospective m igrants a ccording t o

socio-demographic and/or a ccording t o hum an c apital c haracteristics. M oreover,

apparently, the selection of prospective migrants in Peru seems to be guided mostly b y

socio-demographic criteria and selection of prospective migrants in Argentina seems to

be guided mostly by human capital criteria.

Peruvian networks both within the Peru to Spain and the Peru to Italy flows are

very efficient in recruiting women, more or less of the same age, and the same level of

education (with the exception of the networks of nurses, who go to Italy). Many of our

interviewees m ention t hat a w ork co ntract w as sent f rom S pain “ for a woman” or t hat

relatives working in Spain found a “woman job” that some relative in Peru should take

advantage of it, without specifications about her education level, or occupations, but only

about being a female, that is for example the account given by Pascual (35):

Yesenia the older daughter of Mister Braulio (ex-husband of the godmother, who was al so godfather o f M onica, P ascual’s w ife) c alled her f ather, Mister Braulio and told him ‘dad, I have a work contract for a woman, do you want it to be used by your wife (Mr. Braulio’s new partner), or you want me to sell this contract and then I we wait to buy you a contract? So Mr Braulio said, no daughter please sell the contract to Rosa (his partner) then she will take me to Spain (…).(INT9/PER)

210

Argentine networks, particularly, the ones connected to the flow to Spain are very

effective i n r ecruiting p eople w ith s pecific oc cupations, i n our i nterviews w e f ound

references t o pe ople of fering w ork f or t echnical oc cupations a s i n t he na rration of

Amparo (37) who describes the invitation that her brother in law received to work as a

matricero59

in Spain by “an acquaintance” who used to work with him in Buenos Aires.

How he got that job contract in Barcelona? Through contacts, is that he went working there. There was an acquaintance that worked with him some years b efore and that pe rson told him that i n Barcelona there was a matricería, he asked him if he was working because they would need him (mi brother in law) urgently there. So before he travelled he already got the job proposal. (PRE_INT/ARG).

How t his m echanism o f ope ration c auses e ffects on l iving a rrangements of

children a nd de mographic de pendency? T here i s m uch t o w ork on t hat direction, r ight

now I w ill onl y of fer a de scriptive example, t he ex ample o f P ascual a nd h is f amily.

Pascual ( 35) a nd w ife M onica ha d t wo s ons, one w as 7 a nd t he ot her one 10.

Monica m igrated t o w ork i n S pain i n 2006 a fter he r g odfather M r. B raulio s ent he r a

work contract. Her migration occurred after 2 years of the migration of her godfather. In

turn, Mr. Braulio’s migration occurred after his partner Rosa immigrated to Spain (as is

described in the related quote above). After Monica left, Pascual lived with his two sons.

Two w omen, t he 38 year ol d m aternal a unt of t he c hildren w ho l ived i n t he same

household unit but independent from Pascual’s home and particularly an older aunt of his

wife, who was in her 60s and did not live in their household but came daily to take care

of t he children, w ere i n c harge o f a ssisting t he two bo ys. T he ol der aunt, c ooked, di d

laundry, f ixed t he bo ys’ c lothes a nd he lped w ith t heir hom ework. W hen P ascual w as

working, both aunts would discipline the boys. Expenses of the children were distributed

59 Matriceria: design and drawing of the models of different automobile pieces, and installation and testing of them in different testing machines.

211

between both parents but Monica was the one with more economic resources, so Monica

paid f or t he m onthly s alary t o he r a unt a nd f or t he m onthly pa yments of t he pr ivate

school he r bo ys s tarted a ttending. P ascual pa id f or t he f ood. H ere i s pa rt of t he

description he offered about how life changed for him and his boys after his wife left:

They ha ve be en t hree s ad m onths, w e w ent m ostly t o t he s treets t o di stract us , because in fact the three of us ... well my family, we are four, but the three of us who have stayed here, we have been affected, and all three of us are men. (…) It is a nother lif e f or u s ( referring to h is lif e in Lima w ith h is tw o s ons, a fter Monica left) we sleep the three now. We don’t sleep like before, like me and my wife in one room, and separated from my sons, now we the three have to be one. Then my sons are more attached, and feel they need to have more love, because they come and tell me ‘daddy hold me’, and I will hug, hug them sometimes one in each hand, then they tell me, ‘Dad, in my case hold me with your two hands’, or things like that… so I am left thinking, why do they say that? Sometimes I miss my w ife a nd a bove a ll, is t hat s olitude, l oneliness f or m e a nd m y s ons. On t he other hand, we have improved a little, basically no longer have the debts we had before, my kids are in school they are on t ime with their payments to the school, they don’t have not satisfied needs, thank God. But as I say, happiness is not just money, but also the warmth of mom and dad. (INT9/PER)

Now I try to consider how this description is related to demographic dependency

and the characteristics o f t he n etworks associated t o t he household of P ascual, Monica

and their 2 sons (7 and 10 years old respectively). The member of the household who had

the most active social networks of migration was Monica. In fact, she had at least three

opportunities to go and work in Spain, all of those opportunities were offered by the same

family group, the family of her godmother who was the pioneer in traveling to work in

Spain ( around 1999 ). T wo of t he 3 i nvitations came from an other w oman ( a network

partner) and t he t hree “ invitations” c onsisted i n of fering a w ork c ontract obt ained i n

Spain t o b e o ffered t o a w oman (“a co ntract for a woman”). F inally, s he d ecides and

looks forward to travel to Spain given the debt problems they had in Peru (particularly to

pay for the education of her two sons). In Pascual and Monica’s household, demographic

dependency passed from being acceptable to being high, i.e. from 1 to 2 in both total and

212

children dependency ratios. That change, even when only one member of the household

has migrated creates some important changes (although not as hard as other cases, where

the left behind children and parents need to move to another household to be close to an

adult relative). Despite those changes, it is true that they find a solution when looking for

the paid help of an older aunt, and some supervision from the younger maternal aunt.

REFERENCES: Agresti, A. and B. Finlay (1997). Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences. New Jersey,

Prentice Hall. McLanahan, S. (2004). "Diverging Destinies: How Children are Faring Under the Second

Demographic Transition." Demography 41(4): 607-627. McLanahan, S. and G. Sandefur (1994). Growing Up with a Single Parent: What Hurts,

What Helps. Cambridge, MA, Harvard Press. UN (2005). Population Challenges and D evelopment Goals. DESA. New York, United

Nations. UN ( 2007). Indicators of S ustainable D evelopment: G uidelines a nd Methodologies -

Third edition. METHODOLOGY SHEETS. DESA. New York, United Nations.

213

Chapter 8: Conclusions

The emergence of the South European migration system:

The l inkages connecting Latin America, particularly South America to Southern

Europe, in the past twenty years suggest the emergence of a South European migration

system. In this system, the migration flows between Argentina, Spain and Italy; and on

the other hand Peru, Spain and Italy are solid examples. These migration flows fit into the

core empirical characteristics of a migration system at destination and origin as identified

by Zlotnik (1992) and others.

At destination: For the last 14 years, Argentines and Peruvians have constituted

an stable and increasing portion in the stock of the total foreign born in Spain and Italy.

Considering onl y documented m igration, f rom 1996 t o 2008 Argentines i n S pain

represented between 11 to 18% of the total of Americans residing in Spain and 4.81% of

the to tal o f foreign bor n residing i n Italy. From 2001 t o 2008, P eruvians c onstituted

between 7 to 8% of the entire population of American foreign born residing in Spain, and

24.51% of t he A merican f oreign bor n r esiding in Italy. Additionally, S pain a nd Italy

share m ore o r l ess t he same l evel of e conomic de velopment a nd w ith some na tional

differences, also s hare the s ame t ype o f immig ration r egulations o f all th e c ountry

members of t he European U nion t hat s igned t he 1990’ s S chegen Agreement ( although

both i mplemented i t l ater, Italy i n 1996 a nd S pain i n 1997) . T hese i mmigration

regulations t ransitioned f rom ope n a nd encouraging t o f ormally r estrictive, and ar e

associated with higher levels of immigration.

214

At origin

Studying the South European migration system is important, per se because of its

distinctive c haracteristics, b ut it is important a lso b ecause its comparison t o t he N orth

American mig ration s ystem c an enable t he expansion of c urrent mig ration th eories.

Future research may be informed by a greater focus on examples beyond the study of the

North American migration system. Studying the South European migration system offers

the oppor tunity t o e xamine t he c onstitution a nd functioning o f a mig ration s ystem in

which: (a) c ore a nd d estination a reas s hare ma ny c ultural a ffinities, s tarting w ith th e

crucial affinity o f s haring t he s ame l anguage ( in t he c ase o f S pain); ( b) a s ignificant

proportion of its inflows are composed (at least the ones originating in Latin America) by

mostly urban, middle class, and educated groups; and (c) are visibly affected by aspects

of European Union integration.

: Spain and Italy have emerged as the main extra-regional (extra-regional

in terms of outside Latin America) destination countries for Peru and Argentina: In 2005,

among t he 806,369 t otal A rgentines w ho e migrated, S pain w as t he most common

destination a nd Italy t he f ifth. Between 1995 t o 2 005, Spain w as t he s econd m ost

important destination for migrants leaving Peru, and Italy third (after the United States).

In f act, 31% o f t he t otal of e migrant P eruvians e migrated t o S pain and Italy. B oth

Argentina and P eru are s ending c ountries i n t he S outh E uropean s ystem, c ompatible

migration p olicies that facilitate m ovement b etween t hese t wo origins. No v isas are

required to t ravel be tween Peru and Argentina. A common pa ttern among Peruvians i s

that of step migration, moving first to Argentina and then after some years to Spain and

Italy.

Institutional dimensions and organizations:

Of unique importance within a migration system are the institutional contexts that

found at or igin, at destination and even at the transnational level contribute to translate

215

the structural features of the system and the societies involved in the system to the micro-

level ch aracteristics o f the s ocial ne tworks of migration. In t he countries of or igin,

Argentina and Peru, family and kinship institutions and also education systems contribute

to the shaping of the social networks of migration. At destination countries, Spain’s and

Italy’s labor market and immigration regulations also operate in this direction. Finally at

a t ransnational l evel, r ecruiting c ompanies, pr ofessional a ssociations a nd Diaspora

related organizations (of European immigrants to Argentina) have similar effects on the

social networks of migration.

In te rms o f f amily and k inship in stitutions, the ef fect o f Spanish a nd I talian

immigration to Argentina after the Second World War (1945) and after the Spanish Civil

War (1939), a declining total fertility rate and the early completion of urbanization may

have shaped the prevalence of the nuclear family over the extended family and with that

the p revalence o f “ lineal r elationships f ormed b y intergenerational lin kages”(Johnson

2000: 625). These trends seem to also have helped the formation of a clear pattern for the

intergenerational e xchanges of wealth from pa rents t o c hildren. S ocial ne tworks of

migration ope rating within t he f lows or iginating i n A rgentina s how traces o f t hose

institutions in their characteristics. In Peru, on the contrary, with higher fertility rates into

the 1990s and a lower level of urbanization than Argentina, the extended family is more

common and w ith i t “ collateral r elationships, l inked through s iblings a nd ot her ki n of

similar age s tatus” (Johnson 2000: 625) . Extended kin may be an important factor in

shaping ne tworks, and s upport pa tterns of i ntergenerational exchanges o f w ealth f rom

young adult children to parents, siblings, and even to the children of these siblings.

Argentina’s national education system originated in the 1940s, as part of an early

established ( 1940s) extended ( universalistic) w elfare s ystem (Huber 1 996; F ilgueira

and F ilgueira 2002) . An important characteristic was a prestigious a nd i nternationally

216

recognized public university system which was considered prestigious in both Spain and

Italy, also in terms of technical education. The recognition of the educational system is

likely t o h ave contributed t o t he pr ofessionally ba sed s ocial ne tworks of m igration i n

Argentina. In contrast, the Peruvian education system, which dates from 1970s, reflected

a much less inclusive welfare system. Educational development focused on the expansion

of ac cess to primary e ducation. T he P eruvian e ducation s ystem w as s till i n pr ocess of

developing when t he de bt c risis of t he 1980s hi t, r esulting i n f unding d eclines a cross

public uni versities a nd t he ba sic e ducation s ystem. W ith s ome e xceptions, P eru’s

economic c hallenges i n t he 1 980s ar e as sociated w ith t he r ise o f a d ual s ystem o f

education, with sharp differences in quality. In Peru, with the exception of the migration

networks c omposed b y nur ses (many o f t hem s pecially t rained t o w ork abroad),

occupational, professional based are not common.

In t he de stination c ountries, common immigration la ws interact w ith s pecific

actions f rom e ducation and labor min istries t o s hape m igration networks. Institutional

settings in fluence th e d evelopment o f mig ration pathways, such as t hose ope rating

through the types of occupations and professions, preferred among prospective migrants

of Argentina. Professional associations, in origin and destination countries, are important

factors to consider. Among Argentines, having European citizenship contributed to create

mobility. C ontinuous m obility from or igin t o destination a nd vi ce ve rsa, helped t o

decrease t he d rama a nd compromises as sociated w ith emigration a nd residing

permanently a broad. Finally, D iaspora or ganizations of S panish an d Italian d escent i n

Argentina promoted benefits and employment of Argentines with these origins in Europe

and with that indirectly facilitated their labor migration to those countries.

217

Impact of institutions on social networks of migration:

Institutional d ynamics help t o explain imp ortant a spects in the f ormation of

migration networks. When comparing the social networks of migration operating within

the f lows be tween A rgentina, S pain a nd Italy; and P eru, S pain a nd Italy, focusing on

institutional elements can assist in the critical assessment of similarities and differences

within t he s outhern E uropean m igration s ystem. T hese di fferences a re c lear m ostly by

country; but also by flow, which is a sign that institutions of both origin and destination

are important.

Institutional c ontexts he lp t o s hape, a nd a re i n t urned s haped b y, t he gendered

nature m igration f lows. In t his s tudy t here ar e n ot l arge g ender d ifferences b etween

countries, but a c omparison be tween m igration f lows, s hows s igns of g endered

migrations t o S pain a nd Italy, pa rticularly i n t he c ase of t he P eru t o Italy flow, w here

respondents named 54.74% females, compared to 45.26% males (9.48% difference); and

in the flow from Argentina to Spain, where respondents identified 53.25% male network

partners and 46.75% female network partners (6.5% difference).

In t erms o f a ge, t he contrasts ar e clearer between c ountries. In P eru, n etworks

were c omposed b y i ndividuals w ho w ere 31 t o 40 years ol d f or bot h s treams. In

Argentina, s treams t ended t o b e di stributed across a w ider a ge r ange t han P eru, w ith

network partners in Argentina were at the very young age groups (17-20 and 21-25 years

old) and at the very old age groups (61-70 years old).

In te rms o f educational a ttainment, w ithin th e Peru mig ration f lows, n etworks

were mostly composed by individuals who attained only secondary education (40% for

both Peru flows) and tertiary non-university education (25% for both), while in the case

of t he migration f lows or iginating in Argentina, networks a re composed b y individuals

who a ttained te rtiary-university education ( around 40% f or bot h A rgentina f lows) and

218

secondary education (around 30%). In other terms, Argentine members of the examined

migration networks attained higher levels of education but also, the human capital gained

in Argentina is recognized in Spain and Italy.

The t ypes of s ocial r elationships l inking r espondents ( ego) t o ne twork pa rtners

show i nteresting pr inciples of f ormation, w hich di ffer b y countries. In A rgentina,

networks are formed mostly by persons who share the same place of bi rth (province of

birth), who are friends, acquaintances that share the same occupation and neighbors; less

importantly by relatives but when that is the case, relatives have lineal intergenerational

ties with the respondent (ego). In Peru, networks are formed primarily by relatives who

are l inked t o t he r espondent b y c ollateral t ies, l ike t he one s e xistent be tween s iblings,

cousins, and other relatives of the age status (brothers and sisters in law); secondarily by

friends, ne ighbors a nd tramitadores (formal a nd in formal a gents o f mig ration r elated

businesses). In Peru n etwork pa rtners do not ne cessarily share t he s ame pl ace of birth;

members are mostly born in the different departamentos of Peru.

A crucial d istinction i s t he current pl ace of residence of n etwork p artners. That

variable pr ovides a n indication of t he r elative importance o f resident and non-resident

segments o f t he s ocial networks of mig ration. It s erves as o ne i ndicator o f t he main

source of institutional influence over the networks. The relative quantitative importance

of t he non -resident s egment of t he ne twork could be a s ign of t he i mportance of t he

influence of the institutional context at the country of origin. In the Argentine migration

networks t he r esident-segment of t he n etwork i s t he m ost i mportant: 80% ne twork

members in the Argentina- Spain flow and 83% in the Argentina-Italy flow are residents

of A rgentina. T his s uggests t hat s upport f or m igration, i ncluding i nformation, i s m ore

important a t or igin; w hereas a t de stination m igrants c an s urvive i ndividually. In pa tent

contrast, P eru ne tworks a re f ormed b y a n i mportant non -resident s egment, th is is c lear

219

particularly i n t he case of t he f low P eru-Italy, i n w hich 63% o f t he ne twork m embers

were residents o f a country abroad; as expected, mainly r esidents in Italy. In the f low

Peru-Spain, 55% of network partners were residents of a country abroad, mainly residents

in S pain. P eruvians, i t would s eem, de pend on e ach ot her m ore t o s ecure w ork and

accommodation at destination than do Argentineans.

Structure and resources of the social networks of migration:

We can a lso focus on the social n etworks o f migration as small s tructures with

features that a re somewhat autonomous and less dependent on the particularities of the

participants of t he ne tworks. C ompared t o P eruvian ne tworks, s pecifically i n t erms of

their S TRUCTURE, Argentinean networks are larger, m ore h eterogeneous i n t erms o f

sex and age, m ore hom ogenous i n t erms of uni versity l evel education attainment a nd

more likely to be of high density (when all the members of the network know each other).

These differences might be interpreted as the types of influence institutional dimensions

such as education a nd family h ave in s haping A rgentine and P eruvian networks. I n

Argentina, higher levels of human capital transferability in the case of Argentina might

be the reason why these networks are more homogeneous in terms of education and more

heterogeneous in t erms of a ge and s ex. The l atter could b e suggested, c onsidering that

societies with solid education systems established for an important period of time, usually

experience a n i ncrease i n t he acces s o f women to e ducation (to uni versity l evel

education), a nd a n i ncrease i n life expectancy, a ll o f this r esulting in a educated l abor

force that is more diverse in terms of age and gender. Also, in Argentina, the fact that the

examined networks were of high density and heterogeneous in terms of age and sex could

be explained by the suggested importance of the nuclear family, which could be shaping

a contingent of networks that are formed by nuclear family members, whom would know

each ot her ( high de nsity) a nd be of di fferent a ges a nd s ex. In P eru, t he suggested

220

importance of the extended family and collateral types of family relationships (siblings,

cousins) could be influencing in creating networks more homogeneous in terms of age.

The lower levels of t ransferability of human capital gained in Peru could be showing a

trend that r esults in th e c reation o f g endered n etworks, es pecially f emale gendered

networks given the societal view that identifies less educated female work as auspicious

for pe rsonal care of t he e lderly and c hildren. But a ll of t he l atter i nterpretations are

certainly formulations that need to be considered for future research and that are out of

the scope of this study.

In terms of their RESOURCES, Argentinean networks are composed by a larger

number of ne twork pa rtners w ho h ave relatives w ho a re n atives of Spain or Italy

(particularly in Italy) than the networks active within the flows originating in Peru, have

similar pr oportions of n etworks f ormed b y ne twork pa rtners w ho a re current or e x-

migrants t o Italy and S pain t o t he ne tworks i n t he P eruvian m igration f lows, ha ve t he

highest p ercent of n etworks c omposed b y 3 or 4 ne twork p artners w ho ha d f inancial

resources ( particularly i n t he f low Argentina-Italy), and ha ve m uch hi gher pe rcents o f

networks composed by members who attained university level education.

The operation of social networks of migration and effects at migrant sending households:

Institutional approaches often focus on large scale macro level influences such as

citizenship, education and labor markets. The South European migration system provides

important in sight in to m icro-level institutional pr ocesses a s w ell. M y f ocuses upon

households w ithin c ountries of or igin he lp us t o unde rstand t he di stinctive pa thways

forged by social networks of migration. At the level of the migrant sending households,

the operation of the networks translates into substantial variation, particularly in terms of

household composition:

221

In my analysis, the probability of having a high level of demographic dependency

in A rgentina (total de pendency ratio e qual or higher t han 0.6 ) de pend pr imarily on

variables associated t o the R ESOURCES of t he ne tworks. T he v ariable “ number of

network pa rtners w ho ha ve r elatives w ho a re na tives of S pain/Italy” i s pos itively

associated with the probability of having a high level of demographic dependency at the

household, and the variable “number of network partners who are current or ex migrants”

is a lso pos itively associated t o t he pr obability of ha ving a hi gh l evel of de mographic

dependency at the households.

In my d ata f or Peru, t he pr obability of ha ving a hi gh level of de mographic

dependency (total dependency ratio equal or higher than 0.6) depends both on va riables

associated to both the STRUCTURE and the RESOURCES of the networks, but mostly

on t he s tructural v ariables. T he v ariable “d egree o f h eterogeneity of the n etwork

according to SEX” (which given the characteristics of the ratio used to measure it should

be i nterpreted a s a m easure of t he de gree o f h omogeneity o f t he n etwork i n t erms of

having female members) is positively associated to the probability of having a high level

of demographic dependency at the migrant sending household, while the variable “degree

of h eterogeneity o f t he n etwork acco rding t o A GE” i s n egatively as sociated w ith t he

probability of ha ving a high l evel of d emographic de pendency i n the hous ehold. T he

variable “density of the network” is positively associated with the probability of having a

high level of demographic dependency. In terms of the variables related to the resources

of t he n etworks, t he va riable “ number of ne twork pa rtners w ho h ave u niversity l evel

education” is negatively associated to having a high level of demographic dependency at

the household.

222

In my d ata f or Argentina, t he pr obability of ha ving a hi gh l evel of c hild

dependency ( children d ependency r atio e qual or h igher t han 0.6 ) de pends onl y on

variables associated t o the R ESOURCES of t he ne tworks. T he v ariable “ number of

network pa rtners w ho ha ve r elatives w ho are na tives of S pain/Italy” i s pos itively

associated to the probability of having a high level of child dependency at the household,

and t he v ariable “ number of ne twork pa rtners who ha ve uni versity l evel e ducation” i s

negatively a ssociated t o ha ving a hi gh l evel of de mographic d ependency a t t he

household.

In my data for Peru, the probability of having a high level of child dependency

(child dependency ratio equal or higher than 0.6) depends only on variables associated to

the STRUCTURE of the networks. The variable “degree of heterogeneity of the network

according t o S EX” ( that s hould be i nterpreted a s t he d egree of hom ogeneity of t he

network in terms of having female members) is positively associated to the probability of

having a hi gh l evel of children de pendency. T he va riable, “ density of t he ne twork” i s

positively associated to the probability of having a high level of children dependency.

In summary, I suggest that the comparison on the mechanisms of influence that

Argentine a nd P eruvian ne tworks e xert i n migrant s ending hous eholds c ould be

considered as f irst s tep to go direct future research on c hanges occurred in countries of

origin o f mig ration s treams, s pecifically f ollowing th e p ath o f e xamining in d etail the

characteristics of the social networks of migration and not only their size (proportion of

family m embers w ho h ave m igrated, pr oportion of c ommunity m embers w ho h ave

migrated), as has been usual in the research about cumulative causation (Massey 1988;

Massey 1990; Fussell and Massey 2004; Rivero-Fuentes 2004).

223

These f indings are p reliminary, and raise s everal i mportant areas fo r fu ture

consideration. A specific limitation, relates to the exclusion of variables unrelated to the

characteristics o f th e migration networks. These pot entially important ne tworks a re not

considered i n these an alyses. Future work on t heir p otential imp ortance is ju stified.

Future research i s needed in looking a t variations a t countries of or igin, and how these

structural f actors a t t he or igin i nfluence n etworks de velopment. A lso, more r esearch

should be directed at better identifying the spaces of interaction between migrant sending

households and social networks of migration. My interest in this study was limited to the

role of the migration networks in causing those effects at the migrant sending households.

I am not stating that the characteristics of the social networks of migration in Argentina

and P eru a re t he m ost important c auses of a h igh l evel d emographic dependency a t

migrant s ending hous eholds, but t hat their ch aracteristics s hould b e p art o f t he

explanation.

REFERENCES:

Abadan-Unat, N . ( 1977). " Implications of M igration on E mancipation a nd P seudo-

Emancipation of Turkish Women." International Migration Review 11(1): 31-57. Acosta, P., P. Fajnzylber, et al. (2008). How important are remittances in Latin America?

Remittances and Development. Lessons from Latin America. P. Fajnzylber and J. H. López. Washington D.C., The World Bank: 21-50.

Adams, R . ( 1996). Remittances, Income di stribution, a nd r ural a sset a ccumulation.

Washington D.C., International Food Policy Research Institute Adams, R. (2003). International migration, remittances, and the brain drain; a study of 24

labor exporting countries. Washington DC, The World Bank. Adams, R. H. J. (2006). Remittances, Poverty and Investment in Guatemala. International

Migration, Remittances and Community Development. C. Ozden and M. Schiff. Washington DC, The World Bank Group: 53-80.

224

Agresti, A. and B. Finlay (1997). Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences. New Jersey,

Prentice Hall. Alarcon, R. (2002). The Development of the Hometown Associations in the United States

and the Use of Social Remittances in Mexico ed ited by Sending Money Home: Hispanic R emittances a nd C ommunity D evelopment. R . O . l . G arza a nd L. Lowell. Lanham MD, Rowman & Littlefield.: 101-124.

Aysa, M. and D. Massey (2004). Wives left behind: The labor market behavior of women

in mig rant c ommunities. Crossing t he B order: R esearch f rom the M exican Migration P roject. J . Durand a nd D . M assey. N ew Y ork, R ussell S age Foundation: 131- 144.

Bagchi, A . ( 2001). Making c onnections: a s tudy of ne tworking among i mmigrant

proffesionals. New York, LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC. Banerjee, A. V. and E. Duflo (2008). "What is the middle Class about the Middle Classes

around the world?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 22(2): 3-28. Barnes, J . A . ( 1954). " Class a nd c ommittees i n a N orwegian i sland pa rish." Human

Relations(7): 39-58. Behrman, J . R., H . P . K holer, e t a l. ( 2002). " Social N etworks a nd C hanges i n

Contraceptive Use Over T ime: E vidence f rom a Longitudinal S tudy i n R ural Kenya." Demography 39(4): 713-738.

Boissevain, J. and J. C. Mitchell (1973). Network analysis: studies in human interaction.

The Hague, Mouton Publishers. Bongaarts, J . a nd S . Watkins ( 1996). " Social i nteractions and c ontemporary f ertility

transitions." Population and Development Review 22(4): 639-82. Boyd, M . ( 1989). "Family a nd pe rsonal ne tworks i n i nternational m igration: r ecent

developments and new agendas." International Migration Review 23(3): 638-70. Cohen, R. (2000). ""Mom is a Stranger": The Negative Impact of Immigration Policies

on th e F amily Life o f Filipina D omestic W orkers." Canadian E thnic S tudies Journal Fall.

Cooksey, E . C . a nd P . H. C raig ( 1998). "Parenting f rom a Distance: The E ffects o f

Paternal Characteristics on Contact between Nonresidential Fathers and Their Children." Demography. 35(2. Men in Families.): 187-200.

225

Durand, J., E. Parrado, et al. (1996). "Migradollars and Development: A Reconsideration of the Mexican Case." International Migration Review 30(2): 423-444.

Easterly, W. (2001). "The Middle Class Consensus and Economic Development." Journal

of Economic Growth 6(4): 317-335. Entwisle, B., R. R. Rindfuss, et al. (1996). "Community and contraceptive choice in rural

Thailand: A case study of Nang Rong." Demography 33(1): 1-11. Fields, J . ( 2003). C hildren's Living A rrangements a nd C haracteristics: M arch 2002.

Current Population Reports. Washington D.C., U.S. Census Bureau. Filgueira, C. H. and F. Filgueira (2002). Models of Welfare and Models of Capitalism:

The Limits of Transferability. Models of Capitalism: Lessons for Latin America. . E. Huber. University Park, PA, The Pennsylvania State Press.: 127-157.

Flores, N . Y ., R . H ernandez-Leon, e t al. (2004). S ocial C apital and E migration From

Rural and Urban Communities. Crossing the Border: Research from the Mexican Migration P roject. J . Durand a nd D . M assey. N ew Y ork, R ussell S age Foundation: 184-200.

Fussell, E . a nd D . M assey ( 2004). " The Limits to C umulative C ausation: International

Migration from Mexican Urban Areas." Demography 41(1): 151-171. Granovetter, M . ( 1973). " The S trength o f W eak T ies " The A merican J ournal of

Sociology 86(6): 1360-1380. Granovetter, M. (1976). "Network Sampling: Some First Steps." The American Journal

of Sociology 81(6): 1287-1303. Grasmuck, S . a nd P . P essar ( 1991). Between Two I slands.Dominican I nternational

Migration Berkeley, University of California Press. Gratton, B . ( 2007). "Ecuadorians i n t he U nited S tates a nd S pain: H istory, Gender an d

Niche Formation." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 33(4): 581-599. Groisman, F. and A. L. Suarez (2009). Residential Segregation in Greater Buenos Aires.

Urban S egregation and Governance i n t he Americas. B. R . R oberts a nd R . H . Wilson. New York, Palgrave Macmillan.

Guendelman, S . and A. Perez-Itriago (1987). "Migration Tradeoffs: Men’s Experiences

with Seasonal Lifestyles." International Migration Review 21(3): 709-727. Gurak, D . T . and F . C aces ( 1992). M igration N etworks a nd t he S haping of M igration

Systems International Migration Systems. A Global Approach. M. M. Kritz, L. L. Lim and H. Zlotnik. New York, Oxford University Press: 150-176.

226

Haritos-Fatouros, M. and D. Sakka (1988). "A study of migrant mothers: return home and

role change." International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling 11: 167-181.

Hondagneu-Sotelo, P . ( 1992). "Overcoming P atriarchal C onstrains; T he R econstruction

of Gender Relations among Mexican Immigrant Women and Men." Gender and Society 6(3): 393-415.

Hondagneu-Sotelo, P. and E. Avila (1996). "I am here but I am there: The Meanings of

Latina Transnational Motherhood." Gender and Society 11(5): 548-571. Huber, E. (1996). Options for Social Policy in Latin America: Neoliberal versus Social

Democratic Models. Welfare States in Transition: National Adaptations in Global Economies. G. Esping-Andersen and U. N. R. I. f. S. Development. London, UK, SAGE: 145-191.

Hugo, G. (1992). Women on t he move: Changing Patterns of Population Movement of

Women in Indonesia. Gender and Migration in Developing Countries. S . Chant. London, Belhaven Press.

Hugo, G . (1995). " International M igration a nd the F amily: S ome O bservations f rom

Indonesia." Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 4(2-4): 273-301. INEI (1995) Migraciones Internas en el Peru. Istat (2007). La popol azione s traniera r esidente in Italia (al 1 gennaio 2 007). C . d. i .

statistica. Rome, Istituto nacionale di statistica. Istat ( 2007). La p resenza s traniera in Italia: caratteristiche s ocio-demografiche. Rome,

Istituto nacionale di statistica Jackson, D., J. Kirkland, et al. (2005). "Social Network Analysis and Estimating the Size

of Hard-to-Count Subpopulations." Connections 26(2): 49-60. Johnson, C. L. (2000). "Perspectives on American Kinship in the Later 1990s." Journal of

Marriage and the Family 62(623-639). Kalton, G . ( 2001). "Practical M ethods for S ampling R are a nd M obile P opulations."

Proceedings o f th e A nnual M eeting o f th e A merican S tatistical A ssociation August 5-9.

Kandel, W . and D. Massey (2002). "The Culture of Mexican Migration: A Theoretical

and Empirical Analysis." Social Forces 80(3): 981-1004.

227

Kapferer, B. (1972). Strategy and transaction in an African factory. African Workers and Indian M anagement i n a Z ambian T own. M anchester, M anchester University Press.

Kholer, H. P. (2001). Fertility and Social Interaction. An Economic Perspective. Oxford,

University Press. Knoke, D . a nd J . H . K uklinski ( 1982). Network an alysis S eries. B everly Hills, S age

Publications. Levitt, P . ( 1996). Social R emittances: a C onceptual T ool f or U nderstanding M igration

and D evelopment. W orking P aper S eries, H arvard C enter for P opulation a nd Development Studies.

Levitt, P . ( 1998). "Local-Level G lobal R eligion: T he C ase o f U .S.-Dominican

Migration." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37(1): 74-89. Levitt, P. (1998). "Social Remittances: Migration Driven Local-Level Forms of Cultural

Diffusion." International Migration Review 32(4): 926-948. Levitt, P. (2001). The Transnational Villagers. Berkeley, University of California Press. Lowell, L. (2003) Skilled Migration Abroad or Human Capital Flight? Lowell, L., A . F indlay, et a l. ( 2004) B rain S train. O ptimizing hi ghly s killed m igration

from de veloping c ountries Asylum a nd M igration. W orking P aper 3 Working Paper 3,

Lowell, L. and S. Gerova (2004). " Immigrants and the Healthcare Workforce. Profiles

and Shortages " Work and Occupations 34(4): 1-25. Martin, P . ( 2003). Highly S killed Labor M igration: S haring t he B enefits. G eneva,

International Labor Organization. Massey, D. (1988). "Economic Development and International Migration in Comparative

Perspective." Population and Development Review 14(3): 393-414. Massey, D . ( 1990). " Social S tructure, H ousehold S trategies, and t he C umulative

Causation of Migration." Population Index 56(1): 3-26. Massey, D ., J . A rango, e t a l. ( 1988). World i n M otion. U nderstanding International

Migration at the End of the Millennium. New York, Oxford University Press. Massey, D., J. Arango, et al., Eds. (1998). Worlds in Motion. Understanding International

Migration at t he E nd of t he M illennium. International S tudies i n D emography. New York, Oxford University Press.

228

McLanahan, S. (2004). "Diverging Destinies: How Children are Faring Under the Second

Demographic Transition." Demography 41(4): 607-627. McLanahan, S. and G. Sandefur (1994). Growing Up with a Single Parent: What Hurts,

What Helps. Cambridge, MA, Harvard Press. Mitchell, J. C . ( 1969). Social N etworks i n U rban S ituations: A nalyses of P ersonal

Relationships i n C entral A frican T owns. Manchester, M anchester U niversity Press.

Mooney, M . ( 2003). "Migrants’ S ocial T ies i n t he U .S. a nd Investment i n M exico."

Social Forces 81(4): 1147-1170. Morrison, D. R. and A. Ritualo (2000). "Routes to Children's Economic Recovery After

Divorce: A re C ohabitation a nd R emarriage E quivalent." American S ociological Review 65: 560-580.

OECD (2010). International Migration Outlook: SOPEMI 2009. Paris, Organisation for

Economic Cooperation and Development. OIM, INEI, e t al. (2008). Peru: Estadisticas de la migracion internacional de pe ruanos,

1990-2007. Lima, Organizacion Internacional para las Migraciones. Pellegrino, A. ( 2004). Migration from Latin A merica to E urope. Geneva, I nternational

Organization for Migration. Raley, K., M. L. Frisco, et al. (2005). "Maternal Cohabitation and Educational Success."

Sociology of Education 78(2): 144-164 Reichert, J . ( 1981). " The M igrant S yndrome: Seasonal U S W age Labor a nd R ural

Development in Central Mexico." Human Organization 40(1): 56-66. Rindfuss, R . R ., M . K . Choe, e t a l. ( 2004). " Social N etworks a nd F amily C hange i n

Japan." American Sociological Review 69: 838-861. Rivero-Fuentes, E . ( 2004). C umulative c ausation a mong i nternal a nd i nternational

Mexican m igrants. Crossing t he B order: R esearch f rom t he M exican M igration Project. J . D urand a nd D . M assey. New York, R ussell S age F oundation Publications: 201-231.

Roberts, B. R. and R. H. Wilson (2009). Residential segregation and Governance in the

Americas:An Overview. Urban Segregation and Governance in the Americas. B. R. Roberts and R. H. Wilson. New York, Palgrave Macmillan: 1-20.

229

Roberts, B . R . a nd C . Wood ( 2005). Introduction: R ethinking D evelopment i n L atin America. Rethinking Development in Latin America. B. R. Roberts and C. Wood. University Park, PA, The Pennsylvania State Press.: 1-23.

Roberts, K. and M. D. Morris (2003). "Fortune, Risk, and Remittances: An Application

of O ption T heory to P articipation in V illage-Based M igration N etworks." International Migration Review 37(4): 1252-1291.

Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations. New York, Free Press. Rosenbaum, E . ( 2000). " Urban C hildren's Living A rrangements a nd t heir E conomic

Status: New York, 1993." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 59(2). Scott, J. (1988). "Social Network Analysis " Sociology 22(1): 109-127. Smit, R . ( 2001). " The i mpact of l abor m igration on A frican f amilies i n S outh A frica:

Yesterday and Today." Journal of Comparative Family Studies 32(4): 533-548. Suro, R., S. Bendixen, et al. (2002). Billions in Motion: Latino Immigrants, Remittances

and B anking. W ashington D .C. , P ew H ispanic C entre and t he M ultilateral Investment Fund.

Tacoli, C . ( 1999). "International M igration a nd t he R estructuring o f G ender

Asymmetries: Continuity and Change among Filipino Labor Migrants in Rome." International Migration Review 33(3): 658-682.

Taylor, E. (1999). "The new economics of labour migration and the role of remittances in

the migration process." International Migration 37: 63-87. Ugalde, A ., F . D . B ean, e t a l. ( 1979). " International M igration f rom t he D ominican

Republic: F indings f rom a N ational S urvey." International M igration R eview 13(2): 235-254.

UN (2005). Population Challenges and D evelopment Goals. DESA. New York, United

Nations. UN ( 2007). Indicators of S ustainable D evelopment: G uidelines a nd Methodologies -

Third edition. METHODOLOGY SHEETS. DESA. New York, United Nations. Wenden, C . W . d. ( 2004). A dmissions P olicies i n E urope. International M igration.

Prospects an d P olicies i n a G lobal M arket. D. Massey and J . E . T aylor. N ew York, Oxford University Press: 286-294.

Wierzbicki, S. K . ( 2004). Beyond t he Immigrant E nclave: N etwork C hange a nd

Assimilation. New York, LFB Scholarly Publishing.

230

Zlotnik, H . ( 1992). E mpirical id entification of International M igration S ystems. International Migration Systems a Global Approach. M. M. Kritz, L. L. Lim and H. Zlotnik. Oxford, Clarendon Press: 19-40.

231

Appendices

232

Appendix 1.a

Translation of Survey Questionnaire (VERSION FOR APPLICATION IN BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA)

Section 1: Basic Information of the Respondent IBE1: Sex IBE2 and IBE3: Where do you reside permanently? (IBE2: In national terms (Capital Federal, Buenos Aires Province or Other province of Argentina/ IBE3: Partido or Municipality/ IBE4: If respondent resides in Capital Federal, in what neighborhood?) IBE5: In what year were you born? IBE6: Currently you are: …. (marital status categories as options to choose) (question about marital status) IBE7: Are you the head of your household? IBE8: If you are not the head of your household, what relation do you have with the head of the household? IBE9: What is the highest level of education you have studied?

Section 2: Basic Information of the Household

Note: About the members of the household (persons who live with the respondent and share with him/her the preparation of the daily alimentation) “Please name all the persons that are part of your household (Do not forget of yourself and of any baby)” (THE RESPONDENT WILL ONLY PROVIDE FIRST NAMES, NICKNAMES OR ANY NAMES THAT COULD BE USED AS REFERENCE FOR THE INTERVIEWER AT THE MOMENT OF ASKING THE QUESTIONS FOR THE CASE OF EACH ONE OF THE INDIVIDUALS THAT COMPOSE THE HOUSEHOLD) IBH2: Sex of the member of the household IBH3: What type of kin relationship does …[name of member of the household] has with the head of the household? IBH4: How old is …[name of member of the household]? IBH5: Currently, …[name of member of the household] is :….(marital status categories as options to choose) (question about marital status) IBH6: Where was …[name of member of the household] born? IBH7: If respondent answers “Other country”: In what country? IBH9: Does ...[name of member of the household] have a nationality different than the Argentinean nationality?

IBH10: If so, what is this nationality? IBH11: Does ..[name of member of the household], have a nationality in addition to the Argentinean nationality? IBH12: If so, what is this nationality? IBH13: In what year did ..[name of member of the household], started the paperwork/legal process to obtain this nationality?

Section 3: Education and Occupations “Important note for the interviewers: Before starting this section, copy the names of all the members of the household in the exact order that you used in the preceding page (according to the unique ID number of each member)” TR1: (Only for persons older than 3) What is the higher level of education that …[name of member of the household] studied? TR2: Did …[name of member of the household] completed this level of education? TR3: If the member studied a NON university career, what career was this? TR4: If the member studied a university career, what career was this?

233

(Only for persons 10 and older) TR5: What is the name of the main occupation of …. [name of member of the household]? (“Main occupation”=employment/activity that takes you more hours) You can use a description of the main occupation instead of a name and the categories unemployed and student/minor. IBH10: Is your household: (Possible answers: owner of the dwelling and land; only dwelling; tenant of the dwelling; resident because of work or in some type of dependency relation; resident because of the free permission of the owner; De facto resident of the owner; other) Equipment in the home: In your home you and the members of your household have: IBH11: Television (Only 1; Two and more; Do not have any) IBH12: Refrigerator with freezer (Only 1; Two and more; Do not have any) IBH13: Washer machine (Only 1; Two and more; Do not have any) IBH14: VHS (Only 1; Two and more; Do not have any) IBH15: DVD player (Only 1; Two and more; Do not have any) IBH16: Microwave (Only 1; Two and more; Do not have any) IBH17: Personal Computer (Only 1; Two and more; Do not have any) IBH18: Internet connection (Only 1; Two and more; Do not have any)

Section 4: About the migration experience of the international migration in the family EMF1: How many members of your family who you frequently contact are currently living, studying or working abroad? EMF2: Unique ID code “Could you please make a complete list of all the family members who are currently living, studying or working abroad?” NAMES ARE REFERENTIAL (ONLY TO HELP THE INTERVIEWER TO FORMULATE THE QUESTIONS FOR EACH INDIVIDUAL) EMF3: Sex of the relative abroad EMF4: What is the kin relationship of … [name of migrant relative] with you? EMF5: How old is … [name of migrant relative]? (If respondent knows exactly the age of migrant) EMF6: How old is … [name of migrant relative]? (If respondent does not know exactly the age of migrant and only has a approximate idea of his/her age) EMF7: In what country live/study/work … [name of migrant relative]? EMF8: In what year … [name of migrant relative] traveled to live/study/work in that country? EMF9: Before traveling to [country]; was [name of migrant relative] living/studying/working in other country? EMF10: In what country? EMF11: Does [name of migrant relative] children 18 years old or younger living in Peru during the time he/she is abroad? EMF12: If so, how many (children living in Peru, during the time migrant is abroad)? EMF13: Does any of these children live in your household? ETM1: What is the last level of education that …[name of migrant relative] completed before traveling abroad? ETM2: (If the migrant relative attained incomplete or complete NON university higher education, what career was this?) ETM3: (If the migrant relative attained incomplete or complete university higher education, what career was this?) ETM4: What was the main occupation of …[name of migrant relative] before traveling abroad? ETM5: What was the last level of education that …[name of migrant relative] completed abroad? ETM6: (If the migrant relative attained incomplete or complete university higher education, while abroad, what career is this?) ETM7: (If the migrant relative attained incomplete or complete university higher education, while abroad what career was this?) ETM8: What currently is the main occupation of …[name of migrant relative] abroad?

234

ETM9: Do you receive any type of economic support from …[name of migrant relative]? ETM10: If yes, what % of the monthly budget of your household would this economic support represent?

Section 5: About the migrant social networks operating in the emigration streams to Spain and Italy

“Generally, we obtain information about themes that interest us on the daily life from acquaintances, relatives, friends, given that we trust their criterion and experience. For example: In order to know about themes on how to go working, studying or living in Spain/Italy, and guarantee that everything goes OK, any of us would talk with persons that have traveled to those countries or that have relatives, friends, or contacts in those countries; or that know how to make the paperwork. Now I will ask you about that type of persons…” RS1: With how many persons you frequently talk about themes related with the migration of Argentineans to Spain/Italy? (possibilities of obtaining jobs, the daily life in those societies, what paperwork is necessary). “Could you please tell me the first names/or nicknames of the four most important of them?” NAMES ARE REFERENTIAL (ONLY TO HELP THE INTERVIEWER TO FORMULATE THE QUESTIONS FOR EACH INDIVIDUAL) RS2: Is … [name of network partner], man or woman? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS3: What is the type of relationship between you and [name of network partner]? (Friend, father, brother, father in law (…) mother, sister,…etc.) (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS4: If the answer is “Others”for the case of male relative, specify RS5: If the answer is “Others”for the case of female relative, specify RS6: If the answer is “Others”for the case of Other in general, specify RS7: What age (or approximate age) has …[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS8: Has/does [name of network partner] lived/live in the same neighborhood as you? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS9: Was...[name of network partner] born in the same province as you? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS10: Was…[name of network partner] born in the same country as you? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS11: Has …[name of network partner] the same occupation/profession as you? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS12: Does …[name of network partner #1] know [name of network partner #2, name of network partner #3, name of network partner #4]? RS13: Does …[name of network partner #2] know [name of network partner #1, name of network partner #3, name of network partner #4]? RS14: Does …[name of network partner #3] know [name of network partner #1, name of network partner #2, name of network partner #4]? RS15: Does …[name of network partner #4] know [name of network partner #1, name of network partner #2, name of network partner #3] Resources of the Network: RS16: Currently, where is …[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS17: Only if respondent answers “Argentina”: In what department is…[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners)

235

RS18: Only if respondent answers “Argentina”: In what province is…[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS19: Only if respondent answers “other provinces”: In what province is …[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS20: Only if respondent answers “in other country”: In what country is…[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS21: What is the higher level of education that …[name of network partner] studied? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS22: Only if respondent answers “NON university education” (it does not matter that he/she completed or not the level): What career does…[name of network partner] studied/study? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS23: Only if respondent answers “ university education” (it does not matter that he/she completed or not the level): What career does…[name of network partner] studied/study? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS24: What is the name of the main occupation of…[name of network partner] (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS25: Does …[name of network partner] have any relative(s) that currently live in Spain/Italy? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS26: Was/Is…[name of network partner] a migrant to Spain Italy himself/herself? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS27: Has …[name of network partner] enough economic resources to financially help you if it was the case? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners).

Section 6: Type of kinship usual in the respondent’s family

TP1: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to your mother? TP2: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to your father? TP3: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to your mother and father? TP4: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to at least one sister? TP5: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to at least one brother? TP6: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to other relatives?

Section 7: About the education trajectories of children in migrant sending households

TEa: Does any child (person younger than 18 years old) live in your household? TEb: If so, how many? TE1: Unique ID of child “Could you please make a complete list of all the persons younger than 18 that currently live in your household?” (ONLY FIRST NAMES OR NICKNAMES) TE2: Sex (of child) TE3: How old is [name of child]? TE4: Does …[name of child] attend any education institution on the regular basis? TE5: Is that education institution public or private? TE6: If the education institution is private: How much approximately is the monthly payment? TE7: Did …[name of child] repeat any school year? TE8: If the child repeated any school year: How many times? TE9: Are the parents/family or guardians of …[name of child], making any type of paperwork in order to attain he/she travels abroad? TE10: If the answer is “Yes”: To what country? TE11: If the answer is “Yes” in TE8: Do you know if …[name of child] will study in that country? TE12: If the answer is “Yes”: What part of his/her education would …[name of child] study? TE13: Only for children 16-18: Would …[name of child] study a NON university career?

236

TE14: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Yes”: What NON university career would …[name of child] study? TE15: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Yes” in TE14: Where would …[name of child] study? TE16: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Abroad”: In what country would …[name of child] study that career? TE17: Only for children 16-18: Would …[name of child] study a university career? TE18: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Yes” in TE14: What university career would …[name of child] study? TE19: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Yes” in TE14: Where would …[name of child] study? TE20: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Abroad”: In what country would …[name of child] study that career? TE21: Is …[name of child] studying a foreign language (in a language school or with a private teacher)? TE22: If the answer is “Yes”: What language is he/she studying?

Section 8: About the living arrangements and childrearing patterns of children of migrant parents in migrant sending households

AR1: Does any child (person younger than 18) who have one or both parents abroad, live in your household? AR2: If so, how many? “Could you please make a complete list of all the persons younger than 18 that currently live in your household?” (ONLY FIRST NAMES OR NICKNAMES) AR3: Has …[name of child] his/her mother; father or both parents abroad? AR4: What parent has …[name of child] abroad? AR5: If respondent answers “only his/her mother”: Is the mother a single mother? AR6: For how much time has …[name of child] lived with his/her mother/father/both parents abroad? (YEARS) AR7: For how much time has …[name of child] lived with his/her mother/father/both parents abroad? (MONTHS) AR8: Who mainly pays the expenses of …[name of child]? AR9: In what country resides that person? AR10: Who mainly assists everyday (prepares meals, takes to school, provides clean clothes) …[name of child] ? AR11: If the respondent answers “others”: ask him/her to specify what relationship has the child with that person. AR12: Who mainly disciplines …[name of child]? AR13: If the respondent answers “others”: ask him/her to specify what relationship has the child with that person.

237

Translation of Survey Questionnaire (VERSION FOR APPLICATION IN LIMA, PERU)

Section 1: Basic Information of the Respondent

IBE1: Sex IBE2 and IBE3: In what department and province do you reside permanently? (IBE2: department; IBE3: Province) IBE4: In what year were you born? IBE5: What is your marital status? IBE6: Are you the head of your household? IBE7: If you are not the head of your household, what relation do you have with the head of the household? IBE8: What is the last education level you have completed?

Section 2: Basic Information of the Household

Note: About the members of the household (persons who live with the respondent and share with him/her the preparation of the daily alimentation)

“Could you please make a complete list of all the persons who live with you and share with you the main daily foods? (we refer to only the first name or nickname or any name that could be used as reference for the survey assistant at the moment of asking the questions about each one of the individuals that compose the household)” (INCLUDE THE RESPONDENT). IBH2: Sex of the member of the household IBH3: What is the type of kin relationship that …[name of member of the household] has with the head of the household? IBH4: How old is …[name of member of the household]? IBH5: (Only for members of the household older than 12) What is the marital status of …[name of member of the household]? IBH6 and IBH7: In what department and province was …[name of member of the household] born? IBH8 and IBH9: If …[name of member of the household] was born in other country, mark “1” under “Other country”, and write what country that is in the next column.

Section 3: Education and Occupations

“Important note for the interviewers: Before starting this section, copy the names of all the members of the household in the exact order that you used in the preceding page (according to the unique ID number of each member)” TR1: (Only for persons older than 3) What is level of education …[name of member of the household] attained? TR2: (if the member attained incomplete or complete NON university higher education, what career was this?) TR3: (if the member attained incomplete or complete university higher education, what career was this?) (Only for persons older than 14) TR4: What is the main occupation of …. [name of member of the household]? You can use the categories unemployed and student/minor. IBH10: The dwelling your household occupy, is: (rented, owned totally paid, etc.)? IBH11: If your dwelling is rented, how much is the monthly payment? IBH12: If you are buying your house/apartment by parts how much are the monthly payments?

238

Section 4: About the migration experience of the international migration in the family

EMF1: How many members of your family who you frequently contact are currently living, studying or working abroad? EMF2: Unique ID code “Could you please make a complete list of all the family members who are currently living, studying or working abroad?” NAMES ARE REFERENTIAL (ONLY TO HELP THE INTERVIEWER TO FORMULATE THE QUESTIONS FOR EACH INDIVIDUAL) EMF3: Sex of the relative abroad EMF4: What is the kin relationship of … [name of migrant relative] with you? EMF5: How old is … [name of migrant relative]? (If respondent knows exactly the age of migrant) EMF6: How old is … [name of migrant relative]? (If respondent does not know exactly the age of migrant and only has a approximate idea of his/her age) EMF7: In what country live/study/work … [name of migrant relative]? EMF8: In what year … [name of migrant relative] traveled to live/study/work in that country? EMF9: Before traveling to [country]; was [name of migrant relative] living/studying/working in other country? EMF10: In what country? EMF11: Does [name of migrant relative] children 18 years old or younger living in Peru during the time he/she is abroad? EMF12: If so, how many (children living in Peru, during the time migrant is abroad)? EMF13: Does any of these children live in your household? ETM1: What is the last level of education that …[name of migrant relative] completed before traveling abroad? ETM2: (If the migrant relative attained incomplete or complete NON university higher education, what career was this?) ETM3: (If the migrant relative attained incomplete or complete university higher education, what career was this?) ETM4: What was the main occupation of …[name of migrant relative] before traveling abroad? ETM5: What was the last level of education that …[name of migrant relative] completed abroad? ETM6: (If the migrant relative attained incomplete or complete NON university higher education, while abroad, what career is this?) ETM7: (If the migrant relative attained incomplete or complete university higher education, while abroad what career was this?) ETM8: What currently is the main occupation of …[name of migrant relative] abroad? ETM9: Do you receive any type of economic support from …[name of migrant relative]? ETM10: If yes, what % of the monthly budget of your household would this economic support represent?

Section 5: About the migrant social networks operating in the emigration streams to Spain and Italy

“Generally, in order to take an important decision, people use to ask other persons, particularly the ones with more experience or knowledge about a specific theme or activity… For example: In order to talk about themes on how to go working, studying or living in Spain/Italy, any of us would talk with persons that have traveled to those countries or that have contacts, or that know how to make the paperwork. Now I will ask you about that type of persons…” RS1: With how many persons you frequently talk about the possibility of traveling to Spain/Italy? (it does not matter if you are not actually planning to travel to Italy or Spain, only if you talk about these themes, with reference to another person or in general)

239

“Could you please tell me the first names/or nicknames of the four most important of them?” NAMES ARE REFERENTIAL (ONLY TO HELP THE INTERVIEWER TO FORMULATE THE QUESTIONS FOR EACH INDIVIDUAL) RS2: Is … [name of network partner], man or woman? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS3: What is the type of relationship between you and [name of network partner]? (Friend, father, brother, father in law (…) mother, sister,…etc.) (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS4: If the answer is “Others”, specify: RS5: What age (or approximate age) has …[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS6: Has/does [name of network partner] lived/live in the same neighborhood as you (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS7: Was...[name of network partner] born in the same department as you? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS8: Was…[name of network partner] born in the same province as you? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS9: Has …[name of network partner] the same occupation/profession as you? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS10: Does …[name of network partner #1] know [name of network partner #2, name of network partner #3, name of network partner #4]? RS11: Does …[name of network partner #2] know [name of network partner #1, name of network partner #3, name of network partner #4]? RS12: Does …[name of network partner #3] know [name of network partner #1, name of network partner #2, name of network partner #4]? RS13: Does …[name of network partner #4] know [name of network partner #1, name of network partner #2, name of network partner #3] Resources of the Network: RS14: Currently, where is …[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS15: Only if respondent answers “Peru”: In what department is…[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS16: Only if respondent answers “Peru”: In what province is…[name of network partner]? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS17: Only if respondent answers “in other country”: In what country is…[name of network partner] (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS18: What is the level of education of…[name of network partner] (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS19: Only if respondent answers “NON university education”: What career does…[name of network partner] studied/study? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS20: Only if respondent answers “ university education”: What career does…[name of network partner] studied/study? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS21: What is the main occupation of…[name of network partner] (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS22: Does …[name of network partner] have any relative(s) that currently live in Spain/Italy? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS23: Was/Is…[name of network partner] a migrant to Spain Italy himself/herself? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners) RS24: Has …[name of network partner] enough economic resources to financially help you if it was the case? (Repeat the question for each one of the four network partners)

Section 6: Type of kinship usual in the respondent’s family

240

TP1: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to: your mother TP2: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to: your father TP3: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to: your mother and father TP4: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to at least one sister TP5: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to at least one brother TP6: Do you live geographically close to (walking distance) to other relatives

Section 7: About the education trajectories of children in migrant sending households

TEa: Does any child (person younger than 18 years old) live in your household? TEb: If so, how many? TE1: Unique ID of child “Could you please make a complete list of all the persons younger than 18 that currently live in your household?” (ONLY FIRST NAMES OR NICKNAMES) TE2: Sex (of child) TE3: How old is [name of child]? TE4: Does …[name of child] attend any education institution on the regular basis? TE5: Is that education institution public or private? TE6: If the education institution is private: How much approximately is the monthly payment? TE7: Did …[name of child] repeat any school year? TE8: If the child repeated any school year: How many times? TE9: Are the parents/family or guardians of …[name of child], making any type of paperwork in order to attain he/she travels abroad? TE10: If the answer is “Yes”: To what country? TE11: If the answer is “Yes” in TE8: Do you know if …[name of child] will study in that country? TE12: If the answer is “Yes”: What part of his/her education would …[name of child] study? TE13: Only for children 16-18: Would …[name of child] study a NON university career? TE14: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Yes”: What NON university career would …[name of child] study? TE15: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Yes” in TE14: Where would …[name of child] study? TE16: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Abroad”: In what country would …[name of child] study that career? TE17: Only for children 16-18: Would …[name of child] study a university career? TE18: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Yes” in TE14: What university career would …[name of child] study? TE19: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Yes” in TE14: Where would …[name of child] study? TE20: (Only for children 16-18) If the answer is “Abroad”: In what country would …[name of child] study that career? TE21: Is …[name of child] studying a foreign language (in a language school or with a private teacher)? TE22: If the answer is “Yes”: What language is he/she studying?

Section 8: About the living arrangements and childrearing patterns of children of migrant parents in migrant sending households

AR1: Does any child (person younger than 18) who have one or both parents abroad, live in your household? AR2: If so, how many?

241

“Could you please make a complete list of all the persons younger than 18 that currently live in your household?” (ONLY FIRST NAMES OR NICKNAMES) AR3: Has …[name of child] his/her mother; father or both parents abroad? AR4: What parent has …[name of child] abroad? AR5: If respondent answers “only his/her mother”: Is the mother a single mother? AR6: For how much time has …[name of child] lived with his/her mother/father/both parents abroad? (YEARS) AR7: For how much time has …[name of child] lived with his/her mother/father/both parents abroad? (MONTHS) AR8: Who mainly pays the expenses of …[name of child]? AR9: In what country resides that person? AR10: Who mainly assists everyday (prepares meals, takes to school, provides clean clothes) …[name of child] ? AR11: If the respondent answers “others”: ask him/her to specify what relationship has the child with that person. AR12: Who mainly disciplines …[name of child]? AR13: If the respondent answers “others”: ask him/her to specify what relationship has the child with that person.

242

Appendix 1.b Segment of the Sampling frame for Lima, Peru

Sample

unit #

Location Sub-location Day Hour

1 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Lunes 4-5 AM 2 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Lunes 5 - 6 AM 3 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Martes 4-5 AM 4 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Martes 5 - 6 AM 5 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Miercoles 4-5 AM 6 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Miercoles 5 - 6 AM 7 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Jueves 4-5 AM 8 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Jueves 5 - 6 AM 9 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Viernes 4-5 AM

10 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 1: Esquina de Av Javier Prado y Calle Los Pinos Viernes 5 - 6 AM 11 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Lunes 9 - 10 AM 12 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Lunes 10 - 11 AM

13 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Lunes 11 AM - 12 PM 14 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Lunes 12 - 1 PM 15 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Lunes 1 - 2 PM 16 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Martes 9 - 10 AM 17 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Martes 10 - 11 AM 18 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Martes 11 AM - 12 PM 19 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Martes 12 - 1 PM 20 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Martes 1 - 2 PM 21 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Miercoles 9 - 10 AM 22 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Miercoles 10 - 11 AM 23 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Miercoles 11 AM - 12 PM 24 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Miercoles 12 - 1 PM 25 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Miercoles 1 - 2 PM 26 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Jueves 9 - 10 AM 27 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Jueves 10 - 11 AM 28 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Jueves 11 AM - 12 PM

243

29 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Jueves 12 - 1 PM 30 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Jueves 1 - 2 PM 31 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Viernes 9 - 10 AM 32 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Viernes 10 - 11 AM 33 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Viernes 11 AM - 12 PM 34 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Viernes 12 - 1 PM 35 Embajada de España LOCACION 3: Calle Los Pinos cdra. 4 y 5/Calle Jorge Basadre cdra. 3 y 4/alrededores Viernes 1 - 2 PM 36 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Lunes 11 AM - 12 PM 37 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Lunes 12 - 1 PM 38 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Lunes 1 - 2 PM 39 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Lunes 2 - 3 PM 40 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Martes 11 AM - 12 PM 41 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Martes 12 - 1 PM 42 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Martes 1 - 2 PM 43 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Martes 2 - 3 PM 44 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Miercoles 11 AM - 12 PM 45 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Miercoles 12 - 1 PM 46 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Miercoles 1 - 2 PM 47 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Miercoles 2 - 3 PM 48 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Jueves 11 AM - 12 PM 49 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Jueves 12 - 1 PM 50 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Jueves 1 - 2 PM 51 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Jueves 2 - 3 PM 52 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Viernes 11 AM - 12 PM 53 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Viernes 12 - 1 PM 54 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Viernes 1 - 2 PM 55 Embajada de España LOCACIÓN 5: Vitrina informativa de la embajada España. Viernes 2 - 3 PM 56 Vitrina Av. El Ejercito LOCACION 1: Vitrina Av. El Ejercito Lunes 10 - 11 AM 57 Vitrina Av. El Ejercito LOCACION 1: Vitrina Av. El Ejercito Lunes 11 AM - 12 PM 58 Vitrina Av. El Ejercito LOCACION 1: Vitrina Av. El Ejercito Lunes 1 - 2 PM

(CONTINUES)…

244

Appendix 2.a Preliminary Interview Protocol # 1

(For: Children 12-18 living in their countries of origin while one or both of their parents live in Italy/Spain)

AIMS: To collect data on the accounts that older children make about: 1) the adjustments in their families after one or both parents have left to Spain/Italy; 2) their education needs and expectations; 3) their job expectations and their opinions about possible emigration. These accounts will serve to illustrate and complement quantitative findings. SAMPLE: a s nowball s ample of c hildren 12 t o 18 years ol d r esiding i n Lima ( Peru)/ Buenos Aires (Argentina) while one or both of their parents live in Italy or Spain. PROCEDURE: Before the interview: a. There will be an explanation of the objectives of the study, the contents and procedure of t he i nterview; and h ow da ta c ollected w ill be us ed. Following t hat, I w ill a sk f or permission to realize the interview. This permission will be certified by signed informed consent forms for parents and signed assent forms for children. b. The s ocio-demographic d ata o f t he i nterviewee ( age, p lace o f b irth, p lace o f residence), will be registered in a “fact sheet”. A code will be assigned to this fact sheet and the same code will be marked in the cassettes to be used in the interview and in the corresponding transcription. This procedure will help to maintain anonymity. During and after the interview: The in terviews will be semi-structured. I will conduct the interview in Spanish ( I am a native Spanish speaker) guided by the list of questions in the protocol and adding relevant probes i f appropriate. R espondents will be f ree t o end the interview a t any t ime, or to decline to answer any question. After asking for permission, interviews will be taped and then transcribed. QUESTIONS: Living arrangements 1. How is your household?

• How many people live with you in the same house? • Who are they respect to you (Probe: are they relatives/others?)? • What are their characteristics (Probes: sex, age, place of birth)? • Is p reparation of t he f ood f or a ll t he m entioned pe rsons or a re t here separate

groups for this activity? (this is to distinguish how many households are there in the same dwelling)

• Where does your mother live? • Where does your father live? • (If applicable) Where do your siblings live?

2. Did you always live in this house/apartment?,

• If not, how many times do you remember you have moved since you were born? What happened? (Probes: wi th who were you l iving a t that t ime, where and for how much time? Why did you move?)

245

3. Besides the members of your household, do you live geographically close (in a distance that you can make by foot) to any relative? If so, who is he/she (are them)? Since when do you live geographically close to him/her (them)? Experience of Migration in the Family [apart from the parent(s) who is (are) abroad] 4. Apart f rom your f ather/mother/parents, i s t here anyone i n your family t hat ha s migrated abroad? What relation do you have with him/her? 5. If yes, could you please tell me more about the migration experience of this relative?

• Where he/she traveled? When? Why? • Did he/she stay at that country? Traveled to other country?, after how much time?

Came back?, after how much time? • Do you know w hat w ere hi s/her e ducation l evel a nd m ain oc cupation be fore

traveling abroad? • Do you know w hat i s/was hi s/her e ducation l evel a nd m ain oc cupation w hile

abroad? • If he is a return migrant, what is his/her current education level and occupation?

6. If the relative is a close relative, do you know what his/her plans for the future are? In terms of:

• His/her pe rmanent r esidence ( Probes: s taying a broad, r eturning, going to ot her country?)

• His/her income source • His/her nuclear family (that can include yourself)

Education 7. How is your school?

• Is it private or public? • Some schools are specialized in mathematics; others are specialized in languages,

technical occupations, humanities etc. What type of school is your school? • Do you like your school? • Since w hen do you s tudy there? T o how m any schools di d you attend? If you

attended more than one school, why you changed from one school to the other(s)? 8. How are you currently doing in school (Probe: How are your grades)? How were you doing in school before? 9. Do you like any course in particular? Why? 10. Are you completely satisfied with the education you receive in school? If not, in what aspect would you like it to improve? Why? 11. If child is 15 and older: By t alking w ith your f riends ( at school, a t your neighborhood) you can more or less have an idea of what they will be probably deciding for their adult life, how do you see your friends in terms of:

• Deciding c hildbearing? ( Probes: w ill t hey ha ve children? M ore or l ess a t w hat age? Will they need to be married to have children?)

246

• Deciding marriage? (Probes: do they think in marriage as a necessary step in life? If so, at what age?)

• Deciding higher education? (Probes: do they think in obtaining college education as a necessary step in life? What occupations they are inclined to obtain?)

• Are they thinking in migrating somewhere abroad? Where? When? • Do you feel in the same track? Do you see yourself in the future taking the same

options? 12. Do you pe rceive any di fference between you, your opinions, your experiences; and the opinions, experiences of other kids your age who belong to households where nobody has migrated?

• If you do perceive any difference, what are these? Family life 13. When did your mother/father/parents travel abroad? Where did she/he/they travel to? 14. Since your mom/dad/parents needed to travel abroad, how things have changed? Did you notice any change?

• If there are changes you notice could you talk about them please? 15. How t hings ha ve changed f or t he f amily he re i n Lima/Buenos A ires? C ould you please talk about these (if any)?

• How things have changed for your parents? • How things have changed for your siblings (sisters, brothers)? • How things have changed for your grandparents? • How things have changed for your aunts/uncles?

16. How things have changed for you, personally? 17. How often do you talk with your mother? About what themes do you talk? [If mother is abroad]

• By what media is this communication realized? (Probes: by phone, by email, by messenger, letters?)

• Is the communication you guys have very good, good, not so good, bad? Why? 18. How often do you talk with your father? About what themes do you talk? [If father is abroad]

• By what media is this communication realized? (Probes: by phone, by email, by messenger, letters?)

• Is the communication you guys have very good, good, not so good, bad? Why? 19. With what adult (a person that is in the possibility of advising and supporting you) do you mainly talk about your school activities (to answer consider not only your parents but other m embers of your household, l ike g randparents, ot her r elatives or f riends)? H ow often?

247

20. If child is 15 and older: With what adult (a person that is in the possibility of advising and supporting you) do you mainly talk about your plans for college (to answer consider not onl y your pa rents but ot her m embers of your hous ehold, l ike g randparents, ot her relatives or friends)? How often? 21. If child is 15 and older: With what adult (a person that is in the possibility of advising and supporting you) do you mainly talk about your future work/job (to answer consider not onl y your pa rents but ot her m embers of your hous ehold, l ike g randparents, ot her relatives or friends)? How often? 22. With what adult (a person that is in the possibility of advising and supporting you) do you mainly talk about your friends and peers (to answer consider not only your parents but other members of your household, like grandparents, other relatives or friends)? How often? 23. Who mainly takes care of you at home, prepares the food/ washes your clothes/cleans your bedroom, the house etc.? Are there others who also do this for you? Who? Why? 24. Who mainly pa ys for your needs (school, or school books and materials, uni forms, clothes, etc.)? Are there others who also do this for you? Who? Why? 25. Sometimes a dults ( parents, guardians) ne ed t o e stablish s ome di scipline a mong children, to l imit/regulate their actions, to o rient behaviors e tc., who i s t he person who mainly has this role for you? In what aspects of your life do you feel this regulation the most? Are there others who also play this role? Who? Why? 26. If you were in the s ituation in which you necessarily need to t ravel abroad without one of your children, with who would you decide that he/she would stay? Why? Would it make a difference that he/she is older/younger/a girl/ a boy? Work expectations 27. Father:

• What is the education level of your father? • What is the current main occupation of your father? • What do you think about the current job of your father? (Probes: Is it interesting?

Is the salary appropriate to the work done? Do you see your father happy/satisfied with it?)

• If father traveled abroad, what was the main occupation of your father before he traveled abroad? What do you think about it?

28. Mother:

• What is the education level of your mother? • What is the current main occupation of your mother? • What do you think about the current job of your mother? (Probes: Is it interesting?

Is t he s alary appropriate t o t he w ork don e? D o you s ee your mother happy/satisfied with it?)

• If mother traveled abroad, what was the main occupation of your mother before she traveled abroad? What do you think about it?

29. In case child has adult siblings: Repeat questions for each one of the siblings.

• What is the level of education of your brother/sister?

248

• What i s the current occupation of your brother/sister? W hat do you think about the c urrent j ob of your brother/sibling? ( Probes: Is it in teresting? I s th e s alary appropriate to the work done? Do you see your father happy/satisfied with it?)

• If sibling traveled abroad, what was the main occupation of your father before he traveled abroad? What do you think about it?

30. Would you l ike t o obt ain a j ob s imilar t o any of your f amily members? If you do, why? 31. (If interviewee does not mention the job of any family member as the possible job he/she would like to choose) What type of job would you like to have while you are an adult? Why? 32. What type of information, training or education if any do you think will be necessary for you to obtain that job? 33. At what age would you like to start working? 34. What of the following options is the one you will possibly choose while you will start working?...

• You will decide to work only in your country of origin (Peru/Argentina). Why? • You will decide to work only abroad? In what country/countries? Why? • You will decide to work in Peru/Argentina AND abroad? Why?

35. What type of procedures you will need to follow to obtain a job abroad? 36. Is there anything you would like to add to this interview? Thanks so much!

249

Preliminary Interview Protocol # 2 (For: Children 12-18 living in a migrant household in their countries of origin while

one or more of their close relatives, but not a parent, live in Italy/Spain) AIMS: To collect data on the accounts that older children make about: 1) the adjustments in th eir f amilies a fter o ne o r mo re r elatives h as le ft to Spain/Italy; 2 ) their e ducation needs a nd expectations; 3) t heir j ob e xpectations a nd t heir opi nions a bout pos sible emigration. These accounts will serve to illustrate and complement quantitative findings. SAMPLE: a s nowball s ample of c hildren 12 t o 18 years ol d r esiding i n Lima ( Peru)/ Buenos Aires (Argentina) while one or more of their close relatives (but not a parent) live in Italy or Spain. PROCEDURE: Before the interview: a. There will be an explanation of the objectives of the study, the contents and procedure of t he i nterview; and h ow da ta c ollected w ill be us ed. Following t hat, I w ill a sk f or permission to realize the interview. This permission will be certified by signed informed consent forms for parents and signed assent forms for children. b. The s ocio-demographic d ata o f t he i nterviewee ( age, p lace o f b irth, p lace o f residence), will be registered in a “fact sheet”. A code will be assigned to this fact sheet and the same code will be marked in the cassettes to be used in the interview and in the corresponding transcription. This procedure will help to maintain anonymity. During and after the interview: The interviews will be semi-structured. I will conduct the interview in Spanish ( I am a native Spanish speaker) guided by the list of questions in the protocol and adding relevant probes i f appropriate. R espondents will be f ree t o end the interview a t any t ime, or to decline to answer any question. After asking for permission, interviews will be taped and then transcribed. QUESTIONS: Living arrangements 1. How is your household?

• How many people live with you in the same house? • Who are they respect to you (Probe: are they relatives/others?) • What are their characteristics (Probes: sex, age, place of birth)? • Is p reparation of t he f ood f or a ll t he m entioned pe rsons or a re t here separate

groups for this activity? (this is to distinguish how many households are there in the same dwelling)

2. Did you always live in this house/apartment?

• How many times do you remember you have moved since you were born? What happened? ( Probes: w ith w ho w ere you a nd your c hildren liv ing at th at time , where and for how much time? Why did you move?)

3. Besides the members of your household, do you live geographically close (in a distance that you can make by foot) to any relative? If so, who is he/she (are them)? Since when do you live geographically close to him/her (them)?

250

Experience of Migration in the Family 4. Is there anyone in your family that has migrated abroad? What relation do you have with him/her? 5. If yes, could you please tell me more about the migration experience of this relative?

• Where he/she traveled? When? Why? • Did he/she stay at that country? Traveled to other country?, after how much time?

Came back?, after how much time? • Do you know w hat w ere hi s/her e ducation l evel a nd m ain oc cupation be fore

traveling abroad? • Do you know w hat i s/was hi s/her e ducation l evel a nd m ain occupation w hile

abroad? • If he is a return migrant, what is his/her current education level and occupation?

6. If the relative is a close relative, do you know what his/her plans for the future are? In terms of:

• His/her p ermanent r esidence ( Probes: s taying a broad, r eturning, going to ot her country?)

• His/her income source • His/her nuclear family (that can include yourself)

Education 7. How is your school?

• Is it private or public? • Some schools are specialized in mathematics; others are specialized in languages,

technical occupations, humanities etc. What type of school is your school? • Do you like your school? • Since w hen do you s tudy there? T o how m any schools di d you attend? If you

attended more than one school, why you changed from one school to the other(s)? 8. How are you currently doing in school (Probe: How are your grades)? How were you doing in school before? 9. Do you like any course in particular? Why? 10. Are you completely satisfied with the education you receive in school? If not, in what aspect would you like it to improve? Why? 11. If child is 15 and older. By t alking w ith your f riends ( at s chool, a t your neighborhood) you can more or less have an idea of what they will be probably deciding for their adult life, how do you see your friends in terms of:

• Deciding c hildbearing? ( Probes: w ill t hey ha ve children? M ore or l ess a t w hat age? Will they need to be married to have children?)

• Deciding marriage? (Probes: do they think in marriage as a necessary step in life? If so, at what age?)

• Deciding higher education? (Probes: do they think in obtaining college education as a necessary step in life? What occupations they are inclined to obtain?)

• Are they thinking in migrating somewhere abroad? Where? When?

251

• Do you feel in the same track? Do you see yourself in the future taking the same options?

12. Do you perceive any difference between you, your opinions, your experiences and the opinions, e xperiences o f ot her ki ds w ho b elong t o hous eholds w here nobod y h as migrated?

• If you do perceive any difference, what are these? Family life 13. Since [ name of r elative w ho m igrated] t raveled a broad, ho w t hings have c hanged? Did you notice any change?)

• If there are changes you notice could you talk about them please? (Repeat for each one of the close relatives who migrated

14. How t hings ha ve changed f or t he f amily he re i n Lima/Buenos A ires? C ould you please talk about these (if any)?

• How things have changed for your parents? • How things have changed for your siblings (sisters, brothers)? • How things have changed for your grandparents? • How things have changed for your aunts/uncles?

(Repeat for each one of the close relatives who migrated 15. How t hings ha ve c hanged f or you, pe rsonally? (Repeat for each one of the close relatives who migrated 16. With what adult (a person that is in the possibility of advising and supporting you) do you mainly talk about your school activities (to answer consider not only your parents but other m embers of your household, l ike g randparents, ot her r elatives or f riends)? H ow often? 17. If child is 15 and older: With what adult (a person that is in the possibility of advising and supporting you) do you mainly talk about your plans for college (to answer consider not onl y your pa rents but ot her m embers of your hous ehold, l ike g randparents, other relatives or friends)? How often? 18. If child is 15 and older: With what adult (a person that is in the possibility of advising and supporting you) do you mainly talk about your future work/job (to answer consider not onl y your pa rents but ot her m embers of your hous ehold, l ike g randparents, ot her relatives or friends)? How often? 19. With what adult (a person that is in the possibility of advising and supporting you) do you mainly talk about your friends and peers (to answer consider not only your parents but other members of your household, like grandparents, other relatives or friends)? How often? 20. Who mainly takes care of you at home, prepares the food/ washes your clothes/cleans your bedroom, the house etc.? Are there others who also do this for you? Who? Why? 21. Who mainly pa ys for your needs (school, or school books and materials, uni forms, clothes, etc.)? Are there others who also do this for you? Who? Why? 22. Sometimes a dults ( parents, guardians) ne ed t o e stablish s ome di scipline a mong children, to l imit/regulate their actions, to o rient behaviors e tc., who i s t he person who

252

mainly has this role for you? In what aspects of your life do you feel this regulation the most? Are there others who also play this role? Who? Why? 23. If you were in the s ituation in which you necessarily need to t ravel abroad without one of your children, with who would you decide that he/she would stay? Why? Would it make a difference that he/she is older/younger/a girl/ a boy? Work expectations 24. Father:

• What is the education level of your father? • What is the current main occupation of your father? • What do you think about the current job of your father? (Probes: Is it interesting?

Is the salary appropriate to the work done? Do you see your father happy/satisfied with it?)

25. Mother:

• What is the education level of your mother? • What is the current main occupation of your mother? • What do you think about the current job of your mother? (Probes: Is it interesting?

Is t he s alary appropriate t o t he w ork don e? D o you s ee your mother happy/satisfied with it?)

26. In case child has adult siblings: (Repeat questions for each one of the siblings)

• What is the level of education of your brother/sister? • What i s the current occupation of your brother/sister? W hat do you think about

the c urrent j ob of your brother/sibling? ( Probes: Is it in teresting? I s th e s alary appropriate to the work done? Do you see your father happy/satisfied with it?)

• If sibling traveled abroad, what was the main occupation of your father before he traveled abroad? What do you think about it?

27. Would you l ike t o obt ain a j ob s imilar t o any of your f amily members? If you do, why? 28. (If interviewee does not mention the job of any family member as the possible job he/she would like to choose) What type of job would you like to have while you are an adult? Why? 29. What type of information, training or education if any do you think will be necessary for you to obtain that job? 30. At what age would you like to start working? 31. What of the following options is the one you will possibly choose while you will start working?...

• You will decide to work only in your country of origin (Peru/Argentina). Why? • You will decide to work only abroad? In what country/countries? Why? • You will decide to work in Peru/Argentina AND abroad? Why?

32. What type of procedures you will need to follow to obtain a job abroad? 33. Is there anything you would like to add to this interview?

253

Thanks so much!

254

Preliminary Interview Protocol #3 (For: Mothers and fathers living in their countries of origin with their children

while the other parent lives in Italy/Spain) AIMS: To collect data on the accounts that parents (who s tay in the country of origin) make a bout: 1 ) th e a djustments in th eir f amilies a fter th e o ther p arent h as left to Spain/Italy; 2) t he e ducation ne eds and e ducation e xpectations t hey have f or t heir children; 3) the job expectations they have for their children and their opinions about the possible emigration of children. These accounts will serve to illustrate and complement quantitative findings. SAMPLE: a s nowball s ample of m others a nd fathers 18 a nd ol der r esiding i n L ima (Peru)/Buenos Aires (Argentina) while the other parent lives in Italy/Spain. PROCEDURE: Before the interview: a. There will be an explanation of the objectives of the study, the contents and procedure of t he i nterview; and h ow da ta c ollected w ill be us ed. Following t hat, I w ill a sk f or permission to realize the interview. This permission will be certified by signed informed consent forms for parents. b. The s ocio-demographic d ata o f t he i nterviewee ( age, p lace o f b irth, p lace o f residence), will be registered in a “fact sheet”. A code will be assigned to this fact sheet and the same code will be marked in the cassettes to be used in the interview and in the corresponding transcription. This procedure will help to maintain anonymity. During and after the interview: The in terviews will be semi-structured. I will conduct the interview in Spanish ( I am a native Spanish speaker) guided by the list of questions in the protocol and adding relevant probes i f appropriate. R espondents will be f ree t o end the interview a t any t ime, or to decline to answer any question. After asking for permission, interviews will be taped and then transcribed. QUESTIONS: Living arrangements of children and kinship 1. How is the household where you live with your child or children?

• How many people live with you in the same house? • Who are they (Probe: are they relatives/others?) • What are their characteristics (Probes: sex, age, place of birth)?

2. How many children do you have?

• Do all of them live with you in the same household? • If not, where your other children live? Why?

3. How many t imes do y ou remember you have moved s ince your children were born? Could y ou please n arrate t hese m oves ( Probes: w ith w ho w ere you a nd your c hildren living at that time, where and for how much time? Why did you guys move?) 4. Besides the members of your household, do you live geographically close (in a distance that you can make by foot) to any relative? If so, who is he/she (are them)? Since when do you live geographically close to him/her (them)?

255

5. If you do not live with parents or siblings, or geographically close to them, how frequently you see them? How frequently do you communicate with them? 6. If you were in the situation in which you necessarily need to travel abroad without one of your children, w ith w ho w ould you de cide t hat he /she w ould s tay? W hy? W ould i t make a difference that she/he is older/younger/a girl/ a boy? Experience of Migration in the Family (apart from the other parent who is abroad) 7. Is there anyone in your family that has migrated abroad? What relation do you have with him/her? 8. If yes, could you please tell me more about the migration experience of this relative?

• Where h e/she t raveled? W hen? I n what ci rcumstances ( motives, h ow was t he decision made, procedures)?

• Did he/she stay at that country? Traveled to other country?, after how much time? Came back?, after how much time?

• What were his/her education level and main occupation before traveling abroad? • What is/was his/her education level and main occupation while abroad? • If he is a return migrant, what is his/her current education level and occupation?

9. If the relative is a close relative, do you know what his/her plans for the future are? In terms of:

• His/her pe rmanent r esidence ( Probes: s taying a broad, r eturning, going to ot her country?)

• His/her income source • His/her nuclear family (that can include yourself)

Education of children [If interviewee has more than one child, repeat the following questions for each child] 10. How is the school to what your child goes?

• Is it private or public? • Some schools are specialized in mathematics; others are specialized in languages,

technical occupations, humanities etc. What type of school is the one to what your child goes?

• Since when does he/she study there? To how many schools did your child attend? If your child a ttended more than one school, why you changed your child f rom one school to the other(s)?

11. How is your child currently doing in school (Probe: How are his/her grades)? How was he/she doing in school before? 12. Do you know if your child likes any course in particular? How do you know? 13. Are you completely satisfied with the education your child receives in school? If not, in what aspect would you like it to improve? Why? 14. If child is 15 and older: What options do you think your child will make for his/her adult life (Probes: with respect to childbearing? with respect to marriage? with respect to higher education? with respect to work? with respect to place of residence?)?

256

15. Do you pe rceive any difference a mong your c hild, hi s/her opi nions, hi s/her experiences and the opinions, experiences of other kids who belong to households where nobody has migrated?

• If you do perceive any difference, what are these? Family life [If interviewee has more than one child, repeat the following questions for each child] 16. When and where did the mother/father of your child travel abroad?

• How was this decision made? (Who would migrate, who would stay) 17. What are the future plans for the family? (Probes: For how much time he/she will stay abroad? For how much time you and your child will stay here?) 18. Since the mother/father of your child traveled abroad, how things have changed?

• If there are changes you notice could you talk about them please? 19. How t hings ha ve changed f or t he f amily he re i n Lima/Buenos A ires? C ould you please talk about these (if any)?

• How things have changed for your child(ren)? • How things have changed for your parents (your child’s grandparents)? • How things have changed for your siblings (sisters, brothers)?

20. How things have changed for you, personally? 21. How often do you talk with your child? About what themes do you talk? 22. How often does the mother/father of your child communicates with him/her?

• By what media is this communication realized? (Probes: by phone, by email, by messenger, letters?)

• How is this communication? (very good, good, regular, bad) Why? • Do you know what are the themes they usually talk about?

23. Do you know what a re t he pl ans t hat t he f ather/mother of your child i s m ost interested in promoting with respect to your child? What are these? Is he/she concerned about anything in particular? 24. With what adult does your child mainly talk about his/her school activities (to answer consider not onl y you or t he ot her pa rent, but also t he c hild’ g randparents a nd ot her members of your household, relatives or friends)? Do you know how often? 25. If child is 15 and older: With what adult does your child mainly talk about hi s/her plans for college (to answer consider not only you or the other parent, but also the child’ grandparents and other members of your household, relatives or friends)? Do you know how often? 26. If child is 15 and older: With what adult does your child mainly talk about his/her future work/job (to answer consider not only you or the other parent, but also the child’

257

grandparents and other members of your household, relatives or friends)? Do you know how often? 27. With w hat a dult do es your child m ainly t alk a bout hi s/her friends a nd pe ers (to answer consider not onl y you or t he ot her pa rent, but a lso t he c hild’ g randparents a nd other members of your household, relatives or friends)? Do you know how often? 28. Who m ainly t akes c are of your c hild a t hom e, pr epares t he f ood/ w ashes hi s/her clothes/cleans hi s/her be droom, t he hous e e tc.? Are t here ot hers w ho a lso do t his your child? Who? Why? 29. Who mainly pays for his/her needs (school, or school books and materials, uniforms, clothes, etc.)? Are there others who also do this for your child? Who? Why? 30. Sometimes a dults ( parents, guardians) ne ed t o e stablish s ome di scipline a mong children, to limit/regulate their actions, to o rient behaviors e tc., who i s t he person who mainly has this role for your child? Are there others who also play this role? Who? Why? Work expectations for the children 31. Father: (If father was not anyone who traveled abroad i.e. a person about who data is already collected with precedent section) What is the education level of your father? What is the current main occupation of your father? 32. Mother: (If mother was not anyone who traveled abroad and for who we collected data in precedent section). What is the education level of your mother? What is the current main occupation of your mother? 33. Siblings: (If sibling was not anyone who traveled abroad and for who we collected data in precedent section). Repeat questions for each one of the siblings. What is the level of education of your brother/sister? What is the current occupation of your brother/sister? 34. Are you currently working out of your household? If so, how is your job? What do you think about it? (Probes: Is it in teresting? Is the salary appropriate to the work done? Are you happy/satisfied with it?) 35. What do you t hink about t he j ob t hat t he m other/father o f your c hild ha s a broad? (Probes: Is it interesting? Is the salary appropriate to the work done? Do you see him/her happy/satisfied with it?) 36. What a re your j ob/work e xpectations f or your c hild? H ow do you a dvise hi m/her about this issue? Why? 37. What type of information, training or education if any do you think will be necessary for him/her to obtain that job? 38. What of the following options is the one you will possibly like better for your child while he/she starts working?

• That your child de cides t o w ork only i n hi s/her c ountry of or igin (Peru/Argentina). Why?

• That your child decides to work only abroad? In what country/countries? Why? • That your child decides to work in Peru/Argentina AND abroad? Why?

39. What type of procedures he/she will need to follow to obtain that job?

258

40. Is there anything you would like to add to this interview? Thanks so much!

259

Preliminary Interview Protocol #4 (For: Guardians of children living in their countries of origin while one of both of

their parents lives in Italy/Spain) AIMS: To c ollect da ta on t he a ccounts t hat g uardians m ake a bout: 1) t he a djustments generated in their families after becoming guardians of children whose parents have left to Spain/Italy, particularly the adjustment in relation to the children in the household; 2) the e ducation ne eds a nd e ducation e xpectations t hey ha ve for t he c hildren i n t he household; 3) the job expectations they have for the children in the household and their opinions a bout t heir po ssible e migration. T hese a ccounts w ill s erve t o i llustrate a nd complement quantitative findings. SAMPLE: a snowball sample of adults in charge of children whose parents have left to Spain/Italy (guardians) 18 and older residing in Lima (Peru)/Buenos Aires (Argentina). PROCEDURE: Before the interview: a. There will be an explanation of the objectives of the study, the contents and procedure of t he i nterview; and h ow da ta c ollected w ill be us ed. Following t hat, I w ill a sk f or permission to r ealize t he in terview. T his p ermission w ill b e c ertified b y a s igned informed consent form. b. The s ocio-demographic d ata o f t he i nterviewee ( age, p lace o f b irth, p lace o f residence), will be registered in a “fact sheet”. A code will be assigned to this fact sheet and the same code will be marked in the cassettes to be used in the interview and in the corresponding transcription. This procedure will help to maintain anonymity. During and after the interview: The in terviews will be semi-structured. I will conduct the interview in Spanish ( I am a native Spanish speaker) guided by the list of questions in the protocol and adding relevant probes i f appropriate. R espondents will be f ree t o end the interview at any time, or to decline to answer any question. After asking for permission, interviews will be taped and then transcribed. QUESTIONS: Living arrangements of children and kinship 1. How is the household where you live with the child or children you are taking care of?

• How many people live with you in the same house? • Who are they (Probe: are they relatives/others?) • What ar e t heir ch aracteristics ( Probes: s ex, a ge, l evel of e ducation, oc cupation,

others)? • Who are the children who are under your care?

2. Do you live geographically close (in a distance that you can make by foot) to any relative? If so, who is he/she (are them)? Since when do you live geographically close to him/her (them)? 3. If you do not live with parents or siblings, or geographically close to them, how frequently you see them? How frequently do you communicate with them?

260

4. If you were in the situation in which you necessarily need to travel abroad without one of your children, w ith w ho w ould you de cide t hat he /she w ould s tay? W hy? W ould i t make a difference that she/he is older/younger/a girl/ a boy? Migration of the parent(s) of the child the respondent is taking care of: 5. Could you please tell me more about the migration experience of the parent(s) of the child you are taking care of?

• What relation do you have with him/her/them? • Where he/she/they traveled? When? In what circumstances (motives, how was the

decision made, procedures)? • Did he/she/they stay at that country? Traveled to other country?, after how much

time? Came back?, after how much time? • What w ere hi s/her/they e ducation l evel a nd m ain oc cupation be fore t raveling

abroad? • What is/was his/her/their education level and main occupation while abroad?

6. Do you know what his/her/their plans for the future are? In terms of: • His/her/their permanent country o f r esidence (Probes: s taying abroad, r eturning,

going to other country? For how much time he/she/they will stay abroad?) • His/her/their nuclear family • For how much time you will be taking care of the child(ren)?

7. Could you pl ease na rrate ho w di d you s tart t aking c are o f t he child ( ren) w hose parent(s) is (are) abroad?

• How was the decision taken? • Since when you assumed this responsibility? • Before this time, with who and where was (were) this (these) child(ren) living? • If this (these) child(ren) was (were) living with other guardians do you know why

it was decided that he/she/they would move to live with you? Experience of Migration in the Family (apart from the parents of the child you are taking care of) 8. Is there anyone in your family that has migrated abroad? What relation do you have with him/her? 9. If yes, could you please tell me more about the migration experience of this relative?

• Where h e/she t raveled? W hen? I n what ci rcumstances ( motives, h ow was t he decision made, procedures)?

• Did he/she stay at that country? Traveled to other country?, after how much time? Came back?, after how much time?

• What were his/her education level and main occupation before traveling abroad? • What is/was his/her education level and main occupation while abroad? • If he is a return migrant, what is his/her current education level and occupation?

261

10. If the relative is a close relative, do you know what his/her plans for the future are? In terms of:

• His/her p ermanent r esidence ( Probes: s taying a broad, r eturning, going to ot her country?)

• His/her income source • His/her nuclear family (that can include yourself)

Education – Children whose parents are abroad AND the other children in the household [Repeat the following questions for each child] 11. How is the school to what the child goes?

• Is it private or public? • Some schools are specialized in mathematics; others are specialized in languages,

technical occupations, humanities etc. What type of school is the one to what the child goes?

• Do you know since when does he/she study there? To how many schools did the child a ttend (For the children whose parents are abroad: s ince he /she i s unde r your care?) If the child attended more than one school (For the children whose parents are abroad while he/she was under your care), why he/she was changed from one school to the other(s)?

12. How is the child currently doing in school (Probe: How are his/her grades)? How was he/she doing in school before? 13. Do you know if the child likes any course in particular? How do you know? 14. What do you think about the education the child receives in school? Do you think it is completely satisfying? If not, in what aspect do you think it should be improved? Why? 15. If child is 15 and older: What options do you think your child will make for his/her adult life (Probes: with respect to childbearing? with respect to marriage? with respect to higher education? with respect to work? with respect to place of residence?)? 16. Do you perceive any difference among the child, his/her opinions, his/her experiences and the opinions, experiences of other kids who belong to households where nobody has migrated?

• If you do perceive any difference, what are these? Family life [Repeat the following questions for each child] 17. Do you know what are the plans that the father/mother of the child is most interested in promoting with respect to his/her/their child(ren)? What are these? Is he/she concerned about anything in particular? 18. Since the mother/father of the child traveled abroad, how things have changed?

• How things have changed for your family here in Lima/Buenos Aires? Could you please talk about these (if any)?

262

• How things have changed for the child(ren) you are taking care of? • How things have changed for you, personally?

19. How often does the mother of the child communicates with him/her?

• By what media is this communication realized? (Probes: by phone, by email, by messenger, letters?)

• How is this communication? (very good, good, regular, bad) Why? • Do you know what are the themes they usually talk about?

20. How often does the father of the child communicates with him/her?

• By what media is this communication realized? (Probes: by phone, by email, by messenger, letters?)

• How is this communication? (very good, good, regular, bad) Why? • Do you know what are the themes they usually talk about?

21. Do you know w ith w hat adult doe s t he c hild m ainly t alk a bout his/her school activities? Do you know how often? 22. Do you know w ith w hat a dult doe s t he c hild m ainly t alk a bout hi s/her plans f or college? Do you know how often? 23. Do you kno w w ith w hat a dult doe s t he c hild m ainly t alk a bout his/her future work/job? Do you know how often? 24. Do you know with what adult does t he child mainly t alk about hi s/her friends and peers? Do you know how often? 25. Who m ainly t akes care of t he child a t ho me, pr epares t he food/ washes hi s/her clothes/cleans his/her bedroom, the house etc.? Are there others who also do this for the child? Who? Why? 26. Who mainly pays for his/her needs (school, or school books and materials, uniforms, clothes, etc.)? Are there others who also do this for the child? Who? Why? 27. Sometimes a dults ( parents, guardians) ne ed t o e stablish s ome di scipline a mong children, to limit/regulate their actions, to o rient behaviors e tc., who i s t he person who mainly has this role for the child? Are there others who also play this role? Who? Why? Work expectations - Children whose parents are abroad AND the other children in the household [Repeat the following questions for each child] 28. What are your job/work expectations for the/your child? How do you advise him/her about this issue? Why? 29. What type of information, training or education if any do you think will be necessary for him/her to obtain that job? 30. What of the following opt ions i s the one you will possibly l ike better for the child while he/she starts working?

• That the child decides to work only in his/her country of origin (Peru/Argentina). Why?

• That the child decides to work only abroad? In what country/countries? Why?

263

• That the child decides to work in Peru/Argentina AND abroad? Why? 31. What type of procedures he/she will need to follow to obtain that job? 32. Is there anything you would like to add to this interview? Thanks so much!

264

Preliminary Interview Protocol #5 (For: prospective migrants planning to migrate for work reasons (nurses, nursing

students, personal care assistants, life guards, cuisine helpers and other occupations in demand in Spain and Italy)

AIMS: To co llect i nformation a bout pos sibilities a nd pr ocedures t o f ollow i n or der t o access a job in Italy and Spain in beneficial terms. These data will serve to illustrate and complement quantitative findings. SAMPLE: a snowball sample of prospective work migrants to Italy and Spain who are 18 to35 and reside in Lima (Peru)/Buenos Aires (Argentina). PROCEDURE: Before the interview: a. There will be an explanation of the objectives of the study, the contents and procedure of th e in terview; and h ow d ata c ollected w ill be u sed. Following t hat, I w ill a sk f or permission to r ealize t he in terview. T his p ermission w ill b e c ertified b y a s igned informed consent form. b. The s ocio-demographic d ata o f t he i nterviewee ( age, p lace o f b irth, p lace o f residence), will be registered in a “fact sheet”. A code will be assigned to this fact sheet and the same code will be marked in the cassettes to be used in the interview and in the corresponding transcription. This procedure will help to maintain anonymity. During and after the interview: The in terviews will be semi-structured. I will conduct the interview in Spanish ( I am a native Spanish speaker) guided by the list of questions in the protocol and adding relevant probes i f appropriate. R espondents will be f ree t o end the interview a t any time, or to decline to answer any question. After asking for permission, interviews will be taped and then transcribed. QUESTIONS: Living arrangements and kinship 1. How is your household?

• How many people live with you in the same house? • Who a re t hey ( Probe: are t hey r elatives/others?). Please s pecify i f t here a re

children. • What are their characteristics (Probes: sex, age, place of birth -particularly in the

case of the parents-)? 2. Besides the members of your household, do you live geographically close (in a distance that you can make by foot) to any relative? If so, who is he/she (are them)? Since when do you live geographically close to him/her (them)? 3. If you do not live with parents or siblings, or geographically close to them, how frequently you see them? How frequently do you communicate with them? 4. If you are in the situation in which you necessarily need to travel abroad without one of your children, with who would you decide that he/she would stay? Why? Would it make a d ifference t hat she/he i s ol der/younger/a girl/ a bo y? ( If interviewee does not have children, I will ask him/her to put himself/herself in that situation). Experience of Migration in the Family

265

5. Is there anyone in your family that has migrated abroad? What relation do you have with him/her? 6. If yes, could you please tell me more about the migration experience of this relative?

• Where h e/she t raveled? W hen? I n what ci rcumstances ( motives, h ow was t he decision made, procedures)?

• Did he/she stay at that country? Traveled to other country?, after how much time? Came back?, after how much time?

• What were his/her education level and main occupation before traveling abroad? • What is/was his/her education level and main occupation while abroad? • If he is a return migrant, what is his/her current education level and occupation?

7. If the relative is a close relative, do you know what his/her plans for the future are? In terms of:

• His/her pe rmanent r esidence ( Probes: s taying a broad, r eturning, going to ot her country?)

• His/her income source • His/her nuclear family (that can include yourself)

Education and work plans 8. Father: (If father was not anyone who traveled abroad i.e. a person about whose data is already collected with questions in precedent section) What is the education level of your father? What is the current main occupation of your father? 9. Mother: (If mother was not anyone who traveled abroad i.e. a person about whose data is already collected with questions in precedent section) What is the education level of your mother? What is the current main occupation of your mother? 10. Siblings: (If sibling was not anyone who traveled abroad and for who we collected data in precedent section). Repeat questions for each one of the siblings. What is the level of education of your brother/sister? What is the current occupation of your brother/sister? 11. To what type of secondary school(s) did you go?

• Was it (were them) private or public? • Was it (were them) specialized in mathematics; languages, technical occupations,

humanities or something in particular? 12. How did you do at secondary school (Probe: How were your grades)? 13. What type of higher education experience did you have?

• What career did you study? In what education institution? • For how much time? • Do you remember how you decided to study this career? How was it? (Probes: did

someone advise you? Did your family members express some opinion about this theme? What other circumstances you took into account to decide?

266

• Are you completely satisfied with your decision? Why or why not? 14. In ge neral, how do you s ee t he e ducation t hat y oung people in A rgentina/Peru receive?

• What t ype o f e ducation do you t hink i s ne cessary t o obt ain w ork here i n Argentina/Peru and have an adequate level of life?

• There is a great number of young people traveling abroad to work, if we were able to design a special type of education/training for those traveling abroad, how do you think this must be? (consider that many people while traveling abroad do not work according to the career they studied).

15. How did you decide to travel abroad to work?

• What job will you have when you arrive? • What you have planned for the period after that (in terms of work)? • Who m ainly advised you a bout a ll t he pr ocedures t o f ollow t o obt ain a w ork

abroad? • What other circumstances you took into account to decide? • Are you completely satisfied with your decision? Why or why not?

16. What are your plans for the future with regard to:

• Your pe rmanent r esidence ( Probes: s taying a broad, r eturning, g oing t o ot her country?)

• Your family (wife/husband; children; parents; siblings; grandparents; others)

17. Do you know what occupations can guarantee economic stability in Italy for WOMEN? Could you please name the most important? How did you obtain this information? 18. Do you know where and how to obtain training for these occupations?

• In what education institutions? • How is the curricula? • What is the cost?

19. Do you know what occupations can guarantee economic stability in Spain for WOMEN? Could you please name the most important? How did you obtain this information? 20. Do you know where and how to obtain training for these occupations?

• In what education institutions? • How is the curricula? • What is the cost?

21. Do you know what occupations can guarantee economic stability in Italy for MEN? Could you please name the most important? How did you obtain this information? 22. Do you know where and how to obtain training for these occupations?

• In what education institutions?

267

• How is the curricula? • What is the cost?

23. Do you know what occupations can guarantee economic stability in Spain for MEN? Could you please name the most important? How did you obtain this information? 24. Do you know where and how to obtain training for these occupations?

• In what education institutions? • How is the curricula? • What is the cost?

25. Do you know what are the strategies to be recruited for these occupations in Italy/Spain (companies of recruitment, costs, time, limitations)? 26. Could you please tell me what are the procedures a person can follow to emigrate to Italy, Spain with not too much economic resources (costs, trip trajectories, visas)? Thanks so much!

268

Entrevista al Sr. Claudio Farabola / ITENETS 1. Cuénteme por favor cómo funciona el programa ITENETS y hábleme por favor de sus características:

• ¿Qué tipo de programa es? • ¿Como esta organizado? ¿Como se involucra en su funcionamiento la Cámara de

Comercio Italiana? • ¿Donde funciona? • ¿De que institución partió la idea de su creación que necesidades buscaba cubrir?

2. ¿Que servicios brindan? 3. ¿Tienen relación formal/ institucional con otras instituciones dentro del país? Y en el exterior? Como obtienen la financiación de los servicios que brindan? 4. ¿Que proyectos han llevado a cabo? 5. ¿Como ha avanzado hasta este momento? ¿Han mantenido siempre el mismo nivel de funcionamiento? 7. ¿Que planes tienen para el futuro del programa? 8. ¿Hay archivos del trabajo hasta ahora realizado, alguna base de datos, estadísticas que yo pudiera conocer? Sobre las temáticas de la investigación: 9. ¿Cuales son los principales cambios (positivos o negativos) que usted observa en Argentina a causa de emigración de argentinos a Italia? 10. Específicamente ¿que efectos observa en el campo de la EDUCACIÓN, ya sea técnica o profesional?, esta aquí la educación superior adecuándose a las necesidades de los emigrantes a Italia que buscan insertarse al mercado laboral exitosamente? 11. Específicamente ¿que efectos observa en el mundo del TRABAJO?, hay esfuerzos por fomentar o promover el entrenamiento laboral tal vez en determinadas profesiones u ocupaciones para argentinos que buscan migrar a Italia y que buscan insertarse al mercado laboral exitosamente? 16. Trabajo en Italia:

• ¿Cuales son las ocupaciones en que trabajan los argentinos HOMBRES en ITALIA? ¿es igual para todas las edades?

• ¿Cuales son las ocupaciones en que trabajan las argentinos MUJERES en ITALIA? ¿es igual para todas las edades?

269

• ¿Cuáles de estas ocupaciones son las que garantizan mejor la estabilidad económica? Hay trámites para obtenerlas desde aquí?

• ¿Que estrategias siguen los argentinos para conseguir trabajos en ITALIA? ¿Hay compañías que se dediquen a esto? ¿los costos? ¿Programas de los gobiernos?

17. Trabajo en España:

• ¿Cuales son las ocupaciones en que trabajan los argentinos HOMBRES en ESPAÑA? ¿es igual para todas las edades?

• ¿Cuales son las ocupaciones en que trabajan las argentinos MUJERES en ESPAÑA? ¿es igual para todas las edades?

• ¿Cuáles de estas ocupaciones son las que garantizan mejor la estabilidad económica? ¿Hay trámites para obtenerlas desde aquí?

• ¿Que estrategias siguen los argentinos para conseguir trabajos en ESPAÑA? ¿Hay compañías que se dediquen a esto? ¿los costos? ¿Programas de los gobiernos?

Sobre el entrevistado: 18. ¿Personalmente como se halló interesado en participar de esta organización? 19. ¿Hay alguien en su familia que haya migrado al exterior?

Si el entrevistado responde afirmativamente: ¿Cuántos son ellos? ¿Qué relación de parentesco tiene con cada uno de ellos?

20. ¿Sabe cuáles son los pl anes de l os 3 f amiliares mas importantes pa ra l os próximos años? Con respecto a:

• Su residencia permanente (Re-preguntas: ¿Por cuanto t iempo más se quedara en el ex terior? ¿ se q uedara a v ivir en el ex terior permanentemente? ¿R etornará? ¿Viajara a vivir a otro país?

• Su f amilia n uclear (Re-preguntas: s e r eunirá l a f amilia n uclear co mpleta en el exterior? Algunos se quedaran aquí o van a otro país?)

• ¿Usted esta pensando emigrar? O ya lo hizo? ¿Por que?

21. ¿Cuales son las expectativas de trabajo que tiene usted para sus hijos/nietos? (Re-preguntas: ¿en que actividad le gustaría a usted que trabaje, ¿que tipo de trabajo u ocupación le gustaría que tenga?) ¿Que le aconseja Ud. a el/ella respecto a su futuro laboral? ¿Por que? 22. ¿Que tipo de información, entrenamiento o educación necesitarían para obtener ese tipo de trabajo (que usted han mencionado en la pregunta anterior)? 23. ¿Cual de las siguientes opciones es la que mas le gustaría a usted cuando sus hijos/nietos empiecen a trabajar?

• ¿Que trabajen solo en su país (Argentina)? ¿Por que? • ¿Que trabaje solo en el exterior? ¿Por que?

270

• ¿Que trabaje en su país Y TAMBIEN en el exterior? ¿Por que? 24. ¿Hay algo que usted quisiera agregar a la entrevista? --- ¡Muchas gracias!

271

Appendix 2.b

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS IN ARGENTINA (n=11) ID CODE INTERVIEWEE CHARACTERISTICS

1 PRE_INT1_ARG Ana - female, 47 years old Mother of two ex-migrants to Spain (Moreno, Province of Buenos Aires, 11/2006) Main occupation: Housewife Date of interview: 09/13/2006

2 PRE_INT2_ARG Amparo - female, 37 years old Siblings are migrant and ex-migrant to Spain respectively Main occupation: Linguist Date of interview: 09/11/2006

3 INT3__ARG Adela – female, 66 years old Two daughters in Spain, one in Buenos Aires All of them with Italian citizenship Main occupation: Retired Date of interview: 08/20/07

4 INT4__ARG Adriana - female, 25 years old Place of birth: Neuquen Place of residence: Capital Federal. Almagro Level of education: University incomplete Main occupation: Educator/ Psychologist Date of interview: 08/25/07

5 INT5__ARG Adolfo - male, 48 years old Main occupation: Lawyer Date of interview: 08/22/07

6 INT6__ARG Agata - female, 38 years old Main occupation: Linguist Date of interview: 08/01/07

7 INT7_ARG Alejo - male, 26 years old Place of birth: Capital Federal Place of residence: Capital Federal Level of education: Technical degree (“Tecnicatura”) Main occupation: Actor Date of interview: 01/08/08

8 INT8_ARG Agustina - female, 42 years old Place of birth: Salta Place of residence: Quilmes, Province of Buenos Aires Main occupation: Accountant Date of interview: 02/12/08

9 INT9_ARG Alfredo - male, 19 years old Place of birth: Province of Buenos Aires Place of residence: Quilmes, Province of Buenos Aires Main occupation: student/ administrative employee Date of interview: 02/12/08

10 INT10_ARG Alvaro - male, 15 years old Place of birth: Province of Buenos Aires Place of residence: Capital Federal Level of education: Secondary incomplete Main occupation: student/minor Date of interview: 03/11/08

272

11 INT11/PER Alicia - female, 47 years old Place of birth: Province of Buenos Aires Place of residence: Capital Federal Level of education: University complete Main occupation: Educator/ Psychologist Date of interview: 03/11/08

273

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS IN PERU (n=11) ID CODE INTERVIEWEE CHARACTERISTICS

1 PRE_INT1/PER Piedad - female, 31 years old Place of birth: Lima, San Juan de Miraflores Place of residence: San Juan de Miraflores Level of education: Higher, technical (“superior tecnica) Main occupation: Nurse Date of interview: 07/10/06

2 PRE_INT2/PER Group interview with relatives of migrants to Spain and Italy. Workshop: Date of interview: 07/10/06

3 INT3/PER Paola - female, 42 years old Place of birth: Lima, Barranco. Place of residence: Lima, San Juan de Miraflores Level of education: Higher, technical (“superior tecnica) Main occupation: Administrative employee Hospital de Puente Piedra Date of interview: 07/10/07

4 INT4/PER Paquita - female, 30 years old Place of birth: Lima, Jesus Maria Place of residence: Lima, Ramon Castilla, Cercado, Puente Piedra Level of education: Higher, technical (“superior tecnica”), incomplete. Computer administration Main occupation: Administrative employee. Hospital de Puente Piedra Date of interview: 07/10/07

5 INT5/PER Paz - female, 29 years old Mother in Genova, Italy. Father in Lima, Peru Main occupation: Administrative assistant

6 INT6/PER Perla - female, 32 years old Date of interview: 08/23 /07

7 INT7/PER Pablo - male, 30 years old Place of birth: Villa El Salvador. Main occupation: Computer technician

8 INT8/PER Pedro - male, 14 years old Place of birth: Lima Place of residence: Lima, Jesus Maria Level of education: Secondary incomplete Main occupation: Student Date of interview: 08/27 /07

9 INT9/PER Pascual - male, 35 years old Place of birth: Lima, Breña. Place of residence: Lima, San Martin de Porres Level of education: Secondary Main occupation: Factory worker. Date of interview: 09/02/07

10 INT10/PER Pilar – female, 45 years old Date of interview: 08/15 /07

274

11 INT11/PER Pepe - Male, 37 years old Both parents and siblings in Italy Date of interview: 08/07 /09

275

EXPERT INTERVIEWS IN LIMA AND BUENOS AIRES (n=11)

ID CODE NAME

1 EXP_INT_1_ARG

Interview with Padre Santillo. CELAM (Center of Studies of Latin American Migration). Catholic priest of the Scalabrian Congregation.

2 EXP_INT_2_ARG “MERCOSUR cities Congress”, roundtable on Immigration to Argentina and issues on local government.

3 EXP_INT_3_ARG Claudio Farabola. Italian Chamber of Commerce in Buenos Aires.

4 EXP_INT_4_ARG Dr. Inés Sereno. Education Council of Spain in Argentina.

5 EXP_INT_5_ARG Statistics technician. Education Council of Spain in Argentina.

6 EXP_INT_6_ARG Responsibles – Area ITES- Program Italia Laboro..

7 EXP_INT_7_ARG Rafael del Castillo. Lawyer of a Spanish law firm who was sent to establish in Argentina an agency.

8 EXP_INT_1_PER

Oscar Sandoval. OIM (International Organization for Migration). Peru.

9 EXP_INT_3_PER

Jorge del Castillo. OIM (International Organization for Migration). Peru.

10 EXP_INT_4_PER NGOs working with relatives of migrants in La Perla, Callao, Peru.

11 EXP_INT_5_PER

Responsible Health Center, squatter settlement Santa Rosa, Canto Grande, Lima, Peru.

276

Bibliography

Abadan-Unat, N . ( 1977). " Implications of M igration on E mancipation a nd P seudo-Emancipation of Turkish Women." International Migration Review

11(1): 31-57.

Acosta, P., P. Fajnzylber, et al. (2008). How important are remittances in Latin America? Remittances and Development. Lessons from Latin America. P. Fajnzylber and J. H. López. Washington D.C., The World Bank: 21-50.

Adams, R . ( 1996). Remittances, Income di stribution, a nd r ural a sset a ccumulation.

Washington D.C., International Food Policy Research Institute Adams, R. (2003). International migration, remittances, and the brain drain; a study of 24

labor exporting countries. Washington DC, The World Bank. Adams, R. H. J. (2006). Remittances, Poverty and Investment in Guatemala. International

Migration, Remittances and Community Development. C. Ozden and M. Schiff. Washington DC, The World Bank Group: 53-80.

Agresti, A. and B. Finlay (1997). Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences. New Jersey,

Prentice Hall. Alarcon, R. (2002). The Development of the Hometown Associations in the United States

and the Use of Social Remittances in Mexico ed ited by Sending Money Home: Hispanic R emittances a nd C ommunity D evelopment. R . O . l . G arza a nd L. Lowell. Lanham MD, Rowman & Littlefield.: 101-124.

Aysa, M. and D. Massey (2004). Wives left behind: The labor market behavior of women

in mig rant c ommunities. Crossing t he B order: R esearch f rom the M exican Migration P roject. J . Durand a nd D . M assey. N ew Y ork, R ussell S age Foundation: 131- 144.

Bagchi, A . ( 2001). Making c onnections: a s tudy of ne tworking among i mmigrant

proffesionals. New York, LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC. Banerjee, A. V. and E. Duflo (2008). "What is the middle Class about the Middle Classes

around the world?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 22(2): 3-28. Barnes, J . A . ( 1954). " Class a nd c ommittees i n a N orwegian i sland pa rish." Human

Relations(7): 39-58.

277

Behrman, J . R., H . P . K holer, e t a l. ( 2002). " Social N etworks a nd C hanges i n

Contraceptive Use Over T ime: E vidence f rom a Longitudinal S tudy i n R ural Kenya." Demography 39(4): 713-738.

Boissevain, J. and J. C. Mitchell (1973). Network analysis: studies in human interaction.

The Hague, Mouton Publishers. Bongaarts, J . a nd S . Watkins ( 1996). " Social i nteractions a nd c ontemporary f ertility

transitions." Population and Development Review 22(4): 639-82. Boyd, M . ( 1989). "Family a nd pe rsonal n etworks in in ternational mig ration: r ecent

developments and new agendas." International Migration Review 23(3): 638-70. Cohen, R. (2000). ""Mom is a Stranger": The Negative Impact of Immigration Policies

on th e F amily Life o f Filipina D omestic W orkers." Canadian E thnic S tudies Journal Fall.

Cooksey, E . C . a nd P . H. C raig ( 1998). "Parenting f rom a Distance: The E ffects o f

Paternal Characteristics on Contact between Nonresidential Fathers and Their Children." Demography. 35(2. Men in Families.): 187-200. Durand, J., E. Parrado, et al. (1996). "Migradollars and Development: A Reconsideration

of the Mexican Case." International Migration Review 30(2): 423-444. Easterly, W. (2001). "The Middle Class Consensus and Economic Development." Journal

of Economic Growth 6(4): 317-335. Entwisle, B., R. R. Rindfuss, et al. (1996). "Community and contraceptive choice in rural

Thailand: A case study of Nang Rong." Demography 33(1): 1-11. Fields, J . ( 2003). C hildren's Living A rrangements a nd C haracteristics: M arch 2002.

Current Population Reports. Washington D.C., U.S. Census Bureau. Filgueira, C. H. and F. Filgueira (2002). Models of Welfare and Models of Capitalism:

The Limits of Transferability. Models of Capitalism: Lessons for Latin America. . E. Huber. University Park, PA, The Pennsylvania State Press.: 127-157.

Flores, N . Y ., R . H ernandez-Leon, e t al. (2004). S ocial C apital a nd E migration From

Rural and Urban Communities. Crossing the Border: Research from the Mexican Migration P roject. J . Durand a nd D . M assey. N ew Y ork, R ussell S age Foundation: 184-200.

278

Fussell, E . a nd D . M assey ( 2004). " The Limits to C umulative C ausation: International Migration from Mexican Urban Areas." Demography 41(1): 151-171.

Granovetter, M . ( 1973). " The S trength o f W eak Ties " The A merican J ournal of

Sociology 86(6): 1360-1380. Granovetter, M. (1976). "Network Sampling: Some First Steps." The American Journal

of Sociology 81(6): 1287-1303. Grasmuck, S . a nd P . P essar ( 1991). Between Two I slands.Dominican I nternational

Migration Berkeley, University of California Press. Gratton, B . ( 2007). "Ecuadorians i n t he U nited S tates a nd S pain: H istory, G ender a nd

Niche Formation." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 33(4): 581-599. Groisman, F. and A. L. Suarez (2009). Residential Segregation in Greater Buenos Aires.

Urban S egregation and Governance i n t he Americas. B. R . R oberts a nd R . H . Wilson. New York, Palgrave Macmillan.

Guendelman, S . and A. Perez-Itriago (1987). "Migration Tradeoffs: Men’s Experiences

with Seasonal Lifestyles." International Migration Review 21(3): 709-727. Gurak, D . T . and F . C aces ( 1992). M igration N etworks a nd t he S haping of M igration

Systems International Migration Systems. A Global Approach. M. M. Kritz, L. L. Lim and H. Zlotnik. New York, Oxford University Press: 150-176.

Haritos-Fatouros, M. and D. Sakka (1988). "A study of migrant mothers: return home and

role change." International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling 11: 167-181.

Hondagneu-Sotelo, P . ( 1992). "Overcoming P atriarchal C onstrains; T he R econstruction

of Gender Relations among Mexican Immigrant Women and Men." Gender and Society 6(3): 393-415.

Hondagneu-Sotelo, P. and E. Avila (1996). "I am here but I am there: The Meanings of

Latina Transnational Motherhood." Gender and Society 11(5): 548-571. Huber, E. (1996). Options for Social Policy in Latin America: Neoliberal versus Social

Democratic Models. Welfare States in Transition: National Adaptations in Global Economies. G. Esping-Andersen and U. N. R. I. f. S. Development. London, UK, SAGE: 145-191.

Hugo, G. (1992). Women on t he move: Changing Patterns of Population Movement of

Women in Indonesia. Gender and Migration in Developing Countries. S . Chant. London, Belhaven Press.

279

Hugo, G . (1995). " International M igration a nd the F amily: S ome O bservations f rom

Indonesia." Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 4(2-4): 273-301. INEI (1995) Migraciones Internas en el Peru. Istat (2007). La popol azione s traniera r esidente in Italia (al 1 gennaio 2 007). C . d. i .

statistica. Rome, Istituto nacionale di statistica. Istat ( 2007). La p resenza s traniera in Italia: caratteristiche s ocio-demografiche. Rome,

Istituto nacionale di statistica Jackson, D., J. Kirkland, et al. (2005). "Social Network Analysis and Estimating the Size

of Hard-to-Count Subpopulations." Connections 26(2): 49-60. Johnson, C. L. (2000). "Perspectives on American Kinship in the Later 1990s." Journal of

Marriage and the Family 62(623-639). Kalton, G . ( 2001). "Practical M ethods for S ampling R are a nd Mobile P opulations."

Proceedings o f th e A nnual M eeting o f th e A merican S tatistical A ssociation August 5-9.

Kandel, W . and D. Massey (2002). "The Culture of Mexican Migration: A Theoretical

and Empirical Analysis." Social Forces 80(3): 981-1004. Kapferer, B. (1972). Strategy and transaction in an African factory. African Workers and

Indian M anagement i n a Z ambian T own. M anchester, M anchester University Press.

Kholer, H. P. (2001). Fertility and Social Interaction. An Economic Perspective. Oxford,

University Press. Knoke, D . a nd J . H . K uklinski ( 1982). Network an alysis S eries. B everly Hills, S age

Publications. Levitt, P . ( 1996). Social R emittances: a C onceptual T ool f or U nderstanding M igration

and D evelopment. W orking P aper S eries, H arvard C enter for P opulation a nd Development Studies.

Levitt, P . ( 1998). "Local-Level G lobal R eligion: T he C ase o f U .S.-Dominican

Migration." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37(1): 74-89. Levitt, P. (1998). "Social Remittances: Migration Driven Local-Level Forms of Cultural

Diffusion." International Migration Review 32(4): 926-948.

280

Levitt, P. (2001). The Transnational Villagers. Berkeley, University of California Press. Lowell, L. (2003) Skilled Migration Abroad or Human Capital Flight? Lowell, L ., A. F indlay, et a l. ( 2004) B rain S train. O ptimizing hi ghly s killed m igration

from de veloping c ountries Asylum a nd M igration. W orking P aper 3 Working Paper 3,

Lowell, L. and S. Gerova (2004). " Immigrants and the Healthcare Workforce. Profiles

and Shortages " Work and Occupations 34(4): 1-25. Martin, P . ( 2003). Highly S killed Labor M igration: S haring t he B enefits. G eneva,

International Labor Organization. Massey, D. (1988). "Economic Development and International Migration in Comparative

Perspective." Population and Development Review 14(3): 393-414. Massey, D . ( 1990). " Social S tructure, H ousehold S trategies, and t he C umulative

Causation of Migration." Population Index 56(1): 3-26. Massey, D ., J . A rango, e t a l. ( 1988). World i n M otion. U nderstanding I nternational

Migration at the End of the Millennium. New York, Oxford University Press. Massey, D., J. Arango, et al., Eds. (1998). Worlds in Motion. Understanding International

Migration at t he E nd of t he M illennium. International S tudies i n D emography. New York, Oxford University Press.

McLanahan, S. (2004). "Diverging Destinies: How Children are Faring Under the Second

Demographic Transition." Demography 41(4): 607-627. McLanahan, S. and G. Sandefur (1994). Growing Up with a Single Parent: What Hurts,

What Helps. Cambridge, MA, Harvard Press. Mitchell, J. C . ( 1969). Social N etworks i n U rban S ituations: A nalyses of P ersonal

Relationships i n C entral A frican T owns. Manchester, M anchester U niversity Press.

Mooney, M . ( 2003). "Migrants’ S ocial T ies i n t he U .S. a nd Investment i n M exico."

Social Forces 81(4): 1147-1170. Morrison, D. R. and A. Ritualo (2000). "Routes to Children's Economic Recovery After

Divorce: A re C ohabitation a nd R emarriage E quivalent." American S ociological Review 65: 560-580.

281

OECD (2010). International Migration Outlook: SOPEMI 2009. Paris, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

OIM, INEI, e t al. (2008). Peru: Estadisticas de la migracion internacional de pe ruanos,

1990-2007. Lima, Organizacion Internacional para las Migraciones. Pellegrino, A. ( 2004). Migration from Latin A merica to E urope. Geneva, I nternational

Organization for Migration. Raley, K., M. L. Frisco, et al. (2005). "Maternal Cohabitation and Educational Success."

Sociology of Education 78(2): 144-164 Reichert, J . ( 1981). " The M igrant S yndrome: Seasonal U S W age Labor a nd R ural

Development in Central Mexico." Human Organization 40(1): 56-66. Rindfuss, R . R ., M . K . Choe, e t a l. ( 2004). " Social N etworks a nd F amily C hange i n

Japan." American Sociological Review 69: 838-861. Rivero-Fuentes, E . ( 2004). C umulative c ausation a mong i nternal a nd i nternational

Mexican m igrants. Crossing t he B order: R esearch f rom t he M exican M igration Project. J . D urand a nd D . M assey. New York, R ussell S age F oundation Publications: 201-231.

Roberts, B. R. and R. H. Wilson (2009). Residential segregation and Governance in the

Americas:An Overview. Urban Segregation and Governance in the Americas. B. R. Roberts and R. H. Wilson. New York, Palgrave Macmillan: 1-20.

Roberts, B . R . a nd C . Wood ( 2005). Introduction: R ethinking D evelopment i n L atin

America. Rethinking Development in Latin America. B. R. Roberts and C. Wood. University Park, PA, The Pennsylvania State Press.: 1-23.

Roberts, K. and M. D. Morris (2003). "Fortune, Risk, and Remittances: An Application

of O ption T heory to P articipation in V illage-Based M igration N etworks." International Migration Review 37(4): 1252-1291.

Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations. New York, Free Press. Rosenbaum, E . (2000). " Urban C hildren's Living A rrangements a nd t heir E conomic

Status: New York, 1993." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 59(2). Scott, J. (1988). "Social Network Analysis " Sociology 22(1): 109-127. Smit, R . ( 2001). " The i mpact of l abor m igration o n A frican f amilies in S outh A frica:

Yesterday and Today." Journal of Comparative Family Studies 32(4): 533-548.

282

Suro, R., S. Bendixen, et al. (2002). Billions in Motion: Latino Immigrants, Remittances and B anking. W ashington D .C. , P ew H ispanic Centre and t he M ultilateral Investment Fund.

Tacoli, C . ( 1999). "International M igration a nd t he R estructuring o f G ender

Asymmetries: Continuity and Change among Filipino Labor Migrants in Rome." International Migration Review 33(3): 658-682.

Taylor, E. (1999). "The new economics of labour migration and the role of remittances in

the migration process." International Migration 37: 63-87. Ugalde, A ., F . D . B ean, e t a l. ( 1979). " International M igration f rom t he D ominican

Republic: F indings f rom a N ational S urvey." International M igration R eview 13(2): 235-254.

UN (2005). Population Challenges and D evelopment Goals. DESA. New York, United

Nations. UN ( 2007). Indicators of S ustainable D evelopment: G uidelines a nd Methodologies -

Third edition. METHODOLOGY SHEETS. DESA. New York, United Nations. Wenden, C . W . d. ( 2004). A dmissions P olicies i n E urope. International M igration.

Prospects an d P olicies i n a G lobal M arket. D. Massey and J . E . T aylor. N ew York, Oxford University Press: 286-294.

Wierzbicki, S. K . ( 2004). Beyond t he Immigrant E nclave: N etwork C hange a nd

Assimilation. New York, LFB Scholarly Publishing. Zlotnik, H . ( 1992). E mpirical id entification of International M igration S ystems.

International Migration Systems a Global Approach. M. M. Kritz, L. L. Lim and H. Zlotnik. Oxford, Clarendon Press: 19-40.

283

Vita

Tania R. Vásquez was born in Arequipa, Peru on February 22, 1969, the daughter

of R ebeca E speranza Luque H erencia and C ésar G uillermo V ásquez Cuentas. A fter

completing h er s econdary education a t T eresa González de F anning H igh S chool, in

1985, she entered the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (Lima, Peru). She received

the degree of Bachelor of Social Sciences with Mention in Sociology in June, 1995. From

July, 1995 t o December 1996, s he w as employed a s A ssistant P rofessor i n t he

Universidad N acional d e S an C ristóbal de Huamanga (Ayacucho, P eru). F rom M arch

1998 to July 1998 she was employed as Teaching Assistant in the Pontificia Universidad

Católica del Perú. From July to December of 1999 she was employed as a consultant of

the M inistry o f Education of P eru. F rom J anuary 2000 t o A ugust 2001 s he w orked a s

assistant r esearcher and affiliated r esearcher i n t he Instituto de E studios Peruanos, IEP

(Lima, P eru). In A ugust, 2001, s he e ntered t he Graduate S chool a t T he University o f

Texas, s tudying s ociology. S he s pecialized i n D emography and has b een a g raduate

student t rainee of the Population Research Center of t he University o f T exas a t Austin

during a ll t he t ime pe riod c orrespondent t o he r doc toral s tudies. In 2004, s he w as

awarded t he M asters d egree b y th e U niversity of T exas a t A ustin ( Thesis title : “The

Institutional Process of an Education Decentralization Policy: The Case of the Rural

Networks of Schools in Peru in 2002”). In 2007, she co-authored a book with Dr. Patricia

Oliart S. in her home country (“La Descentralización Educativa 1996‐2001 : la Versión

Real de la Reforma en Tres Departamentos Andinos” L ima : I nstituto de E studios

Peruanos- IEP, first edition). Part as her work as graduate student in the Department of

284

Sociology o f the U niversity of T exas a t A ustin has i ncluded t he pos ition of T eaching

Assistant of the course “Introduction to Social Research” (semesters: Spring 2005, Spring

2007, Fall 2007), and the position of Assistant Instructor of the course “Introduction to

the Sociology o f Latin America” ( semesters: S pring 2008, F all 2008, Fall 2009 and

Spring 2010).

Permanent address: Inka Ripaq 264. Apt. 404. Jesus Maria. Lima, Peru.

This dissertation was typed by Tania R Vásquez.