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CON T EN T S
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Shalom Magazine for the Alumni of MASHAV Training Courses is
published by Haigud Society for Transfer of Technology. Haigud, a
government company and non-profit organization, serves as the
financial and administrative arm of MASHAV, and functions as a
professional
unit to assist in the implementation of MASHAV activities.
AGRIBUSINESS: SHARING THE ISRAELI EXPERIENCEMark Schulman
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION: A TOOL FOR DEVELOPMENTMichel Isaak
MCTC's EXPERIENCE IN ENTREPRENEURIAL TRAINING Mazal Renford and
Shula Ferdman
MASHAV MARKS THE SPOTOverview of MASHAV On-the-spot CoursesMark
Schulman
THE ARAL SEA PROJECTMASHAV/USAID Cooperation Program
SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES: BACKBONE OF ECONOMYRuth
Seligman
SHALOM CLUBS
MASHAV NEWS
REPORTS:Malawi – Emylda Bongwe and Agnes JordanidiszEthiopia –
Dr. Girmaye TamratArgentina – Teresa MazaNigeria – Evangelist
Chukwuma Elom
RE-ENTRYYehoshua Erlich
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
F o r e w o r dToward the end of 1957, a special unit for
international cooperation was established at the Foreign Ministry
in Jerusalem. Its first initiative, in December, 1958, was the
Seminar on Economic and Social Development for Leaders from Asia
and Africa, held in Tel Aviv. In those days, phone and mail
services with the countries involved (which until recently had been
British or French colonies) were unreliable, and the seminar’s
organizers expected 30-40 participants at the most. To their
complete surprise, over 100 participants showed up for the opening
session, among them national leaders and the heads of liberation
movements. At the last moment, then-Foreign Minister Golda Meir
ordered the opening ceremony moved to the largest hall available at
that time in Tel Aviv, the legendary Mugrabi Theater.Since then,
the “family” of MASHAV, the Center for International Development,
has grown considerably, with over 205,000 course graduates from all
over the world who have participated in MASHAV training activities
in the areas of economics, medicine, education and social welfare
either in Israel (86,000) or abroad (116,000).This family, of which
you are a member, is a warm and caring family that in the past 46
years has dramatically improved the lives of people in more than
130 countries.Many of you have since become government ministers
(60), mayors, civic leaders and the heads of national
organizations. Three have gone on to become president of their
country. We are very proud of your achievements and consider
ourselves blessed by your friendship. We want you to know that
Israel and MASHAV will continue to share with you its own
experience and knowledge, and will always be grateful to learn from
you as you participate in the development of your own
countries.Despite severe budgetary cutbacks, MASHAV remains
committed to its mission. In fact, at the beginning of this year,
it entered the world of electronic information by launching its own
Web site - http://mashav.mfa.gov.il. From now on, you will be able
to follow MASHAV’s activities on an ongoing basis, and
electronically send your comments and suggestions.Shalom Magazine,
which has long been the main link between MASHAV and its course
graduates, continues to address the many issues that lie at the
core of development. In this issue, for example, articles focus on
agricultural extension, women’s empowerment, agribusinesses,
education, small and medium enterprises, and more. Although the
aforementioned cutbacks have curtailed its output to just one issue
a year, Shalom Magazine will continue to bring news about MASHAV
and its activities to all of you throughout the world who share
with us the commitment to strive for the development and betterment
of your countries.Finally, this is the place to express my
appreciation to Joan Hooper, who has concluded her tenure as editor
of Shalom Magazine, and welcome Avnit Rifkin, Shalom’s new
editor.
Arie AraziDeputy Director General
Ministry of Foreign AffairsHead of MASHAV
MASHAVCenter for International CooperationMinistry of Foreign
AffairsState of Israel
http://mashav.mfa.gov.il
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by Mark Schulman
Agribusiness is big business, especially in Israel. That is why
a group of professionals
from Central and Eastern Europe and from several former Soviet
Republics
(CIS States) came to the Israeli Ministry of Agriculture’s
Center
for International Agricultural Development Cooperation
(CINADCO) at Kibbutz Shefayim near Tel Aviv
this past September to participate in a bilingual
English-Russian Workshop on
Agribusiness Enterprise
Development.
AGRIBUSINESS: SHARINGTHE ISRAELI EXPERIENCE
AGRIBUSINESS: SHARINGTHE ISRAELI EXPERIENCE
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Co-sponsored by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs through
its Center for International Cooperation (MASHAV) and the United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), the workshop
brought together 21 senior government officials, including a
minister and deputy ministers of agriculture, as well as academics,
farmers and other agricultural professionals from 13 countries to
examine Israel’s agribusiness experience at the national and local
level, and to introduce them to various Israeli modalities of
agribusiness entrepreneurship and support services in the field.
Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, agriculture
has been key to the country’s development and, in many ways, the
national psyche. A combination of sophisticated, applied science
and rugged determination have helped Israel’s farmers to modernize
and adapt to changing geopolitical, market and climatic conditions.
Except for brief, sporadic declines, agricultural output has grown
almost uninterruptedly since independence.“The fact that Israel is
located in a semi-arid region, with limited water resources, has
compelled us to develop our own resources and technology to become
self-sufficient,” Arie Sheskin, former head of the Israeli Ministry
of Agriculture’s Foreign Relations Department, told participants
attending the one-week workshop. “Despite the lack of water, a
small area of arable land, and a small consumer market, we have
managed to overcome some major obstacles to become a competitive
exporter of agricultural goods and services.” According to the
Ministry of Agriculture, the total value of agricultural production
in Israel has reached over $3 billion annually, of which about 20%
is exported. Most of the agricultural exports, especially
horticulture and field crops, are directed towards the European
market. Although this represents only about 2.4% of Israel’s GDP
and 4% of overall exports (compared to 30% of exports during the
1960s when Israel’s famous Jaffa orange industry was at its peak),
agriculture has grown in absolute terms and continues to play an
important part in the Israeli economy. “We are very interested in
how Israel has organized its agriculture sector and hope to see
something similar happen one day within our own countries,” said
Viera Baricicova, of the Slovak Republic’s State Veterinary and
Food Administration, as well as Vice-Chair of the UNECE’s
Agricultural Producers Quality Program. “However, after so many
years under a
collective system, we have many obstacles to overcome before
becoming a totally market-driven economy,” she added.Other
countries, particularly from the Central Asian Republics and the
former Soviet Union also expressed the need to transform their
agricultural sector from a centrally controlled economy to a
market-driven one.“It’s only been ten years or so since my country
has gone from a
communist market economy to a private market economy,” said
Kestutis Sniukas, a Lithuanian farmer representing the Darzoviu
Centras Vegetable Growers Cooperative. “We are still adjusting to
new laws and regulations for the agricultural sector. “We also have
a big problem in quality and packaging, especially in trying to get
our products accepted in the European Union (EU) market,” he
added.Roman Kakulia, of the Georgian Ministry of Agriculture and
Food, stressed the lack of coordination in rural development
services, as well as the lack of financial resources in his
country’s agriculture and agribusiness sector. “We need more
investments,” Kakulia said, “especially to help subsistence
farmers.”Agribusiness entrepreneurship is a key element in
assisting and improving rural income opportunities and economic
growth
Reviewing the latest agricultural technologies at Agritech
exhibition
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and can play an important role in promoting sustainable
agricultural and rural sector development. Israel’s own
agricultural and rural sector, both at the national, regional and
local levels, have developed various agribusiness enhancement
mechanisms and financing systems, with the support of the
government, to support the country’s on-going specialization and
market-driven orientation, particularly related to high-
quality and export market production. During the week of the
Workshop, participants had the opportunity to see first-hand some
of Israel’s agribusiness enterprises, including visits to a modern
dairy farm and winery at Kibbutz Tzora near Jerusalem, a dairy
processing plant at Kfar Tavor in the lower Galilee, and an olive
oil factory at the Moshav Bnei Darom on the south coast near
Ashdod.Much of Israel’s agriculture is still produced on the
kibbutz and moshav. The kibbutz is a distinct socio-economic entity
based on cooperative principles where members collectively own the
means of production and share social, cultural and economic
activities. The moshav is also a rural settlement, but families
maintain their own households and farm their own land. However,
they work collectively when it comes to purchasing
and marketing. In recent years both systems have undergone some
major ideological and structural changes, though they still account
for nearly 75% of the country’s fresh agricultural produce, and
much of the country’s dairy production.“I was very impressed by the
dairy farm we visited,” said Ryszard Piatek, a participant from
Poland. “The technology was simply amazing, as well as the
output.”
Israel’s dairy cows are world champions when it comes to milk
production. Average milk production has increased dramatically from
3,900 liters annually per dairy cow in the 1950s to close to 11,000
liters today. The dairy sector supplies the country’s total dairy
requirements, with production potential reaching far beyond
domestic needs. Products are even shipped as far away as
Kyrgyzstan.“MASHAV set up a dairy cattle demonstration project in
my country several years ago,” said Baktygul Zheenbayeva,managing
director of the Kyrgyz Agricultural Financial Corporation. “We hope
that the private ownership of dairy farms will improve both the
quality and quantity of milk and at the same time increase the
commercial benefits of the individual farms, particularly in more
rural areas.”There is also an Israeli dairy demonstration project
in Almati, Kazakhstan, aimed at introducing modern and
market-oriented dairy farming.
“There are Israeli agribusinesses already doing business in my
country [Kazakhstan], but what we need now is help with marketing
our products and, of course, more investors,” added Alzhan
Shomayev, the director of the KASEAN Association, a private Kazakh
company. Marketing is something Israel has done well with over the
years, thanks in part to strong government support. According to
the Israeli Export Institute, some $80 million is invested annually
in research and development (R&D), representing some 3% of GNP.
R&D is complimented by extensive cooperation between farmers
and researchers whereby research results are quickly transmitted
through an extension service system to the field for trial, and
problems are brought directly to the scientists for solutions. This
close cooperation between researchers,
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farmers, field extension services and agriculture-related
industries has led to the development and manufacture of some of
the world’s most advanced agro-technology. Development of
state-of-the-art irrigation, greenhouse equipment, seed and
livestock propagation have enabled Israeli agriculture to prosper.
Such results have also led Israel to share its success and know-how
with many developing countries over the years, particularly through
the many training courses, like the one on agribusiness, organized
by MASHAV. “This is a unique workshop in that particular emphasis
is being given to Eastern Europe and CIS countries,” said David
Peleg, the former Israeli Foreign Ministry’s Deputy Director for
Central Europe and Eurasia, and the new Israeli ambassador to
Poland. “We hope to share our experience and cooperate with as many
countries as possible.”This is the second MASHAV-UNECE sponsored
workshop, following a seminar on organizational assistance, support
measures and credit facilities for small and medium enterprises
(SMEs), which took place in Tel Aviv in February 2000. “The UNECE
and the government of Israel are committed to providing assistance
in the development of entrepreneurship to other transition
economies, which lag behind their advanced neighboring countries,”
said Antal Szabó, the UNECE’s regional adviser in entrepreneurship
and SMEs. “This workshop is a good example of the kind of
cooperation we are looking for.”The UNECE was established in 1947
by the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) to
develop economic activity and strengthen economic relations within
the UNECE region. There are 55 UNECE members, representing
countries ranging from CIS states to European countries to the
United States. Israel joined the UN body in 1991. The UNECE’s main
areas of activity include economic analysis, environment,
transportation, trade, industry, sustainable energy, and human
settlements.After the creation of the UNECE, MASHAV was set up in
1958 as part of Israel’s commitment of sharing its know-how with
developing countries in need of assistance. With
200 courses offered in Israel and abroad, MASHAV trains some
10,000 participants annually in areas ranging from community and
cooperative development, environmental management, integrated rural
regional development, adult and early childhood education and
public health. Agricultural development is still one of MASHAV’s
main activities, focusing on adapting new technologies to eliminate
hunger and poverty and creating new business opportunities for
developing countries.“I came here to learn more about the Israel
experience,” said Samvel Avetisyan, the Armenian Deputy Agriculture
Minister. “Armenia is very similar to Israel in many ways,
particularly in land size, but much of our available land is not
irrigated,” he added. “We have some Israeli irrigation systems, but
we need more, especially drip irrigation, in order to expand our
production.”The Minister of Agriculture from the Russian Republic
of Kabardino-Balkaria, located in the northern Caucasus region, was
also in attendance. “I came here to learn about the development of
science, agriculture and extension services in Israel,” said
Minister Marat Akhokhov.The timing of the workshop was designed so
that participants could visit Agritech, one of the largest
international agricultural exhibitions, which took place in Tel
Aviv from 15-18 September. The event, held every three years,
showcases Israel’s latest technologies developed in the fields of
irrigation, greenhouses, and genetic engineering of crops. This
year thousands of visitors came to the
exhibition, including 30 agricultural ministers and 25 business
delegations from 47 countries.“Agritech is a good place to make
contacts,” said Lithuanian farmer and MASHAV participant Kestutis
Sniukas. “I’ll be looking for good quality irrigation and
fertilizers to help improve the quality and yield of my
collective’s products,” he added.“This will be a good start to
improving our agricultural standards with the hope that we can one
day soon start exporting to the EU and other markets.”
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Ph
otos
by
Mic
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Isa
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by Michel Isaak1
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The Rise of Agricultural Extension The industrial revolution
that is particularly typical of Britain was brought about by a
technological innovation: the automatic loom in the 18th century.
Britain quickly industrialized and became the first producer and
exporter of textiles. The consequence was that farmers left their
fields and became industrial workers, spurring the growth of cities
around the thriving textile industry. At the same time, there were
fewer people to produce foodstuffs and more mouths to feed. This
led the Crown to create a government service to help those farmers
who still stayed on the land to produce more and more efficiently.
Agriculture therefore became a profession like the many other
trades and not any more a natural occupation of people trying to
provide for their mere survival. Research institutions for the
advancement of scientific farming were created and agriculture
underwent a process of specialization
1 The writer is the recently retired Head of CINADCO’s
Francophone Division2 See Y. Abt: “Some Observations Relating to
the Current Problem of Food Security in Africa,” MASHAV, April
2001
Subsistence agriculture through manual work is still the lot of
millions of African farmers. Extension has to be careful to suggest
progressive changes in conformity with the economic and
socio-cultural levels of the clients. When training extension
workers who deal with such farmers, the author tried to instill
empathy so that these development agents would program changes that
would be acceptable and that would bring about tangible results in
a relatively short period of time (Upper Volta/Burkina Faso, West
Africa, 1978)
and professionalization, which is still very much in force
today. From subsistence agriculture moved to diversification and
specialized market oriented agriculture. Because of its “strategic
importance” for maintaining food security2 for its population, most
countries have created some kind of service to support farmers in
their endeavours to produce more efficiently. These are called
advisory or extension services.
A Short History of Extension ServicesAs outlined above, the
British crown was the first to create a free service to help
farmers to produce more foodstuffs. It was therefore quite natural
that they would set up similar organizations in the territories
under their rule. In India and Africa, advisory or extension
services were established because basically the problems of food
scarcity were comparable to those
Britain had been subject to at the end of the 18th century. In
the United States - where the term extension was coined - the
service was started from the State universities under the Land
Grant System. According to this modality, State universities were
encouraged and financed to set up faculties of agronomy and animal
sciences whose teachers and professors not only dealt with research
and teaching but also “extended” their know-how and experience to
surrounding farmers including farm visits and on-farm trials. This
became known as extension service, i.e. from the university to the
outside farming world in the areas allotted to that particular
university. This was later coined cooperative extension service
when the US government introduced the system in developing
countries, specifically to Latin America but also to some parts of
Africa.In France, on the other hand, the state evolved into
industrial development while staying
a predominantly agricultural country, where farmers often
produce surpluses and therefore the need arose to regulate farming
rather than encouraging it. When the French started colonizing
parts of Africa and Asia, they brought with them the same approach
regarding agricultural development and therefore did not bother to
set up such services, except of course for cash crops they were
interested in for export and further processing at home (cotton,
coffee, cocoa, rubber, groundnuts, spices, etc.).The need for farm
improvement both at home and in the former colonies was never
entrusted to the state, rather to the care and initiative of the
farmers themselves through farmers or growers’ associations, who
would then hire specialists in specific trades like plant
protection, mechanization and farm economics. This of course posed
the problem of farmers’ organizations, which
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is not a spontaneous phenomenon the least one could say, in
developing nations.The Training and Visit (T&V) System
popularized in the 1970s and the 1980s through the World Bank was
applied in many developing countries and certainly was instrumental
in arousing the awareness on the need of knowledge systems as a
critical input to bring about development. It was a great success
especially in India. When combined with the Green Revolution, it
brought important changes in state awareness in many parts of
Africa.T&V while effective – a case in point is French-speaking
Guinea in West Africa – was criticized for two main reasons: first
because of its top-down approach and second because of its not
being efficient (large maintenance budgets linked to enhanced
salaries, vehicles and management of the system). This led to the
participatory approach, whereby development professionals
(researchers, extension workers at all levels) should initiate
change together with farmers according to the farmers’ felt needs
and not necessarily according to what suits policymakers or
governments.
One of the challenges the author faced was modifying a Sectorial
extension system based on cotton growing toward a universal
extension system that would include also food crops. This project
was sponsored by the World Bank in the Upper Volta (today Burkina
Faso). The main problem here was the French approach, which ignored
the welfare of the small farmer and concentrated on cash crops for
obvious reasons. (Upper Volta/Burkina Faso, West Africa, 1978)
Reaching the farmer in his fields and periodically is one of the
musts of well-organized extension. The road sometimes disappears if
by chance a heavy rain occurs but the agent has to pass. Bicycles
or light motorbikes are used so that one can pass the ford and
carry on on the other side. The author acquired a bicycle that was
loaded on to the pick-up and used it to travel on small paths in
the bush to reach the farmers’ fields where the extension workers
were having their visits. This supervisory work by the author as
well as by other local officials very much enhanced motivation in
field extension personnel.
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Free trade and entrepreneurship are now widely encouraged as
opposed to state intervention and the tendency is presently to a
strong reduction in state budgets and in the intervention in the
life of citizens, especially as related to agricultural
development. Extension therefore will move to privatized systems –
in a way a bend towards the French approach as outlined above. The
need for extension is evident, the only problems is to whom to
entrust it, who will pay for it and consequently what delivery
systems should be used to ensure its effectiveness, efficiency and
sustainability.
Various Approaches to ExtensionA number of models or approaches
can be distinguished (according to a study conducted by the
FAO):
(a) SectorialThis is the system whereby extension only tackles
one type of produce. It is usually linked with all the other
components of agriculture: research, provision of inputs, marketing
and credit. This approach can be found in countries that had been
under colonial rule. The commodities are coffee, cocoa, rubber,
cotton and the like.
(b) Cooperative Extension (USA)Here we have the logical
consequence of the system adopted in the USA, where all extension
efforts stem from universities and are geared to neighbouring
producers.
(c)PrivateFarmers’ associations:The farmers themselves hire
specialists in agricultural technology as well as agricultural
economists through their professional organizations. They pay a fee
as membership to the professional organization and may thereby
benefit from advice and farm visits.After sales service:Businesses
being eager to satisfy the client often invest a lot of effort in
after sales service, which can be considered as an extension
method. The problem is that this is usually limited in time to
after the purchase of the tool or the seeds, etc.
(d) Project or IntegratedThe idea is to develop a limited
geographical area and tackle all aspects of development including
education, health services, community development, roads, credit,
housing and agriculture. This version is also limited in time and
is usually a very large financial effort, which has to be borne by
some outside sponsor or investor.
(e) Conventional, Training and VisitThe conventional approach is
a derivative of the Advisory Services set up by the British and
developed into state operated services as a permanent service
offered by the ministries of
agriculture or similar government entities to support the
farming population. Their drawback is that they impose a large
burden on governments that are usually inefficient and
understaffed.The Training and Visit System established in the 1980s
by Daniel Benor is a system, which was adopted in a wide range of
countries of Asia and Africa and was supported by the World Bank
until recently. Its main advantage was to establish a series of
management principles like regularly spaced visits to a specific
number of farmers who were chosen as contact farmers and who then
serve as passive disseminators of innovations to their
neighbors.The Field Extension Worker (FEW) or Village Extension
Worker work with the farmer on demo plots in a small area of the
latter’s field and help him to adopt new ideas. Once adoption is
effected, the farmer expands the innovation to a larger area and so
forth. Field Extension Workers gather once a fortnight to be
trained by Subject Matter Specialists (SMS). During this session
technical reports are orally presented and all queries related to
the last round of visits raised. Moreover, their supervisors check
both quality of extension work and attendance of the FEWs. Another
important element of the system is the linkage with research and
field trials, to whom SMSs have access to enhance their know-how as
a kind of in-service training during their career.The system has
known many derivations and changes due to local preferences and
budgetary constraints but many of its sound elements remain in most
existing systems nowadays.
Defining the ConceptThe following generic definition of the
concept can thus be attempted, taking into consideration the
various aspects touched upon above:“Agricultural extension is a
non-formal type of training at the service of farmers, which
constitutes a link between research and the farmers aiming at
effecting changes in farmers’ professional behaviour toward the
improvement of their livelihood.”Extension distinguishes itself
from formal training or education, such as schools, colleges,
university training and the like because there is no formal
condition for participation nor any diplomas on completion of
studies. In fact there is no such thing as completion of studies in
the field of extension work. Besides, there is no force to compel
farmers either to attend or to apply whatever is being taught or
suggested. It is a service offered to the client either free of
charge or with a fee but the approach is totally non-formal. This
requires from the practitioners and planners to ensure attendance
through the creation of interest and by proposing whatever is
particularly relevant and timely to the problems faced by the
farmers. Extension services constitute a bridge or a link between
agricultural sciences and research and the farmer. It is supposed
to be a two-way linkage to bring innovations as a result of formal
research and field trials at the research station and the farmers’
on-farm trial plots to the
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farmer’s field. As far as the aim is concerned, anything that
will ultimately bring about betterment in the quality of life of
the farmers will be acceptable and ensure cooperation.
Objectives of Agricultural ExtensionWhen asking a group of
trainees or extension workers what comes to their minds when the
term agricultural extension is uttered, the answers will usually
cover a wide range of subjects
like: raising the standard of living of the farmers, gaining
their trust, changing mentality, reducing hunger, increasing crop
yields, increasing income, using inputs more efficiently, enhancing
food security, collecting data about the farmers’ needs, producing
more, carrying out field trials, reducing poverty, etc.All these
examples are objectives of extension work. When one tries to
organize these objectives in a causal chain, one may reach the
following diagram:
Raising the standard of living of the farmers
Enhancing food security
Reducing hunger Reducing poverty
Increasing income
Increasing crop yields
Producing more
Using inputs more efficiently
Changing their mentality
Gaining farmers’ trust
Carrying out field trials
Collecting data about the farmers’ needs
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No results as they appear in the upper part of the diagram can
be attained unless the ones underneath have already been reached.
In other words, no RESULT objectives can be obtained unless the
CORE objectives have been realized. This area is called core
because when asking the questions “who produces?”, “who increases
crop yields?”, etc, the answer is “the farmers themselves” and
therefore emphasizes the client-centered approach, in which all the
efforts of extension are geared towards changing elements related
to the client system, or the farmers. The DIRECT objectives relate
to what the extension system is trying to achieve in terms of
specific activities that will hopefully bring about the CORE
objectives. The latter will – hopefully again – bring about the
RESULTS objectives. Another way of looking at this concept is the
measure of control or lack of it from the point of view of the
extension planners and practitioners. The control lessens
as we go up the causal ladder. For example, bringing about an
increase in yield will not necessarily mean an increase in income
(due to price fluctuations or wastage of resources) and increase in
income does not necessarily result in improved living standards
(i.e. buying luxury consumer goods instead of tackling more basic
needs like health, sanitation or improved nutrition). Therefore,
agricultural extension should preferably be within the framework of
a more general development plan, which will take into account
community and social development aspects.
Human BehaviorIf in this paper the term core has been chosen for
those objectives related directly to the farmers’ performance of
his daily chores and professional activities, it is because the
focal point and “bottleneck” (see diagram) of agricultural
development seems to
This general diagram is very simple. It can be made more complex
by distinguishing between direct, core and result objectives in the
following manner:
Raising the standard of living of the farmers
Enhancing food security Reducing hunger Reducing poverty
Increasing income
Increasing crop yields
Producing more CORE
Using inputs more efficiently
Changing mentality
Gaining farmers’ trust Carrying out field trials
Collecting data about the farmers’ needs
RESULTS
DIRECT
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be the farmer and his daily actions. The efforts of the
extension system should be to effect changes in the actions
performed by farmers to bring about improvements as listed in the
Results area of the causal scale. Every professional action can be
defined as a specific BEHAVIOR. Therefore we are talking here about
changing behavior not in the sense of changing personality or
education, but rather in the sense of bringing about changes in the
farmers’ professional abilities on a very long-term basis.Behavior
in this restricted sense can thus be defined as follows:“Every
repetitive action performed willfully by a person that can be
observed by another person”. This means that the farmer will
perform a given action of his/her own free will, every time it is
considered necessary and that another person can observe or at
least observe the results of this action. This latter part is very
important for planning and evaluation purposes. We can therefore
define present and future behaviour. Present behavior often can be
identified as traditional behavior and the whole onus of planners
of extension will be to define what kind of new,improved practices
or innovations will have to be offered at what level of technology
to the various types of clients in that area or village. The
participatory approach as mentioned above seems to solve this
question and according to it, only those innovations will be
suggested that are in full concordance with the farmer’s needs.
Components of BehaviorThe three main components or conditions
that affect behavior are the following:1. MeansThis relates to
“everything money can buy” like factors of production (land, farm
buildings, implements, farm inputs like seeds, fertilizers,
livestock, etc.)
2. KnowledgeThis can be subdivided into two sub-components:
theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge or skills. This
subdivision is important because the methods employed to provide
them are different.
3. Positive AttitudeThis is the willingness of the farmers to
perform a particular behavior. It is driven by his motivation to
change his way of operating, which will be reinforced to the extent
that satisfaction with the new methods will follow suit. This is a
particularly difficult component to change, as it includes the
willingness to take risks in trying a suggested innovation. Much of
the work of the extension workers is devoted to reducing this
resistance to new methods because of the fear of risk taking.The
three components described above are both necessary and sufficient
conditions for new behavior to be performed. The three elements
must all be well balanced in the client. The whole art of the
extensionist will be to analyze where are the missing or weak
elements that prevent adoption of new methods and to
concentrate efforts on providing or strengthening them in order
to reach the expected result. This may take time and a lot of
effort but once trust is established and the suggested innovation
has succeeded in bringing about satisfactory results, the sky is
the limit. There are horizontal relationships and influences
between these components. For instance, attitude may be influenced
by knowledge: the fact that a farmer becomes aware that one of his
neighbors has successfully applied the recommendations of the
extension worker, may drive him to change his attitude toward the
practice. A positive attitude may influence a farmer to invest part
of his income in the inputs needed to try a new crop or variety,
instead of other planned expenses in consumer goods, etc.
A Model of CommunicationThe Berlo SMCR model (1960) serves as a
convenient starting point when trying to answer the question: “What
can we do about changing knowledge and attitudes?” The model is
easy to understand and serves as a point of reference when studying
the various extension methods. It also stresses the client-centered
approach of extension work where everything starts and ends with
the relationship that has to be established between the
extensionist and the farmer.In brief, the model describes the
various elements in interpersonal communication, from the source
(S) to the receiver (R) with the two intermediate elements message
(M) and channel (C). It dwells on the sub-components present in
both the source and the receiver like communication skills,
knowledge, socio-cultural background and attitudes. Message
includes the treatment and the type of code used as well as the
content of the message and the channel involves the type of
technology used in the proper “cocktail” in order to ensure proper
reception and subsequent decoding – or understanding – by the
client. The notion of feedback is essential to ensure a proper flow
of information and is certainly in line with the current
participatory trend.
How is the Model Applied to Specific Methods?For every method
studied and later applied, the extension worker is supposed to ask
him or herself: What idea or string of ideas should I plan to
communicate? (Planning of objective and content) – according to the
needs and interests of the client in space and time.How am I going
to encode it? (according to the decoding capability of my client)
This represents preparation of the activity.What are the best ways
to carry this message(s)? What techniques to use? This is the
implementation side with the decision about when, where and what
tools to use.These three components refer to the three stages of
Planning, Preparation and Implementation. The decision-making
about
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the variations depends on the know-how and experience of the
extension workers, like a craftsman will choose his tools according
to the result he wishes to achieve in the finished object.
A Review of the Main Extension MethodsRoughly speaking, methods
can be subdivided into individual, group and mass methods. Their
use is sometimes very specific or mixed when referring to the
objectives they can attain insofar as theoretical knowledge, skills
and attitudes are concerned. The extension planner should be well
aware of their characteristics, as well as their cost in effort,
time and money and weigh all these elements before choosing the
most appropriate “cocktail” that will bring about the expected
results. Without going into details, here are some of the methods
most commonly used and some of their advantages and
limitations.
Personal Interview: Rather costly in travel and time, but
important in data collection and participatory planning of
extensionIndividual Farm Visit and/or Skill Teaching: Indispensable
when the skill must be taught efficiently. Group skill teaching or
demonstrations have been proven ineffective in this case. Costly
but necessary.Discussion: Effective to gather information on
opinions, attitude change and decision-making. Requires between 5
and 15 participants and is a very difficult activity to plan and
manage.Group Meeting / Lecture / Talk: Very commonly used but only
effective to transfer theoretical knowledge. Can be used for groups
from 15 to 40, if one wishes to be able to manage the meeting with
audience participation and not a one-way type of communication. Use
of visual aids can improve the communication.Method demonstration:
Very much in use but can only serve
to transfer theoretical knowledge. It is the twin brother of the
lecture but the visual aids are the real objects.Result
demonstration: The object shown to farmers of results obtained in
the field as compared to traditional practices enhances interest
and may change attitudes for instance as related to the use of
fertilizers, etc.Demonstration Day: An organized framework that may
include some of the above group activities around one or several
subjects. This demands a rather large team of operators and may
attract thousands of farmers per day. Usually organized on a
regional or national basis. Costly but very effective as reference
point for the whole season. A commercial part can be added to
attract input suppliers, NGOs etc. It also appears to be an
excellent PR tool.
ConclusionThis overview of agricultural extension is far from
being complete. It will hopefully serve the developer in clarifying
its purpose within the framework of rural development. The approach
presented here stresses the client-centered approach. In other
words, efforts should be focus on the human beings and not on
plants, machines or material inputs. Factors of production, inputs
and credit as well as markets are, of course, essential, but the
strategy resides in effecting changes that will slowly bring about
improvements in basic practices, even with zero inputs or
investments, and building up the necessary trust between the farmer
and the extension worker. Small and effective results will bring
about more results to the full satisfaction of both partners.
Dedicated to the fond memory of the late Shimon Zuckerman, who
led my first steps in the world of international agricultural
development and extension.
Apart from international training courses in Israel, the author
participated in numerous training missions also called on-the-spot
courses in scores of countries in Africa, Asia, Europe and the
Middle East. The short courses also focused on extension
methodology and planning. Intended for extension personnel at
various levels, their goal is to motivate them to work more
effectively and efficiently for the benefit of the farmers. The
author is squatting on the left with a group of trainees in
Cameroon, 1985.
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The Golda Meir Mount Carmel International Training Center (MCTC)
was founded in Haifa in 1961 by MASHAV, the Center for
International Cooperation of the Israel Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, within the framework of its international development
work, to put gender issues on the international agenda. Two
visionary women were behind the Center’s establishment: a past
Prime Minister of Israel, Golda Meir, and MCTC’s founding director,
Mina Ben-Zvi, whose progressive views on the need for the
advancement of the status of women were far ahead of their time.
Over the years, MCTC has expanded its activities to Latin America,
the Mediterranean Region and the transitional societies of Central
and Eastern Europe. It has nevertheless maintained its original
emphasis on Human Resource Development by training women towards
sustainable development. To date over 11,000 participants from 147
countries have attended courses, workshops and seminars at MCTC and
thousands more have taken part in On-the-Spot courses in the
cooperating countries. Within the framework of its activities, MCTC
holds biennial International Seminars for Women Leaders (see MASHAV
News). These seminars provide a forum for dialogue between women at
policy decision level, heads of women’s organizations and
representatives of international aid agencies. Women are encouraged
to overcome culturally-rooted constraints, to call for greater
government/NGO collaboration on gender and development issues and
to create a more favorable environment for women’s access to
training, credit, marketing networks and technology.
Microenterprise ProgramsOne of MCTC’s main training spheres
focuses on Microenterprise Development, with an emphasis on gender
issues and the contribution of women to development.Improving the
quality of life of poor rural and marginal urban communities by
providing tools for starting or expanding businesses is the aim of
this training. By addressing grassroots personnel as well as
administrative and planning level professionals involved in
supporting small-scale entrepreneurs, MCTC training contributes to
poverty alleviation in deprived areas of the developing world.
Special emphasis is placed on training programs for women. Starting
small businesses is frequently the only solution for women whose
access to the job market has been denied by the social or economic
environment. Creating their own microenterprises thus becomes a
tool of self-empowerment for women, offering a way of achieving
economic independence and sometimes constituting the only option
for survival.
MethodologyMCTC’s approach imparts knowledge through hands-on
experience. Trainees work together in interdisciplinary groups and
are actively involved in practical exercises in planning, preparing
and presenting final project proposals that will be applicable in
their own settings. In this way, potential entrepreneurs acquire a
close-to-reality view of what establishing and running a small
business is all about, while participants who are counselors
receive an authentic feel of what their clients experience .
Mazal Renford, Director MCTC, and Shula Ferdman, Director of
Microenterprises Development Courses
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Most Challenging and Successful Parts of the CurriculumAmong
MCTC’s greatest challenges is how to transfer business concepts
such as feasibility study, market survey, division of labour,
production planning and control, sales and promotion, business
plans, etc. in a way that is understandable and can be immediately
put into practice by trainees at different levels, with or without
an entrepreneurial background.In this regard, MCTC is proud of its
success. Below we present some examples that illustrate the impact
of training activities held by MASHAV/MCTC in Israel and in
developing countries on the target populations at the regional and
national levels. It should be noted that women’s empowerment, a
major concern of MASHAV/MCTC, is invariably a by-product of the
various contributions to socio-economic development which are
detailed below.
AFRICAWest African Countries In coordination with the Human
Resources and Poverty Division of the Economic Development
Institute of the World Bank, MCTC has conducted courses at the
Mount Carmel Center on Income Generation and Management of
Microenterprises, including important modules on Grassroots
Training Management (GMT). These courses train trainers to work
with semi-literate and illiterate women to help them manage
projects, groups and businesses more efficiently and
profitability.MCTC has cooperated with Winrock International and
UNESCO since 1997, to develop the capacity of national women’s
organizations and to train local women trainers to transfer
knowledge and skills to rural women’s groups. Eighty-two women and
seventeen men participated in workshops held in the Ivory Coast,
Senegal and Mali. The training emphasizes organizational
development and project planning skills and is then further
strengthened by inviting workshop graduates to the full MCTC
eight-week course on ‘Community Development and Management of
Microenterprises Projects’.
KenyaIn 1994 and 1998, MCTC On-the-Spot training courses were
held on Organization and Management of Income generating Projects
for the Coast Development Authority (responsible for the
development of Kenya’s coastal province of some 3million people).
The CDA has now built up a pool of over 40 Israeli-
trained graduates in development work, thereby benefiting the
whole coastal province.Similar training courses were conducted in
1995 and 1996 by MCTC for the Kenya Institute of Management, the
largest management training body in Kenya. The Institute continues
to pass on its Israeli-gained knowledge and techniques in its own
ongoing business training courses throughout Kenya. An individual
example is Jacinta Marie Makokha who took part in the 1986 MCTC
course on Organization and Management of Income Generating
Projects. In her work as Program Officer for Gender and Development
for the Friedrich Ebert Foundation she is currently coordinating a
program with the Ministry of Local Government which covers eight
Local Authorities and reaches more than 240 women’s groups, each
with at least 20 women. This program is to be expanded to other
local authorities. Speaking at an International Symposium on “The
Impact of Women’s Training on Microenterprise Development”, held at
MCTC in June, 2001, Jacinta said that “Apart from the professional
input we got, we also learned that the impact of women’s training
starts at the personal level. …It’s very difficult to start talking
about liberating other people when you yourself are
struggling.”
Malawi Cooperation with Malawi illustrates the effectiveness of
creating a critical mass of persons trained in the same approach,
so that the introduction of new directions and techniques has a
greater chance of taking root. For example, in 1982, Esnat Kalyati,
attended the MCTC Women Leader’s Seminar. As Principal Secretary at
the Ministry of Community Services Development, she was
instrumental in nominating some 35 participants who attended
courses at MCTC between the years 1982 to 1995. These people have
since been effective in organizing women’s groups and promoting
income generating projects.
ASIAIndia In 1998 an On-the-Spot course on Women and
Entrepreneurship was organized at the request of the Agency for
Rural Development, a community development agency which works in
some 120 villages, with a total direct and indirect target
population of around half a million people. The Minister of Social
Welfare of Tamil Nadu State (pop. 70 million) came into contact
with this Agency for the first time as a result of the
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MCTC training. Impressed by the work of the Agency and with the
development of knowledge and skills being acquired by the course
participants, she offered government backing to the Agency and
loans and grants for the application of the projects planned by the
trainees.A repeat entrepreneurship development course has been
carried out in Tamil Nadu State for the Agency, in conjunction with
a Training Resource Center for nearly 300 NGOs. The Project Manager
of the Center – an outstanding graduate of the 1998 MCTC
On-the-Spot course – is responsible for over 700 self-help women’s
groups.
NepalFormer participants who are today in a position to
influence the changes being made in promoting entrepreneurship in
remote regions, have been instrumental in starting small scale
businesses at grassroots level. As a result, both professional and
local women leaders are active in the non-formal and private sector
to help advance women in rural areas.
LATIN AMERICAArgentina Support for microenterprises has been an
ongoing activity in Israel in the last decade (see article on page
22). MCTC has been sharing its experience with Argentina’s women
since 1993, when members of the Chamber of Women for SMEs
participated in a course on Management of Microenterprises in
Israel. This nationwide organization has trained women and men all
over the country in 24 courses, based on the knowledge acquired in
Israel. As a result of these activities, the Israeli team who
organized the OTS courses has seen the emergence of many small
businesses.MCTC’s activity in the region culminated in a project
proposal for the establishment of a Gender Oriented Small Business
Development Center, prepared by 25 professionals from the Cordoba
area participating in the course (1999). This Center supports
entrepreneurs, providing training, consultation and guidance in the
critical first steps of starting and running a microenterprise. The
project has been presented as a model by Elisa de Zlauvinen and
Silvia Priotti (MCTC alumni, in charge of the Center), in Peru,
Panama, Ecuador, Buenos Aires-Argentina and in Israel at the
International Seminar. In 2003 the project was given a “best
practice award” by the Vice President of Argentina.
Mexico An important part of the program of The Ministry of Labor
and Social Welfare in the State of Veracruz is the promotion of
self-employment. Until 1995, when Ms. Martha Mendoza Parissi,
Director of the Employment Division, participated in a course on
Management of Microenterprises in the Community at MCTC, the
training given by the scheme consisted only of the technical part
(baking, sewing, etc.). A module on Management of Microenterprises
was added, as a result of which more than 30% of the women have
started their own businesses.
EcuadorIn collaboration with the World Bank and the Young
Americas Business Trust (YABT) of the Organization of American
States, regional courses for encouraging entrepreneurship at school
level have been conducted by MCTC since 2002 (See article on page
16). Hundreds of high school teachers from all over Ecuador have
been trained in management of microenterprises with the purpose of
transferring this knowledge to their pupils. The idea behind this
project, supported by the Ministry of Trade and Industry of
Ecuador, is to help alleviate poverty by empowering teenagers to be
self-sufficient after leaving school, especially at times when
employment opportunities are dwindling. A past-participant in a
1994 workshop on Women and Microenterprises is now President of the
NGO, Fuden, based in Quito. Fuden provides training, counseling and
financial support for over 500 women entrepreneurs on low incomes,
from four different provinces in Ecuador. Many of its clients are
young urban women from ethnic minorities. In addition to the
President, two more MCTC past-participants work for this
organization which has international support.
Costa Rica More than 200 women were trained on leadership and
self-help strategies all over the country in cooperation with the
Ministry of Women’s Affairs in the years 2000 and 2001. As a result
of the first series of seminars in July 2000, a former participant
opened her own shop in a suburb of San Jose (and is opening a
second one), and a group of women in Liberia (in the East of the
country) has opened typical food restaurants. Both expressed the
fact that the training had given them courage and tools to dare
start.
MCTC is pleased to collaborate with international development
organizations such as the World Bank, Winrock International, UNDP,
UNESCO, ILO, IDB and others, sharing experiences and contributing
to the enhancement of women’s involvement in the development
process through appropriate training. For example, in the 2001
UNCTAD publication on Women Entrepreneurs in Least Developed
Countries, the authors indicate women’s limited access to business
development services to help them overcome, or at least complement,
their insufficient business skills. In this context, MCTC is
committed to continuing to empower women and strengthen their
contribution to their communities.
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INTEGRATED REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING – ETHIOPIAIn May 2003,
MASHAV, together with the Ethiopian Social and Rehabilitation
Development Fund (ESRDF), organized an integrated regional
development planning on-the-spot course in the Tigray region of
Ethiopia. Michael Gorelik, Deputy Director for Training and
International Cooperation of the Weitz
Center for Development Studies in Rehovot and Israel Alon, an
experienced farmer and extension expert from the Jordan Valley,
were sent to the isolated semi-arid Seharti Samre District, some 16
hours north of the capital Addis Ababa, to introduce the principles
of integrated regional planning, as well as farm unit planning and
sustainable farming methods. Attending the course were 34
participants, representing national and local government
Whether you are located in the high peaks of the Himalayans, the
Amazonian jungle, the sands of the Sahara Desert or some remote
Pacific Island, Israeli experts will travel the distance and train
you in the field of your choice. Through the Israeli Foreign
Ministry’s Center for International Cooperation (MASHAV), Israelis
are dispatched throughout the world each year at the request of
host countries to conduct a wide variety of on-the-spot
professional training courses. According to Tzila Halevy, Deputy
Director of Training for On-The-Spot Courses, 6,860 local trainees
from 42 countries took part in 132 on-the-spot courses in 2003
ranging in the fields of agriculture, rural and urban development,
medicine and public health, business management, science and
technology, and education. Keep your eyes open for an on-the-spot
course coming your way.
Overview of MASHAV On-the-Spot Coursesby Mark Schulman
MASHAV MARKS THE SPOTMASHAV MARKS THE SPOT
Israel Alon during a planning session in Ethiopia Family drip
irrigation system, Ethiopia
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agencies, local planning institutes, non-governmental
organizations and other stakeholders. The goal of the course was to
bring different stakeholders from different sides of the
development process, particularly in the Tigray region, to work
together to formulate a comprehensive district level development
plan, which includes analysis of the main constraints for
development, goals and targets for future planning, and
identification and formulation of specific projects in the
agriculture, education, health and social service sectors. Some of
the projects identified by the participants included: developing
the district’s water infrastructure; installing family drip
irrigation systems; implementing a local health delivery system;
and constructing basic agro-processing enterprises. Although the
course was conducted in the regional capital of Mekele,
participants spent two days in the Seharti Samre villages to
analyze local planning problems. With the completion of an
integrated development plan, district officials who attended the
course are now in the process of working on the implementation
phase and replicating it in other districts throughout Ethiopia.
Several of the participants have also come to Israel for further
training.
NURSING LEADERSHIP TRAINING - ERITREAIn neighboring Eritrea,
Drs. Shoshanah Ribah, Director of the Israeli Ministry of Health’s
Nursing Division, and Shoshanah Goldberg, Director of the Wolfesohn
School of Nursing, led a
two-week on-the-spot course in October 2003 on management,
policy and leadership in nursing. During the training period, 34
local nurse practitioners, hospital administrators, government
health officials and teachers from Eritrea’s nursing school, were
introduced to Israel’s healthcare system, as well as given
instruction on improving professional competence in nursing
management, diagnosis and community assessment, as well as
implementing appropriate models of organization and decision-making
processes to achieve better nursing solutions. At the same time,
the Israeli experts had the opportunity to learn about Eritrea’s
healthcare system and nursing problems, particularly the shortage
of professional staffing needs, and recommended further cooperation
with Eritrea in the fields of community and public health and
medical training. At the request of the Israeli Embassy in Asmara,
the Eritrean capital, Dr. Ribah gave a lecture to the diplomatic
community and senior Eritrean healthcare officials on the
development of nursing in Israel and modern nursing practices. “The
lecture was well attended and was one of the highlights of the
Israeli mission in Eritrea,” said the Israeli Ministry of Health’s
Director of the Nursing Department for Professional Development,
Sima Reicher, who is in charge of organizing the on-the-spot
nursing courses. “We also got a lot of positive feedback from the
course’s participants and anticipate future cooperation with
Eritrea in this field.”Only two months later in December 2003, a
course on pediatric
Formulating a comprehensive development plan: Improving water
infrastructure, Ethiopia
Participants and instructors during the course on Management,
Policy and Leadership in Nursing, Eritrea
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nursing in the community and hospitals was also conducted in
Eritrea. Nira Rostmi, a community nursing specialist and teacher at
the Wolfesohn School of Nursing, and Anat Moskovitch, the head
nurse of the children’s Intensive Care Unit (ICU) at the Chaim
Sheba Medical Center in Tel HaShomer, instructed 30 participants
from the local nursing and healthcare community in improving child
treatment management, developing and implementing local community
health plans, and administering first aid for infants.
EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISORS TRAINING - SÃO TOMÉ AND PRINCIPEIn
December 2003, Miriam Ringel, Head of Literature Studies at ORT
Israel, and Felisa Liss, responsible for elementary school
curriculum at the Israeli Ministry of Education, traveled to the
tiny Portuguese-speaking African island-nation of São Tomé and
Principe to train school principals and lecturers as educational
supervisors for the country’s flailing school system. Currently,
there are only 5 general supervisors for São Toméand Principe’s 76
elementary schools and 11 highschools, where average class size
ranges from 40-90 students and many of the schools lack
electricity, bathrooms and basic school materials. Conditions for
teachers and school administrators are not much better as many have
no formal university training and make on average $30 a month.
Addressing the situation, the educational supervisors training
course, sponsored by the Aharon Ofri International Training Center
in cooperation with the Israeli Ministry of Education, brought
together 27 local school principals, instructors and counselors to
help improve their professional capacities as educators and to
train them to become educational inspectors. Through group
discussions and on-going evaluations participants developed
workplans that focused on educations reform. They also had the
opportunity of visiting local schools, including attending the
official opening
of a new wing of a primary school where one of the course’s
participants was principal. The educational supervisors training
course was the first course of its kind in the country, and the
first for Israeli-São Tomé cooperation. Local government officials
requested a follow-up course in the near future, and many of the
participants expressed interest in studying in Israel to obtain
professional teaching certificates.
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE – ASIAAt the end of October 2003, Uri Adler
and Rafael Rudman of the Israeli Bio-Organic Agriculture
Association (IBOAA) traveled to Harbin, China, the capital of the
northeastern province of Heilongjiang, to teach 120 local
agricultural extension officers and organic growers the
fundamentals of modern organic
farming. Intensive organic farming consists mainly of using
compost and avoiding the use of fertilizers and pesticides. In
Israel organic farming accounts for about 1.2% of the country’s
total agricultural production, with some 400 farmers cultivating
about 6,000 hectares of organically grown crops. “Organic farming
helps maintain an important balance between the need for food
production and the need to preserve natural resources for future
generations,” Adler stressed as the underlining focus of the
course.Following the one-week course organized by MASHAV and
CINADCO, the Israeli Ministry of Agriculture’s Center for
International Agricultural Development Cooperation, the Israeli
agriculture experts toured several farms and organic vegetable
fields to learn more about local agricultural practices and gave
two organic farming seminars in the provincial cities of Mudanjiang
and QiQihar on practical solutions in growing organic vegetables in
the region.The two Israeli experts returned to Asia in June 2004 to
give similar instruction on organic farming. On June 11th, they led
Visiting a local school in São Tomé
Participants and trainers of the Organic Farming Course,
Thailand
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a one-day organic farming seminar at the office of the Myanmar
Agriculture Service in Yangon, which was attended by 70
agriculturalists and researchers from various departments under the
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. Several days later they
were teaching a one-week organic farming course in Ubon Ratchathani
in northeastern Thailand to extension officers from the Progressive
Farmers Association (PFA), a local NGO that represents some 4,000
organic rice farmers, aimed at introducing vegetables in the region
during the dry season. And following this course they moved on to
Bangkok to teach trainees from the Thai Ministry of Agriculture and
Organic Agriculture Thailand, a local organic farming
association.“The main goal of all these courses in Asia is to
introduce Israeli techniques for organic farming and see if they
can be applied to
During the one-week program, 68 participants (34 in Loja and 34
in Manta) were given a hands-on approach to managerial concepts
through the creation of simulated businesses. Divided into four
groups to form their own ‘businesses’, participants learned about
feasibility studies, production, packaging and quality control,
marketing and selling, division of labor and keeping financial
records. Each group presented on their simulated enterprises at the
end of the course.In June 2003 a similar course conducted in Tena
in the Amazonian region of Ecuador, trained 184 participants
through the creation of 16 simulated businesses. And, a half a year
later in December, 28 ‘businesses’ were set up in four
train-the-trainers courses on small entrepreneurship development –
two in Quito and two in Guayaquil – to provide the basics in
management assistance information for professionals working in both
formal and non-formal institutions, and individuals with plans to
become potential small business entrepreneurs. Coordinated by MCTC,
some 400 participants attended these training courses, which
included teachers from various institutions, local youth leaders
from marginal urban and rural sectors, small entrepreneurs and
university students.Since the young entrepreneur skills training
program started, some 800 new business ventures have taken off in
Ecuador and has involved the support of over 2,000 teachers from
213 institutions.Following the success of the program in Ecuador, a
one-week regional Caribbean workshop on the same theme was
organized in Grenada, the West Indies, in March 2003 with 22
participants representing Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Grenada,
Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago. The workshop, instructed by
Shulamit Ferdman and David Bentolila was the first in many years
that MCTC had carried out on micro-enterprise management in the
Caribbean, although similar workshops were conducted in Barbados
and Jamaica in 1991.
local conditions,” Adler added. “We hope to get back to Asia and
continue with our work.”
YOUNG ENTREPRENEUR SKILLS TRAINING: ECUADOR AND GRENADAFollowing
an initiative of former First Lady of Ecuador Maria Isabel
Baquerizo de Noboa to conduct on-the-spot courses on
micro-enterprise in her country, MASHAV, together with the Golda
Meir Mount Carmel International Training Center (MCTC), designed
several courses, with support from the Young Americas Business
Trust (YABT) of the Organization of American States and the World
Bank’s Global Distance Learning Network, to help teachers and
school counselors acquire the tools for transferring
entrepreneurial concepts to their students.The first two courses
took place in November 2002 in Ecuador’s Loja and Manta Provinces
under the instruction of MCTC’s Course Director for the Management
of Micro and Small Enterprises, Shulamit Ferdman, and Guillermo
Levinton, General Manager of Israeli investment company Bemacol
Ltd.
Field trip to assess local conditions
New business venture in Ecuador
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Three decades ago, the Aral Sea in Central Asia was the world’s
fourth largest inland body of water. Today, due to Soviet-era
policies that favored water-intensive crops such as cotton and
rice, it is one of the world’s worst environmental disaster areas.
The level of the water has dropped by some 12 meters, reducing its
surface area by half and tripling its salinity levels. The result
is a major environmental disaster affecting Kazakhstan,
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, as well as Kyrgyzstan Republic and
Tajikistan: Entire ecosystems have been decimated, there is no more
commercial fishing, and agricultural productivity has been greatly
reduced due to increased soil salinity and climatic aridity. What’s
more, local ground water has become contaminated, leading to a
public health crisis in surrounding areas.
MASHAV-USAID Cooperation Program for Rehabilitation of the Lake
Kambash Region
A ship in the dessert. Andy David from MASHAV’s Overseas
Projects Department and Yehuda Rosemblum from CINADCO, standing
where the Aral Sea used to be.
Dr. Yitzhak Bejerano and the Director of the local fish hatchery
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by Ruth Seligman
Definition of Enterprise: a business unit, a company or firm; a
project or undertaking, especially one that requires boldness or
effort.In practically every country, Small and Medium Enterprises
(SMEs) constitute almost 90% of all commercial business activity.
Due to their crucial importance to the economy, governments and
international agencies are constantly working to promote and
sustain them in today’s highly competitive environment. Extremely
active in this area is WASME (World Association of Small and
Medium-Sized Enterprises), an international non-governmental
organization established in 1980. Today, WASME has members and
associates in 112 countries – industrialized as well as developing
ones. WASME serves as an advocate for SMEs, promotes enterprise to
enterprise cooperation, provides industrial, technological and
trade information, training and research facilities and support for
the development of micro and rural enterprises.WASME’s annual
international conferences bring together government agencies,
entrepreneurial and SME support organizations, trade and business
associates, chambers of commerce, business people, academics,
researchers, development and financial institutions and
international agencies. Its 14th
Annual Conference, held in Tel Aviv in September 2003, was no
exception. It was attended by an impressive cross-section of men
and women from all the sectors dealing with the support,
development and promotion of SMEs, including staff and participants
of MASHAV courses.As WASME’s Secretary-General, Dr. Arun Agrawal,
noted: “It was indeed gratifying that one of the world’s premier
SME promotion agencies, the Israel Small and Medium Enterprises
Authority (ISMEA), hosted the 2003 Conference, since its founding
10 years ago, ISMEA has been an valued member of WASME. Israel was
an ideal host – a State reputed for its innovations and creativity,
a State which has put in place SME-
friendly policies and introduced new concepts such as Small
Business Development Centers and technological incubators to
develop and nurture start-ups.”In today’s increasingly borderless
world, the Conference’s theme – “Opportunities for SMEs in a
Globalized World: Innovative Policies and Programs” – was most
timely. As WASME’s President, A. K. Alptemocin, stressed, “The new
world economic order today presents immense opportunities for SMEs
to expand their businesses and activities. Their role as generators
of employment has gained additional importance with employment
opportunities fast shrinking in the public and large enterprise
sectors owing to privatization and increasing internationalization
of production processes. In this borderless global market, SMEs
need to reorient their business strategies.” Recognizing this need,
the Conference addressed several issues currently confronting SMEs
such as the importance of innovation, technology, marketing and
exports in this area of globalization, women-owned enterprises and
the role of small businesses in promoting rural
industrialization.The presence of several government ministers at
the First Plenary Session revealed the problems many shared in
common. The session was chaired by Ehud Olmert, Israel’s Deputy
Prime
Minister and Minister of Industry, Trade and Labor, who stressed
the importance of hearing comments and reflections from
participants from a wide range of backgrounds.Alexander Egorushkov,
Russia’s Deputy Minister for Anti-Monopoly and Support for
Entrepreneurship, reviewed the situation in his country. “The
economic sector in Russia has been functioning a relatively short
time, 12 years since the reform began. However, great progress has
been made with 90% of all household products made by SMEs. We
recognize the importance of a broadening support system of SMEs,
research centers and international agreements, with more than 1,500
organizations now assisting SMEs. Nevertheless, in spite of
MALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES: BACKBONE OF ECONOMY
As WASME’s President, A. K. Alptemocin, stressed, “The new world
economic order today presents immense opportunities for SMEs to
expand their businesses and activities.”
S
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our progress, we still lack necessary financial resources.”
Other ministers would repeat this point as they sought solutions
for accessing credit and promoting financial stability.Agreeing
with Egorushkov was Ali Chirau Makwere, Kenya’s Minister of Labor
and Human Resources. “The growth of SMEs depends on their ability
to use local resources. Although we have seen improvement in the
growth of SMEs, Kenya faces constraints with inadequate access to
capital, technology and information, improper marketing procedures
plus hostile regulatory laws. Another problem is that more SMEs in
Kenya are involved in trade rather than manufacturing: we need to
shift this emphasis. Today’s global economy requires SMEs to use
advanced technology. In Kenya, in many cases we don’t
know where to seek such technological information even when it
is available. There is an imperative need for all of us to seek the
ways and means to help developing countries access current
technology.”Bandula Guanwardhana, Sri Lanka’s Minister of Rural
Economy, also agreed that there was a need to establish a global
information market to arrange for the exchange of such information
as market promotion and quality improvement of exports.The Second
Plenary Session was attended by senior representatives of
international organizations including the World Bank, the
International Labor Organization (ILO) and the International
Cooperative Alliance (ICA), attesting to their involvement and
recognition of the important role SMEs play in every
economy.Salient observations at that session included those made
by
Ivano Barberini, President of ICA, and Ad Melkert, Executive
Director of the World Bank. Barberini noted that cooperatives are a
formidable tool in increasing the capabilities of SMEs and urged
more cooperation between ICA and WASME “while respecting the
autonomy of each group.” Melkert, who represents 12 countries on
the Board of the World Bank, eight of which had representatives at
the Conference, stressed how SMEs are the backbone of a healthy
economy, with the creation of conditions for domestic investment
the key to development. “Foreign investors may shop around and move
on; local entrepreneurs provide shops that last.”“The World Bank,”
explained Melkert, “is in the unique
position of ‘testing’ the SME potential at many different levels
of economic growth. (SMEs are defined as enterprises which have up
to 50 employees and fixed assets of up to $3 million.) Our
involvement includes the recognition that effective aid and private
sector stimulus go hand-in-hand. The World Bank has invested in a
number of projects to promote SME development. The role of the Bank
is especially guided by its ‘knowledge’ mission of connecting
people and interested parties with a global network of relevant
tools and experiences such as technical assistance and global
distance learning networks.”“The ILO also puts a great deal of
emphasis on supporting SMEs,” reported Kees Van Derree, of the SME
Development Program at the ILO. “We ask ourselves: What are SMEs
asking
from us? The answer is: good government support, improved market
access and productivity enhancement. We are constantly striving to
find ways to help SMEs improve their local capacities for quality
performance. Other key areas of support include getting the
environment right, industrial restructuring through increased
productivity and identifying sub-sectors with a high potential for
growth.”The Second Plenary Session was chaired by Shmuel
Bahat,chairman of the International Center for the Promotion of
SMEs (INCEP-SME), a division of the Negev Institute for Strategies
of Peace and Development (NISPED). NISPED, founded in 1988, has a
vast array of programs and projects centered around education for
peace and conflict resolution, cooperative studies, Jewish-Arab
coexistence and SMEs. In essence, it serves as a center for the
education, training and project development for societies
undergoing fundamental
processes of transformation. As such, it was the ideal site for
the establishment of INCEP-SME which, since its inception in 1999,
has conducted more than 25 training programs in English, Arabic,
Russian and Portuguese on various subjects related to SMEs and
their promotion.“This Conference,” pointed out Bahat, “is honored
to have participants from INCEP-SME’s current course, a senior
level management course on support systems for enhanced performance
of African SMEs. INCEP-SME recently signed a Memorandum of
Understanding with WASME, thus formalizing a permanent
institutionalized connection with it. INCEP-SME has also been
recognized as a training center for MASHAV,
Kees Van Derree of ILO: “We ask ourselves what are SMEs asking
from us? The answer is: good government support, improved market
access and productivity enhancement.”
Ali Chirau Makwere, Kenya’s Minister of Labor and Human
Resources: “There is an imperative need for all of us to seek the
ways and means to help developing countries access current
technology.”
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Israel’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs Center for International
Cooperation. The Conference was also privileged to have in
attendance two other special groups, participants from
MASHAV-sponsored courses. One group was attending a bilingual
English-Russian-language course on Agribusiness Development at
CINADCO (the Center for International Agricultural Development
Cooperation of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development)
training center at Kibbutz Shefayim. The other was a group
attending a workshop at the Golda Meir Mount Carmel International
Training Center (MCTC) in Haifa on “Women Entrepreneurs in a Time
of Technological Change,” a subject given great prominence at the
Conference. MCTC, founded in 1961, has trained more than 11,000
women and men engaged in various aspects of community work and
education in newly-emerging states. Notes Mazal Renford,MCTC’s
dynamic director, “Although initially we concentrated on training
women, eventually we realized that we must include men too – as we
do now. We place great emphasis, however, on helping women
entrepreneurs, as in the current course.” As others at the
Conference noted, “MCTC is also aware of the rapid changes in world
economics and the way microenterprises have now become an important
means of economic development due to their flexibility and
capability of adaptation,
one which is sometimes higher than that of larger enterprises.
However, entrepreneurs, and especially women, often lack the
necessary information needed to organize their businesses better,
access current data on the market environment, and assess
opportunities as well as possible threats to new venture creation.
MASHAV courses are geared to helping women as well as male
entrepreneurs make better use of sources of information and new
technologies by adapting them to their own needs.” “A basic
component at all our courses,” explains Shula Ferdman,Director of
Microenterprise Development Courses at MCTC, “is what we call
‘learning by doing.’ By the end of each course, each participant is
expected to prepare a project proposal for a business suitable for
implementation in their home country, one which – in many cases –
is actually activated.” The courses, thus, are very practical,
offering much more than just theoretical information.MCTC has
trained women from all over the world, (see article on page 13),
often working with national organizations. In China, for example,
it has trained hundreds of women with the cooperation of the All
China Women’s Federation, while in Kenya, over 240 groups have
started their own businesses, a direct result of the training
received in Israel. Similarly, in Ecuador, in cooperation with the
World Bank and the
Organization of American States, MCTC has provided business
training for high school teachers through the creation of business
laboratories.At the Conference break-out sessions - workshops that
break away from the main plenary sessions – participants were able
to exchange information and share of experiences. One of the
break-out sessions was devoted to promoting entrepreneurship among
women.While the last two decades have witnessed a steady growth in
the percentage of women entrepreneurs, in most countries their
percentage is still much lower than that of their male
counterparts. Studies have shown that the major problems
encountered by women entrepreneurs are low self-image, reluctance
to take risks, lack of knowledge regarding facilities provided by
various institutions and support agencies, cultural and religious
impediments, difficulties in obtaining credit and constraints in
combining business activities with family responsibilities. In the
process women continue to remain marginalized.The break-out session
on promoting entrepreneurship among women was devoted to analyzing
these problems and recommending new approaches that will help women
entrepreneurs to contribute to the development of their national
economies.
Another important break-out session was devoted to the role of
small businesses in promoting rural industrialization. This is a
topic of major importance for developing as well as least developed
countries. The introduction of agricultural businesses in rural
areas has been found to be extremely effective in generating income
and improving the standard of living in these areas, which in turn
contribute to the country’s economic, social and human
development.This workshop was chaired by Yehudah Paz, Chairman of
NISPED, who also gave a paper on rural development. “Rural areas,”
he stressed, “lag far behind urban areas in education, health,
community development and other aspects of sustainable human
development. A dramatic result of this situation is the mass exodus
of rural populations to the cities where they tend to live in the
poorest and most deprived slum areas near or in the big cities. The
problems of the rural areas also create major problems for the
urban areas. Without a doubt, rural development is a critical and
pressing issue, one which must be approached in a comprehensive and
integrative way.“We need,” noted Paz, “to introduce non-rural
activities in rural areas for, as agriculture becomes more and more
advanced, we need less labor for it, thus creating surplus labor.
Non-agricultural activities include industrialization of
Mazal Renford, Director of MCTC: “MASHAV courses are geared to
helping women as well as male entrepreneurs make better use of
sources of information and new technologies by
adapting them to their own needs.”
24
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rural areas such as tourism and related recreational activities,
plus handicrafts, health projects and maintenance and repair
businesses. We can also put biotech activities in rural areas.“A
critical element in this area is the need to link together
vocational training with entrepreneurial training. People acquiring
skills must know how to use them in the market in order to compete
more effectively. We should also be thinking of using the
experiences of SMEs and that of the cooperative movement and
linking the two experiences. One important example – forming
cooperatives of SMEs to engage together, for example, in research
and development. SMEs are too small to do this on their own or to
market alone.”
A fascinating case study of a photography project, designed and
implemented by NISPED for Bedouin women in the southern part of
Israel, proved the importance – as noted by Yehudah Paz – of
linking vocational education with business entrepreneurial
training.Amal Elsana Elh-jooj, Director of the Arab-Jewish Center
for Equality Empowerment and Cooperation at NISPED, described the
project, one which was – and still is – in many ways “her baby.”
“In the past,” she explained, “Bedouin women used to be active,
working in the fields, raising livestock and making cheese. During
the transition from a nomadic existence to village life, they
became consumers instead of producers. More significant, they no
longer were living in open spaces, but were confined to the four
walls of their homes. The result – 94% of Bedouin women are
unemployed. Stuck at home, as consumers they were not part of any
decision-making process. Our photography project was established to
give women employment.”“We decided,” reported Elh-jooj, “to create
small businesses
which would encourage women to be economically independent and
more involved in the community. Photography was an ideal choice for
a small business because it is one women can run for
themselves.”There were three stages to the project. First – the
training program to which 62 women applied, 42 were accepted and 26
finished. Stage two – encouragement and support from other groups
such as NISPED, ISMEA, the Joint Distribution Committee (JDC),
Project Renewal (an Israeli program for improving communities) and
the Association for Empowerment of Women.“We began the project,”
reported Elh-jooj, “with only 3,000
Amal Elsana Elh-jooj, Director of the Arab-Jewish Center for
Equality Empowerment: “We decided to create small businesses which
would encourage women to be economically
independent and more involved in the community.”
Israeli shekels (approximately $750), but ended very
successfully with 13 small businesses established. Some women
concentrated on photographs of weddings and celebrations taking
place in the women’s tents where, in the Bedouin culture, men are
forbidden to enter. Others went into the schools to take pictures
there. One woman opened a business to develop pictures. As the
women became successful, we activated another stage – weekly
meetings of the group where they receive additional vocational
training. This group has now become a peer support group for other
women.”The group was trained by Jewish Israelis, overcoming the
problem where men from their tribe were not allowed to have
contact with the women of their tribe. A significant addition to
the program was the way the trainees, themselves, afterwards became
trainers, providing vocational training for other women.So
successful has the program for the Bedouin women been that its
principles have been adapted to other programs run in Jerusalem for
ultra-orthodox Jewish women who, too, live in a cultural milieu
where there is a distinct segregation between the sexes.Other
break-out sessions were devoted to technology and innovation,
innovative financial and non-financial approaches to supporting
SMEs and marketing, export and cross-border cooperation, an
all-important facet in this new era of globalization.In addition to
the plenary and break-out sessions held at a local hotel,
participants also went out into the field. They visited a
technological incubator, as well as Agritech, the triennial
agrotechnological fair with pavilions and exhibitions offering the
latest in Israeli agricultural hi-tech products to visitors
from
around the world.Israel was definitely an excellent choice for
WASME’s 14th Annual Conference. Gideon Sagee, Chairman of ISMEA,
who is also a Vice President of WASME, noted how ISMEA, which is
celebrating its tenth anniversary, has played a significant role in
helping SMEs by promoting cooperation between NGOs, government and
the private business sector and by operating among various special
sectors such as the non-Jewish sector, new immigrants, businesses
located in the periphery of the country, the ultra-orthodox
population and women entrepreneurs. There is little doubt that
Israel, with its vast experience, will continue to play a
significant role in supporting SMEs.
Yehuda Paz, Chairman of NISPED: “A critical element is the need
to link together vocational training with entrepreneurial training.
People acquiring skills must kno