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Market Research and Political Ideology Stefan Schwarzkopf Copenhagen Business School Department of Management, Politics and Philosophy Seminar at EHESS Paris, May 20, 2015
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Market Research and Political Ideology

May 01, 2023

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Page 1: Market Research and Political Ideology

Market Research and Political Ideology 

Stefan SchwarzkopfCopenhagen Business School

Department of Management, Politics and Philosophy

Seminar at EHESS Paris, May 20, 2015

Page 2: Market Research and Political Ideology

Market and Consumer Research as Ideology

• Market and consumer research merely an efficient business response to the needs of commercial actors? 

• No, …it’s (cultural) politics, stupid! • It is political ideologies that influenced the making of market/consumer research as professional and academic field

Page 3: Market Research and Political Ideology

The Literature on the History of Market Research 

• market and consumer research seen as provider of more and ‘better data’ on consumer preferences 

• better data leading to ‘better decisions’ • reducing the many unknowns for organizations and managers• reducing reliance on often treacherous tacit and experiential 

knowledge• market and consumer research as techniques to reduce opacity 

of markets and reduce uncertainty 

organizations ‘see better’ and make more resource‐efficient decisions based on verifiable, explicit knowledge 

complexity reduction through marketing orientation    

Page 4: Market Research and Political Ideology

A Whig Narrative?

• ‘The marketing‐oriented company aims to discover consumer wishes, which are depicted as “external” to the firm, and does so through market research, psychological understanding, and product development systems. To achieve its goal, it ends the segregation of business functions and integrates them in a manner best able to satisfy consumer desires. For the marketing‐oriented company, it is the consideration of “external” exigencies that generates success.’ 

• ‘…strive for “scientific” organization and co‐ordination of product development, branding, advertising, and distribution, and replace the “entrepreneurial  intuition” of small firms with the managerial objective of the marketing orientation.’ 

(Robert Fitzgerald, in OUP Handbook of Business History, 2008)

Page 5: Market Research and Political Ideology

The Reality of Market and Consumer Research

“The customer is king!... As simple as this notion is, it is difficult to implement. The needs and desires of the people who comprise markets are not readily apparent or easily uncovered.” 

William D. Wells, Consumer Behavior (1977)

Page 6: Market Research and Political Ideology

Alternative Reading ‐ Performativity Paradigm

• market research as part of ‘provoking the economy’ (F Muniesa; J Lezaun, S Vikkelsø)– artificial, contained situations of research– elicitation (provoking) of consumer reactions– translation/chain of social practices into ‘market’ 

• But… this limits historian’s views to the inside of organizations and inside the market research industry– performativity framework fails to acknowledgeexistence of macro‐social structures (e.g. politicalideologies) 

– realizes the methodological choices that marketresearchers make, but fails to explain why

Page 7: Market Research and Political Ideology

Taking Politics Serious (again)• What about political‐cultural currents that takeplace outside an industry and the organization

• Are political views of market and consumerresearchers just feeble attempts at legitimizingthemselves? 

• Two schools of thought within the industry as regards cultural politics of researching the consumer

• Both emerge in parallel from around 1910– ‘Free Choice’ School– ‘Consumer Enlightenment’ School

Page 8: Market Research and Political Ideology

The ‘Free Choice’ School• marketplace as a ‘democracy of goods’ or a ‘consumer democracy’ in which consumer choices act as ‘votes’ 

• consumer sovereignty acted out through choice • First representative: Charles Coolidge Parlin

– Manager (1911 – 1940) of the                                                Commercial Research Division of                                                        Curtis Publishing Company

– first marketing research organization in the US– used graphs, maps, charts and tabulation to                               visually represent large‐scale research findings

– first to conduct quasi‐ethnographic survey of a                               town for purposes of advertising research                                        (1920, Sabetha in Kansas) 

– begins in 1914 to talk about the ‘consumer as king’

Page 9: Market Research and Political Ideology

The Consumer as King ‘And so you have the opportunity to carry this message out, in order that you may learn to cash in on it, in order that your dealers may cash in on it and do more business, and in order that you may push through the dealer out to that ultimate consumer who is king. For we may talk as long as we please about manufacturers and wholesalers and retailers; in the last analysis it is the consumer that is king. Whoever wins his confidence has won today, and whoever loses it, gentlemen, is lost.’

C C Parlin, ‘Address to the Whitman Candy Company’, 1931

Page 10: Market Research and Political Ideology

J. Walter Thompson, A primer for capitalism (1937)

Page 11: Market Research and Political Ideology

Advertising Association (UK) awareness campaign for commercial marketing, 1938‐39

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“Up to the end of the Second World War economic freedom – was still largely missing. … [Economic freedom] is fuelled by, and inevitably accompanied by, the enfranchisement of people as consumers. With the freedom to choose and the power to buy comes the influence of being listened to.”

Market Research Society, 1996

Contemporary Legitimization

Page 14: Market Research and Political Ideology

Methodological Consequences• this school of thought expresses itself in research 

equipment• from mid‐1930s: mechanisation of the extraction of 

consumer insights through laboratory‐based and home‐based measurement devices – Stanton Lazarsfeld Program Analyzer– A.C. Nielsen Audimeter

• measurement devices record what consumers (listeners, viewers, etc.) like and dislike

• audience ratings emerge for radio and TV programmes• simple equation for managerial purposes: what people

‘like’ is good, what they ‘dislike’ bad

Page 15: Market Research and Political Ideology
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Alternative Forms of Consumer Empowerment

• also from around 1910 emerges a school of thought in market and consumer research thatsees consumption as a route towards achievingsocial‐democratic political aims – consumer protection– consumer education – general socio‐economic equality

• 1910s‐50s’ market/consumers researchers oftenvery politically active and/or socialist leanings

• politics that mainly influences European marketresearch; by translation also US scene 

Page 17: Market Research and Political Ideology

The ‘Right Consumption’, not just ‘The Right to Consume’

National Consumers’ League: ‘the consumer’s control of production’ (Articles of Constitution, 1909)

– ‘That the responsibility for some of the worst evils which producers suffer rests with the consumers who seek the cheapest markets, regardless of how cheapness is brought about. That it is therefore the duty of consumers to find out under what conditions the articles they purchase are produced and distributed…’  

Beatrice Webb, The Discovery of the Consumer (1928) – ‘The Co‐operative Movement of Great Britain, manifested in the 

local store and the national Wholesale Society, perhaps it was genuinely of working‐class origin, achieved without intending, grew, indeed, to maturity before there was any accurate formulation of the theory on which it was based: to organise industry from the consumption end and to place it from the start upon the basis of ‘production for use’, instead of ‘production for profit’, under the control and direction not of the workers as producers, but of themselves as consumers…”    

Page 18: Market Research and Political Ideology

Socialist Background • Most early market researchers in Austria, Germany and UK 

actually Social‐Democrats or even Marxists • Paul Lazarsfeld and his Austrian research group in Vienna 

– The Marienthal Unemployed, 1931‐1933– influences leftwing Lynd couple in their research on Middletown (1937) 

• Lazarsfeld emigrates and quickly adopts positivistic attitude of US mainstream research industry…

• …but his Viennese pupils remain ‘true’– Ernest Dichter a suspected communist arrested by Austrian Fascists– Marie Jahoda, ends up in UK, married to Labour Party MP– Herta Herzog, ends up in US, married to Paul Massing, CP member and 

KGB informer – all spied upon by FBI and MI5 

Page 19: Market Research and Political Ideology

• Father of British market and consumer research, Mark Alexander Abrams, a known Labour supporter 

• Head of Gallup UK, Henry Durant, a known Marxist • Robert Silvey, Head of Audience Research at BBC, a Fabian 

Socialist• Founding members of UK Market Research Society (1946) 

mostly come from LSE and had Fabian influences (gradual‐reformist socialist movement of British academia)

• Mark Abrams, Reith Commission of Enquiry into Advertising (1966)– ‘There is a mass of socially useful information which they could 

gather, were their skills and services more fully exploited on behalf of public as well as of commercial interests. … For if market research has a social function, it is to provide for all concerned such an objective view of the problem situation as will lead to more rational and socially desirable decisions.’

Socialist Background 

Page 20: Market Research and Political Ideology

Mark Abrams, The Home Market (1939)

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Industrial Workers of the World, 1911

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Methodological Consequences• alternative political outlook expresses itself in equipment, too• ‘choice apparatuses’ like Stanton‐Lazarsfeld Program Analyzer 

and Nielsen TV Meters seen as problematic• depth interviews and qualitative methodology: Focus Group

– used by Lazarsfeld and Merton at Columbia University Radio Research Project for de‐briefing of test subjects

– now combined with Freudian depth analysis of individualconsumers Ernest Dichter’s Motivation Research 

• totally different epistemology and cultural politics of consumption behind it– removing power barriers; freedom to let people talk and find 

insights for themselves; spill‐over into ‘counter‐cultural’ grouptherapy wave of 1960s: discourse‐space free from oppression

Page 23: Market Research and Political Ideology

A Focus Group Discussion at Ernest Dichter’s Institute, ca. 1966

Page 24: Market Research and Political Ideology

New Contemporary Legitimization?

• In 1990s, a new school of cultural‐political thought in marketand consumer research emerged under label of Consumer Culture Theory (CCT)

• ‘Old’ left politics that favoured working class empowermentand anti‐consumerist moral politics rejected in favour of ‘new’ left cultural politics

• Consumption not any longer a wedge for common, public project of equality, but an expression of individual identity

• Hedonistic, ‘selfish’ consumer actually the best barrier againstcorporate and political manipulation 

• Individual opinion and individual choice seen as the last, untouchable, ‘innocent’ basis of human existence – per se good

Page 25: Market Research and Political Ideology

Highways and Buyways: Naturalistic Research from the Consumer Behavior Odyssey (1990)

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Consumer Identities as subject of conversational teaching and research, RHUL 

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‘Consumption is about indulging fantasies, feelings and fun…’ (0:43)

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Political Romanticism• CCT a kind of postmodern synthesis of the two school mentioned

above– smoothing the moral messiness of consumer decisions by synthesizing 

the discrepancies between 1970s‐80s normative‐moral notions of hedonism (‘indulgence is good’) with 2000s social realities that hedonistic consumption is costing the lives of disenfranchised poor 

• Reflecting a romanticist ethics, where the individual is the last possible point of reference, and therefore per se above criticism

• Schlegel: ‘Was man mit Enthusiasmus, also mit Liebe will, das ist auch von Gott gewollt und geboten.‘ 

• Fulfils the definition that Carl Schmitt gave of ‘Political Romanticism’ in 1919– for CCT, like for political romanticists, political action is based on 

negotiation over aesthetics, not on notions of good and evil, justice and injustice

– the political romantic is tied not to positions, but to aesthetics

Page 30: Market Research and Political Ideology

Thank You!

Dr. Stefan Schwarzkopf Associate Professor

Department of Management, Politics and PhilosophyCentre for Business History

Porcelaenshaven 18ADK-2000 Frederiksberg/Copenhagen

Tel. +45 3815 3652Web: http://uk.cbs.dk/staff/ssc