Markedness

((MarkednessMarkedness )) Marked or Marked or

Unmarked formsUnmarked forms

MarkednessMarkedness

A relationship between A relationship between linguistic elements in which linguistic elements in which

one element is more one element is more distinctively distinctively markedmarked than than

another another unmarkedunmarked element. element.

Whats Markedness?Whats Markedness?That is a contrast between two or That is a contrast between two or

more members of a category such as more members of a category such as numbernumber, , casecase, or , or tensetense, one of them is , one of them is

called 'called 'markedmarked' if it contains some ' if it contains some extra extra affixaffix, as opposed to the , as opposed to the

''unmarkedunmarked' member which does not.' member which does not.

Marked can mean...Marked can mean...

Indicated by a morphological marker, e.g. Eng. Plural Indicated by a morphological marker, e.g. Eng. Plural -s-s, as opposed to the "unmarked" singular, as opposed to the "unmarked" singular

semantically/functionally more specific (or more semantically/functionally more specific (or more complex) .Inherently more difficult for humans to complex) .Inherently more difficult for humans to process (or learn, or produce).process (or learn, or produce).

Irregular/abnormal as opposed to the "unmarked" Irregular/abnormal as opposed to the "unmarked" regular forms/patterns.regular forms/patterns.

phonetic/phonological: vowel (unmarked) vs. nasal phonetic/phonological: vowel (unmarked) vs. nasal vowel (marked)vowel (marked)

Semantic MarkednessSemantic MarkednessMarkednessMarkedness also applies in also applies in semanticssemantics, ,

that’s called that’s called semantic markingsemantic marking. In a neutral . In a neutral context the unmarked term in a pair is context the unmarked term in a pair is

used. Thus of the pair used. Thus of the pair oldold versus versus youngyoung, , oldold is the unmarked term (e.g. is the unmarked term (e.g. How old is the How old is the

baby ?baby ?

The term The term markednessmarkedness refers to the refers to the relationship between the two poles relationship between the two poles

of an opposition; the terms of an opposition; the terms markedmarked and and unmarkedunmarked refer to the refer to the

evaluation of the poles; the evaluation of the poles; the simpler more general pole is the simpler more general pole is the unmarked term of the opposition unmarked term of the opposition

while the more complex and while the more complex and focused pole is the marked term.focused pole is the marked term.

In linguistics, In linguistics, markednessmarkedness refers to the way refers to the way words are changed or added to give a words are changed or added to give a

special meaning. The special meaning. The unmarked choiceunmarked choice is is just the normal meaning. For example, the just the normal meaning. For example, the

present tense is unmarked for English present tense is unmarked for English verbs. If I just say "walk" that refers to verbs. If I just say "walk" that refers to

the present tense. But if we add something the present tense. But if we add something to "walk" (marking it), such as adding to "walk" (marking it), such as adding ‘ed’ to the end, I can indicate the past: ‘ed’ to the end, I can indicate the past:

"walked". "walked".

MARKED AND UNMARKED TERMSMARKED AND UNMARKED TERMS : Terms in : Terms in LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICS which designate a contrasting pair, which designate a contrasting pair, one possessing a special ‘mark’, the other neutral.one possessing a special ‘mark’, the other neutral. In In play/playedplay/played, , playplay is unmarked and neutral, and is unmarked and neutral, and

playedplayed has the mark has the mark -ed-ed. Similarly, . Similarly, hosthost is unmarked, is unmarked, but but hostesshostess is morphologically marked for femaleness. is morphologically marked for femaleness. The mark is not necessarily visible or audible: in the The mark is not necessarily visible or audible: in the pair pair horse/mulehorse/mule, horse is the more general, unmarked , horse is the more general, unmarked term, while term, while mulemule is marked for femaleness. In the pair is marked for femaleness. In the pair

cow/bullcow/bull, cow is unmarked, while , cow is unmarked, while bullbull is marked for is marked for maleness. maleness.

For example, the regular plural (such as For example, the regular plural (such as tablestables) of a noun is the marked form in ) of a noun is the marked form in

comparison with the singular (comparison with the singular (tabletable) ) because it has an extra affix, the because it has an extra affix, the -s-s (or (or -es-es) )

plural inflection. In a similar way, the plural inflection. In a similar way, the ordinary form of an adjective such as ordinary form of an adjective such as oldold is is unmarked in contrast to the unmarked in contrast to the comparativecomparative and and superlativesuperlative forms, forms, olderolder and and oldestoldest. .

Generally the unmarked form is the more Generally the unmarked form is the more frequent option and also the one that has frequent option and also the one that has

the most neutral meaningthe most neutral meaning

For exmple, For exmple, catcat is unmarked, while its is unmarked, while its plural plural catscats is marked by the is marked by the suffixsuffix -s-s. . Likewise, Likewise, lionlion is unmarked, while the is unmarked, while the female female lionesslioness is marked by the suffix is marked by the suffix -ess-ess, and , and consistentconsistent is unmarked in is unmarked in

comparison with its negative comparison with its negative inconsistentinconsistent..

Male things are unmarked, while female things are Male things are unmarked, while female things are marked with special endings like "ess" and "ette". marked with special endings like "ess" and "ette".

For example: "actress", "poetess". In man For example: "actress", "poetess". In man (humanity), the male is known as the "man", while (humanity), the male is known as the "man", while

the female is known as the "woman". In a discussion the female is known as the "woman". In a discussion about some random persons, "he" is often used to about some random persons, "he" is often used to

refer to one of them. The ending ‘ette" by the way is refer to one of them. The ending ‘ette" by the way is also used for the diminutive or non-serious, as in also used for the diminutive or non-serious, as in "dinette". In general, femaleness in language is "dinette". In general, femaleness in language is associated with small size and non-seriousness. associated with small size and non-seriousness.

*Lion can refer to either male or female lions, *Lion can refer to either male or female lions, whereas "lioness" refers to only female lions. In this whereas "lioness" refers to only female lions. In this

example "lioness" is marked and "lion" is example "lioness" is marked and "lion" is unmarked. This is because "lion" is the more unmarked. This is because "lion" is the more

general term.general term.Another example is "young" vs. "old". Here "old" is Another example is "young" vs. "old". Here "old" is less obviously unmarked, while "young" is marked. less obviously unmarked, while "young" is marked. This is a better example. Normally, when we ask a This is a better example. Normally, when we ask a

question, we ask "How old is Jim?", because "old" is question, we ask "How old is Jim?", because "old" is the unmarked term. This is rather general. So the unmarked term. This is rather general. So

marked vs. unmarked means that two terms with marked vs. unmarked means that two terms with opposite meaning and one of them is more general opposite meaning and one of them is more general

and dominant.and dominant.

Unmarked & MarkedUnmarked & Marked

Greater frequency of Greater frequency of use within language. use within language.

Less complex Less complex phonologically or phonologically or morphologically.morphologically.

It is not overtly marked.It is not overtly marked. Early child acquisition .Early child acquisition . Occurs in many Occurs in many

languages.languages.

Lesser frequency of use.Lesser frequency of use.

More complex .More complex .

Will be overtly marked .Will be overtly marked . Late acquisitionLate acquisition Occurs in fewer Occurs in fewer

languages.languages.

In sum, the unmarked member of In sum, the unmarked member of any pair is the most natural, the any pair is the most natural, the most frequent, the simplest, the most frequent, the simplest, the

more basic, the logically prior, the more basic, the logically prior, the more universal, the first learned, the more universal, the first learned, the one implied by the marked member; one implied by the marked member; the one understood, unstated, taken the one understood, unstated, taken

for granted, ordinary, usual., etc.for granted, ordinary, usual., etc.