Marching Toward War - Lew-Port

OBJECTIVES• Identify the political and military forces

at work in Europe in the late 1800s.

• List the countries that made up theTriple Alliance and the Triple Entente.

• Summarize the events that set World War I in motion.

FOCUS & MOTIVATEAsk students to discuss situations inwhich they formed alliances with others.How did they go about enlisting peoplein their cause? (Possible Answers: con-vincing them of its rightness or of theconsequences of remaining unallied)

INSTRUCTRising Tensions in Europe

Critical Thinking• How do imperialism and militarism

work together to promote war?(Militarism gives a nation the means to carry out its imperialistic aims of taking over other nations.)

• What is one argument against mili-tarism? (Having the means to wagewar might make nations more aggressive and eager to attack other countries.)

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Guided Reading, p. 1 (also in Spanish)

ALL STUDENTSIn-Depth Resources: Unit 7

• Guided Reading, p. 1• Skillbuilder Practice: Summarizing, p. 6• History Makers: Wilhelm II, p. 16

Formal Assessment• Section Quiz, p. 471

ENGLISH LEARNERSIn-Depth Resources in Spanish

• Guided Reading, p. 204• Skillbuilder Practice, p. 208

Reading Study Guide (Spanish), p. 279

Reading Study Guide Audio CD (Spanish)

STRUGGLING READERSIn-Depth Resources: Unit 7

• Guided Reading, p. 1• Building Vocabulary, p. 5• Skillbuilder Practice: Summarizing, p. 6• Reteaching Activity, p. 20

Reading Study Guide, p. 279Reading Study Guide Audio CD

GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTSIn-Depth Resources: Unit 7

eEdition CD-ROMVoices from the Past Audio CDPower Presentations CD-ROMElectronic Library of Primary Sources

• “Death Comes to Sarajevo”classzone.com

Teacher’s Edition 841

SECTION 1 PROGRAM RESOURCES

The Great War 841

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

POWER AND AUTHORITY InEurope, military buildup,nationalistic feelings, and rivalalliances set the stage for acontinental war.

Ethnic conflict in the Balkanregion, which helped start thewar, continued to erupt in thatarea in the 1990s.

• militarism• Triple

Alliance

• KaiserWilhelm II

• TripleEntente

1

SETTING THE STAGE At the turn of the 20th century, the nations of Europehad been largely at peace with one another for nearly 30 years. This was no acci-dent. Efforts to outlaw war and achieve a permanent peace had been gainingmomentum in Europe since the middle of the 19th century. By 1900, hundredsof peace organizations were active. In addition, peace congresses convened reg-ularly between 1843 and 1907. Some Europeans believed that progress had madewar a thing of the past. Yet in a little more than a decade, a massive war wouldengulf Europe and spread across the globe.

Rising Tensions in EuropeWhile peace and harmony characterized much of Europe at the beginning of the1900s, there were less visible—and darker—forces at work as well. Below thesurface of peace and goodwill, Europe witnessed several gradual developmentsthat would ultimately help propel the continent into war.

The Rise of Nationalism One such development was the growth of national-ism, or a deep devotion to one’s nation. Nationalism can serve as a unifying forcewithin a country. However, it also can cause intense competition among nations,with each seeking to overpower the other. By the turn of the 20th century, a fiercerivalry indeed had developed among Europe’s Great Powers. Those nations wereGermany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and France.

This increasing rivalry among European nations stemmed from severalsources. Competition for materials and markets was one. Territorial disputeswere another. France, for example, had never gotten over the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). Austria-Hungary andRussia both tried to dominate in the Balkans, a region in southeast Europe.Within the Balkans, the intense nationalism of Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians,and other ethnic groups led to demands for independence.

Imperialism and Militarism Another force that helped set the stage for war inEurope was imperialism. As Chapter 27 explained, the nations of Europe com-peted fiercely for colonies in Africa and Asia. The quest for colonies sometimespushed European nations to the brink of war. As European countries continuedto compete for overseas empires, their sense of rivalry and mistrust of oneanother deepened.

Marching Toward War

Summarizing Create a time line of major events that led to the start of World War I.

TAKING NOTES

event three

eventone

eventfour

eventtwo

American troops staging a gas attack to show illeffects of forgetting a gas mask, 1918

E. F. Skinner, For King and Country(women in munitions factory)

LESSON PLAN

TEST-TAKING RESOURCESTest Generator CD-ROM

Strategies for Test Preparation

Test Practice Transparencies, TT110

Online Test Practice

• Primary Source: The Murder of Archduke FranzFerdinand, p. 9

Electronic Library of Primary Sources• “Death Comes to Sarajevo”

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Understanding Primary Sources

Yet another troubling development throughout the early years of the 20th centurywas the rise of a dangerous European arms race. The nations of Europe believedthat to be truly great, they needed to have a powerful military. By 1914, all theGreat Powers except Britain had large standing armies. In addition, militaryexperts stressed the importance of being able to quickly mobilize, or organize andmove troops in case of a war. Generals in each country developed highly detailedplans for such a mobilization.

The policy of glorifying military power and keeping an army prepared for warwas known as militarism. Having a large and strong standing army made citizensfeel patriotic. However, it also frightened some people. As early as 1895, FrédéricPassy, a prominent peace activist, expressed a concern that many shared:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EThe entire able-bodied population are preparing to massacre one another; though noone, it is true, wants to attack, and everybody protests his love of peace anddetermination to maintain it, yet the whole world feels that it only requires someunforeseen incident, some unpreventable accident, for the spark to fall in a flash . . .and blow all Europe sky-high.

FRÉDÉRIC PASSY, quoted in Nobel: The Man and His Prizes

Tangled AlliancesGrowing rivalries and mutual mistrust had led to the creationof several military alliances among the Great Powers asearly as the 1870s. This alliance system had been designedto keep peace in Europe. But it would instead help push thecontinent into war.

Bismarck Forges Early Pacts Between 1864 and 1871,Prussia’s blood-and-iron chancellor, Otto von Bismarck,freely used war to unify Germany. After 1871, however,Bismarck declared Germany to be a “satisfied power.” Hethen turned his energies to maintaining peace in Europe.

Bismarck saw France as the greatest threat to peace. Hebelieved that France still wanted revenge for its defeat in theFranco-Prussian War. Bismarck’s first goal, therefore, wasto isolate France. “As long as it is without allies,” Bismarckstressed, “France poses no danger to us.” In 1879, Bismarckformed the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Three years later, Italy joined the two countries,forming the Triple Alliance. In 1881, Bismarck took yetanother possible ally away from France by making a treatywith Russia.

Shifting Alliances Threaten Peace In 1890, Germany’sforeign policy changed dramatically. That year, KaiserWilhelm II—who two years earlier had become ruler ofGermany—forced Bismarck to resign. A proud and stub-born man, Wilhelm II did not wish to share power with any-one. Besides wanting to assert his own power, the newkaiser was eager to show the world just how mightyGermany had become. The army was his greatest pride. “Iand the army were born for one another,” Wilhelm declaredshortly after taking power.

Kaiser Wilhelm II1859–1941

Wilhelm II was related to the leadersof two nations he eventually wouldengage in war. Wilhelm, George V ofGreat Britain, and Nicholas II ofRussia were all cousins.

The kaiser thought a great deal ofhimself and his place in history.Once, when a doctor told him hehad a small cold, Wilhelm reportedlyresponded, “No, it is a big cold.Everything about me must be big.”

He also could be sly and deceitful.After forcing the popular Bismarck toresign, Wilhelm pretended to beupset. Most people, however,including Bismarck, were not fooled.

RESEARCH LINKS For more onWilhelm II, go to classzone.com

842 Chapter 29

Class Time 20 minutes

Task Restating primary source material in everyday language

Purpose To grasp Frédéric Passy’s ideas

Instructions Divide students into groups. Have a volunteer from eachgroup read the Passy quotation aloud. Then have the group members dis-cuss the main idea he is trying to get across. Instruct them to then returnto the Primary Source quotation and restate the main idea of each phrasein their own words. After the groups are finished, have them share theirrestatements with the class and create a combined chart listing bothPassy’s original statements and their coordinated restatements. Completedcharts may look like this:

842 Chapter 29

CHAPTER 29 • Section 1

Original Phrase

1. The entire able-bodied population are preparing to massacre one another; though no one, it is true, wants to attack

2. and everybody protests his love of peaceand determination to maintain it

3. yet the whole world feels that it onlyrequires some unforeseen incident, someunpreventable accident, for the spark to fallin a flash and blow all Europe sky-high

Restatement

1. People want tokill each other,but don’t want toact first.

2. They say theywant to keeppeace.

3. They think thatany small eventcould set off awar in Europe.

DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: STRUGGLING READERS

More About . . .

MilitarismBy 1914, the standing armies of Europeannations included the following numbersof soldiers: Germany—4.5 million;Russia—5.9 million; France—4.2 million;Austria-Hungary—3 million. Britain had a navy nearly as large as the other navies combined.

Tangled Alliances

Critical Thinking• What did Bismarck mean by calling

Germany “a satisfied power”? (that ithad no further imperialistic aims)

• How could a dispute between the TripleAlliance and the Triple Entente draw allof Europe into the conflict? (by forcingthe other countries to take sides in self-defense)

History Makers

Kaiser Wilhelm IIWhat does Wilhelm II’s deceitfulness say about his values? (Possible Answer:Any means to power was justified.)Wilhelm’s extreme arrogance may havepartly stemmed from his disability, ashriveled left arm.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• History Makers: Wilhelm II, p. 16

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Task Identifying and restating the main ideas of a passage

Purpose To foster understanding and memory of ideas

Instructions Explain to students that summarizing isrestating and condensing a passage by identifying themain ideas and putting them in different words. Stressthat it is important for summaries to include words otherthan those of the original passage. A summary that usedthe same words as the original source without givingcredit to that source would be seen as plagiarism. Informstudents that summarizing material can help them clarifyand remember it.

Then hand out copies of page 6 from In-Depth Resources:Unit 7. Ask students to work in pairs to summarize thepassages provided. A sample summary follows:

Summary

Some Americans reacted against the war because of per-sonal ties to European countries, because they saw it as afight for economic power between Britain and Germany,because they hated war in general, or because they were reluctant to have their families involved. Supporterswanted to honor their cultural ties with Britain and maintain their trade relationship with Britain and France.



Summarizing Main Ideas

SKILLBUILDER PRACTICE: SUMMARIZING

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SKILLBUILDER PRACTICE SummarizingWhen you summarize, you condense information and restate the main ideas andkey facts in your own words. Read about American reaction to the outbreak ofwar in Europe in the passage below. Then write a summary of the passage in thespace provided. (See Skillbuilder Handbook)

Section 1

Write your summary of the passage here.

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CHAPTER

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Opposition to the War Millions of naturalizedU.S. citizens followed the war closely because theystill had ties to the nations from which they had emi-grated. For example, many Americans of Germandescent sympathized with Germany. Americans ofIrish descent remembered the centuries of Britishoppression in Ireland and saw the war as a chancefor Ireland to gain its independence. Socialists criti-cized the war as an imperialistic struggle betweenGerman and English businessmen to control rawmaterials and markets in China, Africa, and theMiddle East. Pacifists believed that war was evil andthat the United States should set an example ofpeace to the world. Many Americans simply did notwant their sons to experience the horrors of warfare.

Sympathy for the Allies Despite the wide-spread opposition to the war, a general feeling ofsympathy for Great Britain and France emerged.Many Americans felt close to England because of acommon ancestry, language, and literature, as wellas similar democratic institutions and legal systems.More important, America’s economic ties with theAllies were far stronger than those with the TripleAlliance powers. Before the war began, Americatraded with Great Britain and France more thantwice as much as it did with Germany. During thefirst two years of the war, America’s transatlantictrade became even more lopsided as the Alliesflooded American manufacturers with orders for all sorts of war supplies.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

Wilhelm let his nation’s treaty with Russia lapse in 1890. Russia responded byforming a defensive military alliance with France in 1892 and 1894. Such analliance had been Bismarck’s fear. War with either Russia or France would makeGermany the enemy of both. Germany would then be forced to fight a two-frontwar, or a war on both its eastern and western borders.

Next, Wilhelm began a tremendous shipbuilding program in an effort to makethe German navy equal to that of the mighty British fleet. Alarmed, Great Britainformed an entente, or alliance, with France. In 1907, Britain made another entente,this time with both France and Russia. The Triple Entente, as it was called, didnot bind Britain to fight with France and Russia. However, it did almost certainlyensure that Britain would not fight against them.

By 1907, two rival camps existed in Europe. On one side was the TripleAlliance—Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. On the other side was the TripleEntente—Great Britain, France, and Russia. A dispute between two rival powerscould draw all the nations of Europe into war.

Crisis in the BalkansNowhere was that dispute more likely to occur than on the Balkan Peninsula. Thismountainous peninsula in the southeastern corner of Europe was home to anassortment of ethnic groups. With a long history of nationalist uprisings and eth-nic clashes, the Balkans was known as the “powder keg” of Europe.

A Restless Region By the early 1900s, the Ottoman Empire, which included theBalkan region, was in rapid decline. While some Balkan groups struggled to free themselves from the Ottoman Turks, others already had succeeded in breaking away from their Turkish rulers. These peoples had formed new nations,including Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro,Romania, and Serbia.

Nationalism was a powerful force inthese countries. Each group longed toextend its borders. Serbia, for example,had a large Slavic population. It hoped toabsorb all the Slavs on the BalkanPeninsula. Russia, itself a mostly Slavicnation, supported Serbian nationalism.However, Serbia’s powerful northernneighbor, Austria-Hungary, opposed suchan effort. Austria feared that efforts to cre-ate a Slavic state would stir rebellionamong its Slavic population.

In 1908, Austria annexed, or took over,Bosnia and Herzegovina. These were twoBalkan areas with large Slavic popula-tions. Serbian leaders, who had sought torule these provinces, were outraged. In theyears that followed, tensions betweenSerbia and Austria steadily rose. TheSerbs continually vowed to take Bosniaand Herzegovina away from Austria. Inresponse, Austria-Hungary vowed tocrush any Serbian effort to undermine itsauthority in the Balkans.

24°E

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Sarajevo

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GREECE

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Mediterranean Sea

Slavic groups

0 250 Miles

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The BalkanPeninsula, 1914

Analyzing IssuesWhat were the

reasons for the hos-tility betweenAustria-Hungaryand Serbia?

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Place What region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was

located along the Adriatic Sea?2. Location Based on the map, why might Serbia have

staked a claim to Bosnia and Herzegovina?

Crisis in the Balkans

Critical Thinking• How did nationalism contribute to the

unrest in the Balkans? (by motivatingethnic groups to fight for their territory)

• What act by Austria-Hungary set theworld on the path to war? (annexationof Bosnia and Herzegovina)

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Primary Source: The Murder of Archduke

Franz Ferdinand, p. 9

Electronic Library of Primary Sources• “Death Comes to Sarajevo”

History from Visuals

Interpreting the MapHave students study the map and examine the areas where Slavic groups lived.

Extension Ask students to discuss whyAustria-Hungary wanted to annex Bosniaand Herzegovina. (wanted to add areasof Slavic population to their territory)

SKILLBUILDER Answers1. Place Bosnia and Herzegovina2. Location a common Slavic population

A. Answer Austria-Hungary feared thatSerbia’s growthwould incite Slavicpeoples within itsown territory;Serbia resentedAustria-Hungary’sannexation ofBosnia andHerzegovina.

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844 Chapter 29


1. militarism, p. 842 • Triple Alliance, p. 842 • Kaiser Wilhelm II, p. 842 • Triple Entente, p. 843

2. Sample Answer: Events—rise of Europeannationalism, imperialism, arms race,Bismarck’s unification of Germany, formationof Triple Alliance, Wilhelm II’s shipbuildingprogram, formation of Triple Entente, Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, assassination of ArchdukeFranz Ferdinand. Archduke’s assassination,because it ignited the smoldering embers of war

3. nationalism, imperialism, militarism

4. Triple Alliance—Germany, Austria-Hungary,Italy; Triple Entente—Great Britain, France, Russia

5. the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand 6. Nationalism or imperialism—intensified the

competition among nations; Militarism—led to arms buildup that made large-scale war possible

7. Possible Answer: justified because of the hostility and conflict among its many ethnic groups

8. No—too many powerful forces at work to stopthe war; Yes—Nations could have heeded thecall for negotiation and compromise.

9. Rubric Letters to the editor should • clearly express the student’s opinion.• be supported by facts and details.• be well written and organized.

Rubric Time lines should • include key events in Balkan history.• be well structured and easy to follow.

CONNECT TO TODAY

ANSWERS

A Shot Rings Throughout Europe Into this poisonedatmosphere of mutual dislike and mistrust stepped the heirto the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand,and his wife, Sophie. On June 28, 1914, the couple paid astate visit to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. It would betheir last. The royal pair was shot at point-blank range asthey rode through the streets of Sarajevo in an open car. Thekiller was Gavrilo Princip, a 19-year-old Serbian and mem-ber of the Black Hand. The Black Hand was a secret societycommitted to ridding Bosnia of Austrian rule.

Because the assassin was a Serbian, Austria decided touse the murders as an excuse to punish Serbia. On July 23,Austria presented Serbia with an ultimatum containingnumerous demands. Serbia knew that refusing the ultimatumwould lead to war against the more powerful Austria. There-fore, Serbian leaders agreed to most of Austria’s demands.They offered to have several others settled by an interna-tional conference.

Austria, however, was in no mood to negotiate. Thenation’s leaders, it seemed, had already settled on war. OnJuly 28, Austria rejected Serbia’s offer and declared war. Thatsame day, Russia, an ally of Serbia with its largely Slavic pop-ulation, took action. Russian leaders ordered the mobilizationof troops toward the Austrian border.

Leaders all over Europe suddenly took notice. The frag-ile European stability seemed ready to collapse into armedconflict. The British foreign minister, the Italian govern-ment, and even Kaiser Wilhelm himself urged Austria andRussia to negotiate. But it was too late. The machinery ofwar had been set in motion.

844 Chapter 29

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • militarism • Triple Alliance • Kaiser Wilhelm II • Triple Entente

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which event do you consider

most significant? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. What were the three forces at

work in Europe that helped setthe stage for war?

4. Who were the members of theTriple Alliance? the TripleEntente?

5. What single event set in motionthe start of World War I?

SECTION ASSESSMENT1

CREATING A TIME LINE

Working with a partner, use the library and other resources to create a time line of key eventsin the Balkans from 1914 until today. Limit your time line to the six to eight events youconsider most significant.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. ANALYZING CAUSES Which of the forces at work in

Europe played the greatest role in helping to prompt theoutbreak of war?

7. ANALYZING ISSUES Was the description of the Balkans asthe “powder keg” of Europe justified? Explain.

8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you thinkWorld War I was avoidable? Use information from the textto support your answer.

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write a briefletter to the editor of a European newspaper expressingwhat your views might have been about the coming war.

POWER AND AUTHORITY

CONNECT TO TODAY

eventthree

eventone

event four

eventtwo

INTERNET ACTIVITY Create a chart orgraphic about any aspect of modernArmenian culture. Go to classzone.comfor your research.

VocabularyAn ultimatumis a list of demandsthat, if not met, willlead to serious consequences.

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The Armenian MassacreOne group insoutheasternEurope thatsuffered greatly for itsindependenceefforts was theArmenians. By

the 1880s, the roughly 2.5 millionArmenians in the Ottoman Empire hadbegun to demand their freedom. As aresult, relations between the groupand its Turkish rulers grew strained.

Throughout the 1890s, Turkishtroops killed tens of thousands ofArmenians. When World War Ierupted in 1914, the Armenianspledged their support to the Turks’enemies. In response, the Turkishgovernment deported nearly 2million Armenians. Along the way,more than 600,000 died of starvationor were killed by Turkish soldiers.

Historyin Depth

The Armenian MassacreBetween 1915 and 1916, at least 600,000Armenians died at the hands of the Turks.They were shot, tortured to death, orstarved in concentration camps.Sometimes they were loaded onto bargesand then thrown overboard. TheOttomans tried to justify this genocide bysaying that the Armenians sided withRussia. Today, the government of Turkeyclaims that 300,000 died in deportation.

Rubric Charts or graphics should • identify the aspect of Armenian culture

being described.• include clear labels for each element.

ASSESSSECTION 1 ASSESSMENTHave students complete the assessmentindividually and exchange papers with a partner to check their answers.


RETEACHHave students share with the class thelead paragraphs they wrote in answer toitem 2 in the Section Assessment.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Reteaching Activity, p. 20

wh10te-072901-0841-0844 9/24/03 9:13 AM Page 844

OBJECTIVES• Describe the reaction to Austria’s

declaration of war.

• Summarize military events on theWestern Front.

• Explain the development of the war on the Eastern Front.

FOCUS & MOTIVATEHave students share any information theyhave from literature or movies aboutWorld War I. (They may describe scenesfrom Erich Maria Remarque’s All Quiet onthe Western Front.)

INSTRUCTThe Great War Begins

Critical Thinking• Why did Germany declare war on

France? (It assumed France would align with Russia against the Central Powers.)

• What country had taken over territoriesthat Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empirewanted to regain? (Russia)


Electronic Library of Primary Sources• “The German Army Marches

Through Brussels”


• Guided Reading, p. 2• Geography Application: The Battle of the Somme,

p. 7Formal Assessment

• Section Quiz, p. 472


• Guided Reading, p. 205• Geography Application, p. 209

Reading Study Guide (Spanish), p. 281Reading Study Guide Audio CD (Spanish)


• Guided Reading, p. 2• Building Vocabulary, p. 5• Reteaching Activity, p. 21



• Primary Source: Poison Gas, p. 10• Literature: from All Quiet on Western Front, p. 13;

“The Soldier” and “Dulce et Decorum Est,” p. 15

eEdition CD-ROMPower Presentations CD-ROMWorld Art and Cultures Transparencies

• AT63 The Fate of the Animals• AT64 L’Assault

Electronic Library of Primary Sources classzone.com



The Great War 845


SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYOne European nation afteranother was drawn into a largeand industrialized war thatresulted in many casualties.

Much of the technology ofmodern warfare, such as fighterplanes and tanks, wasintroduced in World War I.

• CentralPowers

• Allies• Western

Front

• SchlieffenPlan

• trenchwarfare

• EasternFront

2

SETTING THE STAGE By 1914, Europe was divided into two rival camps.One alliance, the Triple Entente, included Great Britain, France, and Russia. Theother, known as the Triple Alliance, included Germany, Austria-Hungary, andItaly. Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war against Serbia set off a chain reactionwithin the alliance system. The countries of Europe followed through on theirpledges to support one another. As a result, nearly all of Europe soon joined whatwould be the largest, most destructive war the world had yet seen.

The Great War BeginsIn response to Austria’s declaration of war, Russia, Serbia’s ally, began movingits army toward the Russian-Austrian border. Expecting Germany to join Austria,Russia also mobilized along the German border. To Germany, Russia’s mobi-lization amounted to a declaration of war. On August 1, the German governmentdeclared war on Russia.

Russia looked to its ally France for help. Germany, however, did not even waitfor France to react. Two days after declaring war on Russia, Germany alsodeclared war on France. Soon afterward, Great Britain declared war on Germany.Much of Europe was now locked in battle.

Nations Take Sides By mid-August 1914, the battle lines were clearly drawn.On one side were Germany and Austria-Hungary. They were known as theCentral Powers because of their location in the heart of Europe. Bulgaria andthe Ottoman Empire would later join the Central Powers in the hopes of regain-ing lost territories.

On the other side were Great Britain, France, and Russia. Together, they wereknown as the Allied Powers or the Allies. Japan joined the Allies within weeks.Italy joined later. Italy had been a member of the Triple Alliance with Germanyand Austria-Hungary. However, the Italians joined the other side after accusingtheir former partners of unjustly starting the war.

In the late summer of 1914, millions of soldiers marched happily off to battle,convinced that the war would be short. Only a few people foresaw the horrorahead. One of them was Britain’s foreign minister, Sir Edward Grey. Staring outover London at nightfall, Grey said sadly to a friend, “The lamps are going outall over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”

Europe Plunges into War

Outlining Use an outlineto organize main ideasand details.

TAKING NOTES

I. The Great War Begins A. B.

II. A Bloody Stalemate



LESSON PLAN





• Science & Technology, p. 19Electronic Library of Primary Sources

• “The German Army Marches Through Brussels”

wh10te-072902-0845-0850 9/24/03 9:09 AM Page 845


Task Creating a chart showing the meanings of compound vocabulary terms

Purpose To better understand the text

Instructions Explain to students that compound words are words made up of two other words. These word parts can be two nouns, as inbookshelf, or an adjective and a noun, as in highway. Have students workin small groups to create a chart on which they list compound words theyfind on this page along with the meaning of each word. Ask them to alsobrainstorm other compound words that use one of the component wordparts (such as bookend for bookshelf) and add these to their charts.

A sample chart is shown below.

846 Chapter 29


Analyzing Compound Words

DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: ENGLISH LEARNERS

846 Chapter 29

A Bloody Stalemate It did not take long for Sir Edward Grey’s prediction to ring true. As the summerof 1914 turned to fall, the war turned into a long and bloody stalemate, or dead-lock, along the battlefields of France. This deadlocked region in northern Francebecame known as the Western Front.

The Conflict Grinds Along Facing a war on two fronts, Germany had developeda battle strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan, named after its designer, GeneralAlfred Graf von Schlieffen (SHLEE•fuhn). The plan called for attacking anddefeating France in the west and then rushing east to fight Russia. The Germansfelt they could carry out such a plan because Russia lagged behind the rest ofEurope in its railroad system and thus would take longer to supply its front lines.Nonetheless, speed was vital to the Schlieffen Plan. German leaders knew theyneeded to win a quick victory over France.

Early on, it appeared that Germany would do just that. By early September,German forces had swept into France and reached the outskirts of Paris. A majorGerman victory appeared just days away. On September 5, however, the Alliesregrouped and attacked the Germans northeast of Paris, in the valley of the MarneRiver. Every available soldier was hurled into the struggle. When reinforcementswere needed, more than 600 taxicabs rushed soldiers from Paris to the front. Afterfour days of fighting, the German generals gave the order to retreat.

Although it was only the first major clash on the Western Front, the First Battleof the Marne was perhaps the single most important event of the war. The defeat

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1st Marne, Sept. 19142nd Marne, July 1918 Verdun,

Feb. 1916

Tannenberg,Aug. 1914

Galicia,May 1915

Limanowa,Dec. 1914

Lodz,Nov. 1914

Czernowitz, June 1916

Gallipoli, Feb. 1915–Jan. 1916

Kovel, June 1916

Kerensky Offensive,July 1917

Masurian Lakes,Sep. 1914

Caporetto,Oct. 1917

Somme, July 1916

Amiens, Aug. 1918

Vienna

Dec., 1917

1918

1916

1916

1918

1914

1914

1916

1916

1917

TreatyofB

rest-L i tovsk March, 1918

0 400 Miles

0 800 Kilometers

Allied countriesCentral PowersNeutral countries

Farthest Central Powersadvance

Central Powers victory

Allied victory

Central Powers advance

Farthest Allied advance

Allied advance

Armistice Line, Nov. 1918

World War I in Europe, 1914–1918

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Location In which country was almost all of the war in the West fought?2. Location What geographic disadvantage did Germany and Austria-Hungary face in fighting

the war? How might this have affected their war strategy?


Interpreting the MapHave students examine the map andnote the countries of northern Europethat remained neutral. (Norway, Sweden, Denmark)

Extension Ask students why they thinkGermany violated Belgium’s neutrality but not that of the Netherlands orSwitzerland. (Possible Answer: TheNetherlands does not border France, andthe Germans planned to move westthrough France away from Switzerland.)

SKILLBUILDER Answers1. Location France2. Location They were located between

the Allies and had to split their forcesbetween western and eastern fronts.

Interactive Students can view this mapin detail on the eEdition.

A Bloody Stalemate

Critical Thinking• Why did Germany attack France first?

(It was better prepared for war thanRussia was.)

• Why were land gains so small? (The sides were closely matched.)

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Geography Application: The Battle of the

Somme, p. 7• Primary Source: Poison Gas, p. 10

World Art and Cultures Transparencies• AT63 The Fate of the Animals

Compound Word Meaning Related Word

stalemate state of inaction checkmate

deadlock standstill deadbolt

battlefields areas of conflict cornfields

outskirts perimeter outlaw

northeast north and east southeast

taxicabs hired cars taxiway

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Task Discussing literature of World War I

Purpose To better understand the personal experience and effects of the war

Instructions Have students read the literaryselections on pages 13–15 of In-DepthResources: Unit 7.

Explain that the authors of all three works experienced the horrors of World War I firsthand.

Ask students to work with a partner to completethe activities listed. Have them share their

sensory-detail charts, letters, and biographicalsketches with the class.

A chart of sensory details follows.



The Literature of War

DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS

of the Germans left the Schlieffen Plan in ruins. A quick victory in the west nolonger seemed possible. In the east, Russian forces had already invaded Germany.Germany was going to have to fight a long war on two fronts. Realizing this, theGerman high command sent thousands of troops from France to aid its forces inthe east. Meanwhile, the war on the Western Front settled into a stalemate.

War in the Trenches By early 1915, opposing armies on the Western Front haddug miles of parallel trenches to protect themselves from enemy fire. This set thestage for what became known as trench warfare. In this type of warfare, soldiersfought each other from trenches. And armies traded huge losses of human life forpitifully small land gains.

Life in the trenches was pure misery. “The men slept in mud, washed in mud,ate mud, and dreamed mud,” wrote one soldier. The trenches swarmed with rats.Fresh food was nonexistent. Sleep was nearly impossible.

The space between the opposing trenches won the grim name “no man’s land.”When the officers ordered an attack, their men went over the top of their trenchesinto this bombed-out landscape. There, they usually met murderous rounds ofmachine-gun fire. Staying put, however, did not ensure one’s safety. Artillery firebrought death right into the trenches. “Shells of all calibers kept raining on our sec-tor,” wrote one French soldier. “The trenches disappeared, filled with earth . . . theair was unbreathable. Our blinded, wounded, crawling, and shouting soldiers keptfalling on top of us and died splashing us with blood. It was living hell.”

The Western Front had become a “terrain of death.” It stretched nearly 500 milesfrom the North Sea to the Swiss border. A British officer described it in a letter:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EImagine a broad belt, ten miles or so in width, stretching from the Channel to theGerman frontier near Basle, which is positively littered with the bodies of men andscarified with their rude graves; in which farms, villages and cottages are shapelessheaps of blackened masonry; in which fields, roads and trees are pitted and torn andtwisted by shells and disfigured by dead horses, cattle, sheep and goats, scattered inevery attitude of repulsive distortion and dismemberment.

VALENTINE FLEMING, quoted in The First World War

847

RecognizingEffects

Why was theBattle of the Marneso significant?

▼ Allied troopscrawl through atrench along theWestern Front.

More About . . .

Trench WarfareAt the Battle of the Somme in July, 1916,a soldier was expected to carry the following equipment: a rifle, a bayonet,grenades, 170 rounds of ammunition, agas mask, a shovel and wire cutters, a fullwater bottle and food rations, extra clothing and medical supplies, and aportable cooking stove with fuel. Carryingabout 66 pounds on his back, the soldierhad to fight the enemy—assuming helived while crossing “no man’s land.”

More About . . .

Valentine FlemingValentine Fleming was a member ofParliament and a major in the Britisharmy. His sons—Peter, a travel writer, andIan, the author of the James Bond spynovels—were children during World War I.Fleming ended the letter this way: “It’sgoing to be a long war in spite of the factthat on both sides every single manwants it stopped at once.” He was killedin 1917, fighting on the Western Front.

Sight Sound Feel

gleaming helmets thunder of guns torn

white mist machine-gun rattle hand

tapering rulers howls, pipings, coldof searchlights hisses

pale cradle of booming coalboxestwilight

The Great War 15

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Name Date

LITERATURE SELECTION “The Soldier”by Rupert Brooke

“Dulce et Decorum Est”by Wilfred Owen

“The Soldier” is one of a sequence of sonnets titled 1914 by English poet RupertBrooke, who died of blood poisoning in 1915 on his way to Gallipoli. “Dulce etDecorum Est” is a well-known poem by English poet Wilfred Owen, who servedas an officer in the British infantry and was killed in combat. What impressionsof World War I do these poems convey?

Section 2

The Soldier

If I should die, think only this of me:That there’s some corner of a foreign fieldThat is for ever England. There shall beIn that rich earth a richer dust concealed;A dust whom England bore, shaped, made

aware,Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to

roam,A body of England’s, breathing English air,Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home.

And think, this heart, all evil shed away,A pulse in the eternal mind, no lessGives somewhere back the thoughts by England

given;Her sights and sounds; dreams happy as her

day;And laughter, learnt of friends; and gentleness,In hearts at peace, under an English heaven.

Rupert Brooke “The Soldier” from The Collected Poems ofRupert Brooke (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1915), 115.

Dulce et Decorum Est

Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed

through sludge,Till on the haunting flares we turned our backsAnd towards our distant rest began to trudge.Men marched asleep. Many had lost their bootsBut limped on, blood-shod. All went lame; all

blind;Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hootsOf tired, outstripped Five-Nines [gas shells]

that dropped behind.

Gas! Gas! Quick, boys!—An ecstasy of fumbling,Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time;But someone still was yelling out and stumblingAnd flound’ring like a man in fire or lime. . .Dim, through the misty panes and thick green

light,As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.In all my dreams, before my helpless sight,He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.

If in some smothering dreams you too couldpace

Behind the wagon that we flung him in,And watch the white eyes writhing in his face,His hanging face, like a devil’s sick of sin;If you could hear, at every jolt, the bloodCome gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs,Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cudOf vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues,—My friend, you would not tell with such high

zestTo children ardent for some desperate glory,The old Lie: Dulce et decorum estPro patria mori [It is sweet and fitting to die for

one’s country].

Wilfred Owen “Dulce et Decorum Est” from The CollectedPoems of Wilfred Owen (Chatto and Windus, Ltd., 1946).Reprinted in X.J. Kennedy, An Introduction to Poetry(Boston: Little, Brown, 1966), 26–27.

Research OptionWriting Expository Paragraphs Research thelife of either Wilfred Owen or Rupert Brooke.Then write a biographical sketch of the poet for ananthology of poetry about World War I.

CHAPTER

29

The Great War 13

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Name Date

LITERATURE SELECTION from All Quiet on the Western Frontby Erich Maria Remarque

Erich Maria Remarque was a German novelist who fought in World War I. Hisnovel All Quiet on the Western Front provides a vivid description of the fightingas seen through the eyes of a 19-year-old German soldier named Paul Bäumer. Inthe following passage, Bäumer and Stanislaus Katczinsky or “Kat,” the 40-year-old leader of the group, face intense shelling and artillery fire near the front line.What impressions of fighting in World War I does this passage convey?

Section 2

Mist and the smoke of guns lie breast-high overthe fields. The moon is shining. Along the

road troops file. Their helmets gleam softly in themoonlight. The heads and the rifles stand out abovethe white mist, nodding heads, rocking carriers ofguns.

Farther on the mist ends. Here the headsbecome figures; coats, trousers, and boots appearout of the mist as from a milky pool. They becomea column. The column marches on, straight ahead,the figures resolve themselves into a block, individ-uals are no longer recognizable, the dark wedgepresses onward, fantastically topped by the headsand weapons floating off on the milky pool. A col-umn—not men at all.

Guns and munition wagons are moving along across-road. The backs of the horses shine in themoonlight, their movements are beautiful, they tosstheir heads, and their eyes gleam. The guns and thewagons float before the dim background of themoonlit landscape, the riders in their steel helmetsresemble knights of a forgotten time; it is strangelybeautiful and arresting.

We push on to the pioneer dump. Some of usload our shoulders with pointed and twisted ironstakes; others thrust smooth iron rods through rollsof wire and go off with them. The burdens are awk-ward and heavy.

The ground becomes more broken. From aheadcome warnings: “Look out, deep shell-hole on theleft”— “Mind, trenches”—

Our eyes peer out, our feet and our sticks feel infront of us before they take the weight of the body.Suddenly the line halts; I bump my face against theroll of wire carried by the man in front and curse.

There are some shell-smashed lorries [trucks] inthe road. Another order: “Cigarettes and pipesout.” We are getting near the line.

In the meantime it has become pitch dark. Weskirt a small wood and then have the front lineimmediately before us.

An uncertain, red glow spreads along the sky linefrom one end to the other. It is in perpetual move-ment, punctuated with the bursts of flame from themuzzles of the batteries. Balls of light rise up highabove it, silver and red spheres which explode andrain down in showers of red, white, and green stars.French rockets go up, which unfold a silk parachuteto the air and drift slowly down. They light upeverything as bright as day, their light shines on usand we see our shadows sharply outlined on theground. They hover for the space of a minute beforethey burn out. Immediately fresh ones shoot up tothe sky, and again green, red, and blue stars.

“Bombardment,” says Kat.The thunder of the guns swells to a single heavy

roar and then breaks up again into separate explo-sions. The dry bursts of the machine-guns rattle.Above us the air teems with invisible swift move-ment, with howls, pipings, and hisses. They are the smaller shells;—and amongst them, boomingthrough the night like an organ, go the great coal-boxes and the heavies. They have a hoarse, distantbellow . . . and make their way high above the howland whistle of the smaller shells. It reminds me offlocks of wild geese when I hear them. Last autumnthe wild geese flew day after day across the path ofthe shells.

The searchlights begin to sweep the dark sky.They slide along it like gigantic tapering rulers. Oneof them pauses, and quivers a little. Immediately a second is beside him, a black insect is caughtbetween them and trys to escape—the airman. Hehesitates, is blinded and falls.

At regular intervals we ram in the iron stakes.Two men hold a roll and the others spool off the

CHAPTER

29


A. Possible AnswerIt meant the ruin ofthe Schlieffen Planand the end to aquick victory forGermany.

wh10te-072902-0845-0850 9/24/03 9:10 AM Page 847


Task Identifying Russia’s weaknesses and strengths

Purpose To understand events on the Eastern Front

Instructions Divide students into small groups. Havethem reread the material on pages 848–849 of the textand discuss it. Suggest that they write down any questionsthey have and note points that are unclear. Then hand outa copy of page 282 of the Reading Study Guide to eachgroup. Have them read the summary of the war on theEastern Front presented in the handout and discuss how it supports or differs from their understanding of the

material in the text. Have them reconcile any disagree-ments in interpretation. Finally, have each group collabo-rate in answering question 3 on page 282. Ask a volunteerfrom each group to share his or her group’s answer withthe class. A sample answer follows.

848 Chapter 29


Analyzing the War on the Eastern Front


848 Chapter 29

VocabularyIn war, a casualtyis anyone killed,injured, captured, or considered missing in action.

Military strategists were at a loss. New tools of war—machine guns, poisongas, armored tanks, larger artillery—had not delivered the fast-moving war they had expected. All this new technology did was kill greater numbers of peoplemore effectively.

The slaughter reached a peak in 1916. In February, the Germans launched amassive attack against the French near Verdun. Each side lost more than 300,000men. In July, the British army tried to relieve the pressure on the French. Britishforces attacked the Germans northwest of Verdun, in the valley of the SommeRiver. In the first day of battle alone, more than 20,000 British soldiers were killed.By the time the Battle of the Somme ended in November, each side had sufferedmore than half a million casualties.

What did the warring sides gain? Near Verdun, the Germans advanced aboutfour miles. In the Somme valley, the British gained about five miles.

The Battle on the Eastern FrontEven as the war on the Western Front claimed thousands of lives, both sides weresending millions more men to fight on the Eastern Front. This area was a stretchof battlefield along the German and Russian border. Here, Russians and Serbs bat-tled Germans and Austro-Hungarians. The war in the east was a more mobile warthan that in the west. Here too, however, slaughter and stalemate were common.

Early Fighting At the beginning of the war, Russian forces had launched an attackinto both Austria and Germany. At the end of August, Germany counterattackednear the town of Tannenberg. During the four-day battle, the Germans crushed the

The New Weapons of War Poison GasSoldiers wore masks like those shown at leftto protect themselves from poison gas. Gaswas introduced by the Germans but used byboth sides. Some gases caused blindness orsevere blisters, others death by choking.

Machine GunThe machine gun, which fires ammunitionautomatically, was much improved by thetime of World War I. The gun, shown to theleft, could wipe out waves of attackers andthus made it difficult for forces to advance.

TankThe tank, shown to the left, was an armoredcombat vehicle that moved on chain tracks—and thus could cross many types of terrain. Itwas introduced by the British in 1916 at theBattle of the Somme.

SubmarineIn 1914, the Germans introduced thesubmarine as an effective warship. Thesubmarine’s primary weapon against shipswas the torpedo, an underwater missile.

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282 CHAPTER 29 SECTION 2

1. Who were the Allies and Central Powers?

A Bloody Stalemate (pages 846–848)

What kind of warfare was used?After the German army moved almost to Paris,French defenses strengthened and stopped themin September 1914. Both sides became boggeddown in a bloody conflict. Soldiers dug deeptrenches into the ground. Trench warfare began.

When soldiers left the trenches to storm enemylines, they faced powerful weapons. Machine guns,tanks, poison gas, and larger pieces of artillerykilled hundreds of thousands of soldiers. This washow the war was fought in France, which wascalled the Western Front.

2. What was the war like on the Western Front?

The Battle on the Eastern Front (pages 848–849)

What happened on the Eastern Front?The war on the Eastern Front showed moremovement at first—but it was equally destructive.Russian armies attacked both Germany andAustria-Hungary. They had some early success butwere driven back in both places. One reason wasthat Russia did not have a fully industrial economy.It could not keep troops supplied.

Still, Russia had a huge population and couldsend millions to war. The large Russian army pro-vided a constant threat to Germany. This threatprevented Germany from putting its full resourcesagainst the Allies in the west.

3. What weaknesses and strengths did Russia have?

Reading Study Guide

Russia’s weaknesses and strengths

Russia’s main weakness was its lack of industriesthat could provide the supplies its troops needed.

Its major strength was its huge population thatcould fight the long war.

Historyin Depth

The New Weapons of WarThe first tanks were made in Great Britainand grew out of a design to put machineguns on motorcycles. When Britainshipped the first of the new vehicles toFrance, it labeled them “water tanks” tokeep the weapon secret. The name stuck.The first tank drivers were from the upperclass, because they were the only oneswealthy enough to have cars and knowhow to drive.

Vocabulary Note: Often-ConfusedWordsMake sure that students do not confuse the word casualty with the similar-looking word causality, whichmeans “the relation between a cause and its effect.”

The Battle on the EasternFront

Critical Thinking• Why might the war on the Eastern Front

have been more mobile than that onthe Western Front? (Possible Answer:due to the extremely long borderbetween Russia and Germany)

• How did Russia’s lack of industrializa-tion affect its war efforts? (It leftRussian soldiers short of supplies andfood, putting them at a disadvantagecompared with the better-equippedCentral Powers.)

World Art and Cultures Transparencies• AT64 L’Assault



1. Central Powers, p. 845 • Allies, p. 845 • Western Front, p. 846 • Schlieffen Plan, p. 846 • trench warfare, p. 847 • Eastern Front, p. 848

2. Sample Answer: I. Alliance System—Germanydeclares war on Russia and France, GreatBritain declares war on Germany, CentralPowers and Allies form; II. Bloody Stalemate—Germany pursues Schlieffen Plan, Allies win at Marne; III. Eastern Front—Germany and Austria push Russia back,Russia holds off Germany. fatigue, disease,hunger, rats, fear

3. Central Powers—Germany, Austria-Hungary,Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire; Allies—GreatBritain, France, Russia, Japan, Italy

4. fighting from trenches and no man’s land,huge losses for little territorial gain

5. lack of industrialization, shortages of food andsupplies, German blockade of ports

6. Different—Western Front: Germany vs. Britainand France, Eastern Front: Russia and Serbiavs. Germany and Austria-Hungary, moremobile than Western Front; Same—huge numbers of soldiers killed, horrifying conditions, stalemate

7. It relied on Germany’s winning a quick victoryin France, which didn’t happen.

8. Both sides lost many soldiers and gained little land.

9. Rubric Essays should • be well structured with a thesis statement

and supporting details.• demonstrate knowledge of the subject.

Rubric Oral reports should • address key details about the origins and

purpose of the monument.• be clearly presented.

CONNECT TO TODAY

ANSWERS

invading Russian army and drove it into full retreat. Morethan 30,000 Russian soldiers were killed.

Russia fared somewhat better against the Austrians.Russian forces defeated the Austrians twice in September1914, driving deep into their country. Not until Decemberof that year did the Austrian army manage to turn the tide.Austria defeated the Russians and eventually pushed themout of Austria-Hungary.

Russia Struggles By 1916, Russia’s war effort was nearcollapse. Unlike the nations of western Europe, Russia hadyet to become industrialized. As a result, the Russian armywas continually short on food, guns, ammunition, clothes,boots, and blankets. Moreover, the Allied supply shipmentsto Russia were sharply limited by German control of theBaltic Sea, combined with Germany’s relentless submarinecampaign in the North Sea and beyond. In the south, theOttomans still controlled the straits leading from theMediterranean to the Black Sea.

The Russian army had only one asset—its numbers.Throughout the war the Russian army suffered a stagger-ing number of battlefield losses. Yet the army continuallyrebuilt its ranks from the country’s enormous population.For more than three years, the battered Russian army man-aged to tie up hundreds of thousands of German troops in the east. As a result, Germany could not hurl its fullfighting force at the west.

Germany and her allies, however, were concerned withmore than just the Eastern or Western Fronts. As the war raged on, fighting spreadbeyond Europe to Africa, as well as to Southwest and Southeast Asia. In the years afterit began, the massive European conflict indeed became a world war.

The Great War 849

SynthesizingWhy was

Russia’s involve-ment in the war soimportant to theother Allies?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Central Powers • Allies • Western Front • Schlieffen Plan • trench warfare • Eastern Front

USING YOUR NOTES2. What were some of the

conditions that soldiers on thefront lines had to face?

MAIN IDEAS3. Which countries made up the

Central Powers? Whichcountries comprised the Allies?

4. What were the characteristicsof trench warfare?

5. What factors contributed toRussia’s war difficulties?

SECTION ASSESSMENT2

PRESENTING AN ORAL REPORT

Find an image of a World War I monument from any one of the combatant countries. In anoral report, present the image to the class and provide details about its origin and purpose.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING How was war on the

Western and Eastern Fronts different? How was it thesame?

7. ANALYZING CAUSES Why did the Schlieffen Planultimately collapse? Cite specific details from the text.

8. MAKING INFERENCES Why might it be fair to say thatneither side won the battles of the Somme or Verdun?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY In anexplanatory essay, describe the effects of the newtechnology on warfare. Use examples from your reading.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

CONNECT TO TODAY

I. The Great WarBegins A. B.


The Frozen FrontFor soldiers on the Eastern Front, likethose shown above, the overall miseryof warfare was compounded by deadlywinters. “Every day hundreds froze todeath,” noted one Austro-Hungarianofficer during a particularly brutal spell.

Russian troops suffered too, mainlydue to their lack of food and clothing. “I am at my post all the time—frozen[and] soaked . . . ,” lamented onesoldier. “We walk barefoot or in rope-soled shoes. It’s incredible that soldiersof the Russian army are in rope-soled shoes!”

Social History

The Frozen FrontGermany drastically underestimated theRussians’ determination and endurancewhen facing horrifying conditions. TheSchlieffen Plan was based on theassumption that it would take Russia several months to mobilize. Instead, theRussian army was ready within ten days.It quickly defeated the Germans in oneearly battle and so threatened their armythat German general Moltke took twocorps from the Western Front and sentthem east. The absence of these troopsmade it possible for the Allies to win the Battle of the Marne. Those relocatedtroops helped defeat the Russians atTannenberg, however.

ASSESSSECTION 2 ASSESSMENTHave students share their outlines forquestion 2 with a partner and then keep them to refer to in studying for the chapter assessment.


RETEACHHave students use the Guided Reading activity for Section 2 to reviewthe section.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Guided Reading, p. 2• Reteaching Activity, p. 21

B. Possible AnswerRussia’s huge armytied up Germantroops in the eastand kept them fromfighting in the west.

1. Drawing Conclusions Pilots need to be able to notify someone oftheir location in case they have to bail out;modern pilots rely on outside communication to locate enemy aircraft.

2. Comparing Rubric Explanations should

• identify the recent fighter-plane innovation.• clearly describe its significance.

850 Chapter 29


850

1. Drawing Conclusions Why wouldcommunication with someoneoutside the plane be important forpilots of World War I and today?

See Skillbuilder Handbook, Page R10.

2. Comparing Using the Internet andother resources, find out more abouta recent innovation with regard tofighter planes and explain itssignificance.

� A World War I pilot showsoff an early air-to-groundcommunication device.

Two Top Fighter Planes: A Comparison

Military AviationWorld War I introduced plane warfare—and by doing so, ushered in an era oftremendous progress in the field of military aviation. Although the plane itself wasrelatively new and untested by 1914, the warring nations quickly recognized itspotential as a powerful weapon. Throughout the conflict, countries on both sidesbuilt faster and stronger aircraft, and designed them to drop bombs and shoot at oneanother in the sky. Between the beginning and end of the war, the total number ofplanes in use by the major combatants soared from around 850 to nearly 10,000.After the war, countries continued to maintain a strong and advanced airforce, asthey realized that supremacy of the air was a key to military victory.

Designers kept nearly all weight in the center, giving the planes tremendous maneuverability.

A timing device enabled machine guns to fire through the propeller.

Engines were continuously strengthened for greater speed and carrying capability.3

2

1

Fokker D VII (German)

Sopwith F1Camel (British)

18 feet 8 inches

28 feet

122 mph

24,000 feet

2.5 hours

Length 23 feet

Wingspan 29 feet 3 inches

Maximum Speed 116 mph

Maximum Height 22,900 feet

Maximum Flight Time 1.5 hours

2

31

RESEARCH LINKS For more on militaryaviation go to classzone.com

CONNECT TO TODAY: ANSWERS

Science & Technology

OBJECTIVE• Analyze the contribution of aviation to

the course of World War I.

INSTRUCTInform students that airplanes played amajor role in the battles of World War I.Although the German air force ruled theskies at first, its dominance didn’t lastlong. Both sides soon were engaged in atechnological war to build more effectivefighter planes.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Science and Technology: Industrial

Technology Creates Poison Gas, p. 19

More About . . .

Aircraft EquipmentThe parachute had been invented by thetime World War I ended. German pilotscarried parachutes, but American pilotsdid not. The U.S. War Department had areason for banning them. The assumptionwas that pilots would be more likely tofly an injured plane to safety if they couldnot bail out when they were hit.

OBJECTIVES• Describe the reaction to Austria’s

declaration of war.

• Summarize military events on theWestern Front.

• Explain the development of the war on the Eastern Front.

FOCUS & MOTIVATEHave students share any information theyhave from literature or movies aboutWorld War I. (They may describe scenesfrom Erich Maria Remarque’s All Quiet onthe Western Front.)

INSTRUCTThe Great War Begins

Critical Thinking• Why did Germany declare war on

France? (It assumed France would align with Russia against the Central Powers.)

• What country had taken over territoriesthat Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empirewanted to regain? (Russia)


Electronic Library of Primary Sources• “The German Army Marches

Through Brussels”


• Guided Reading, p. 2• Geography Application: The Battle of the Somme,

p. 7Formal Assessment



• Guided Reading, p. 205• Geography Application, p. 209

Reading Study Guide (Spanish), p. 281Reading Study Guide Audio CD (Spanish)





• Primary Source: Poison Gas, p. 10• Literature: from All Quiet on Western Front, p. 13;

“The Soldier” and “Dulce et Decorum Est,” p. 15

eEdition CD-ROMPower Presentations CD-ROMWorld Art and Cultures Transparencies

• AT63 The Fate of the Animals• AT64 L’Assault

Electronic Library of Primary Sources classzone.com



The Great War 845


SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYOne European nation afteranother was drawn into a largeand industrialized war thatresulted in many casualties.

Much of the technology ofmodern warfare, such as fighterplanes and tanks, wasintroduced in World War I.

• CentralPowers

• Allies• Western

Front

• SchlieffenPlan

• trenchwarfare

• EasternFront

2

SETTING THE STAGE By 1914, Europe was divided into two rival camps.One alliance, the Triple Entente, included Great Britain, France, and Russia. Theother, known as the Triple Alliance, included Germany, Austria-Hungary, andItaly. Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war against Serbia set off a chain reactionwithin the alliance system. The countries of Europe followed through on theirpledges to support one another. As a result, nearly all of Europe soon joined whatwould be the largest, most destructive war the world had yet seen.

The Great War BeginsIn response to Austria’s declaration of war, Russia, Serbia’s ally, began movingits army toward the Russian-Austrian border. Expecting Germany to join Austria,Russia also mobilized along the German border. To Germany, Russia’s mobi-lization amounted to a declaration of war. On August 1, the German governmentdeclared war on Russia.

Russia looked to its ally France for help. Germany, however, did not even waitfor France to react. Two days after declaring war on Russia, Germany alsodeclared war on France. Soon afterward, Great Britain declared war on Germany.Much of Europe was now locked in battle.

Nations Take Sides By mid-August 1914, the battle lines were clearly drawn.On one side were Germany and Austria-Hungary. They were known as theCentral Powers because of their location in the heart of Europe. Bulgaria andthe Ottoman Empire would later join the Central Powers in the hopes of regain-ing lost territories.

On the other side were Great Britain, France, and Russia. Together, they wereknown as the Allied Powers or the Allies. Japan joined the Allies within weeks.Italy joined later. Italy had been a member of the Triple Alliance with Germanyand Austria-Hungary. However, the Italians joined the other side after accusingtheir former partners of unjustly starting the war.

In the late summer of 1914, millions of soldiers marched happily off to battle,convinced that the war would be short. Only a few people foresaw the horrorahead. One of them was Britain’s foreign minister, Sir Edward Grey. Staring outover London at nightfall, Grey said sadly to a friend, “The lamps are going outall over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”

Europe Plunges into War

Outlining Use an outlineto organize main ideasand details.

TAKING NOTES

I. The Great War Begins A. B.




LESSON PLAN





• Science & Technology, p. 19Electronic Library of Primary Sources

• “The German Army Marches Through Brussels”

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Task Creating a chart showing the meanings of compound vocabulary terms

Purpose To better understand the text

Instructions Explain to students that compound words are words made up of two other words. These word parts can be two nouns, as inbookshelf, or an adjective and a noun, as in highway. Have students workin small groups to create a chart on which they list compound words theyfind on this page along with the meaning of each word. Ask them to alsobrainstorm other compound words that use one of the component wordparts (such as bookend for bookshelf) and add these to their charts.

A sample chart is shown below.

846 Chapter 29


Analyzing Compound Words


846 Chapter 29

A Bloody Stalemate It did not take long for Sir Edward Grey’s prediction to ring true. As the summerof 1914 turned to fall, the war turned into a long and bloody stalemate, or dead-lock, along the battlefields of France. This deadlocked region in northern Francebecame known as the Western Front.

The Conflict Grinds Along Facing a war on two fronts, Germany had developeda battle strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan, named after its designer, GeneralAlfred Graf von Schlieffen (SHLEE•fuhn). The plan called for attacking anddefeating France in the west and then rushing east to fight Russia. The Germansfelt they could carry out such a plan because Russia lagged behind the rest ofEurope in its railroad system and thus would take longer to supply its front lines.Nonetheless, speed was vital to the Schlieffen Plan. German leaders knew theyneeded to win a quick victory over France.

Early on, it appeared that Germany would do just that. By early September,German forces had swept into France and reached the outskirts of Paris. A majorGerman victory appeared just days away. On September 5, however, the Alliesregrouped and attacked the Germans northeast of Paris, in the valley of the MarneRiver. Every available soldier was hurled into the struggle. When reinforcementswere needed, more than 600 taxicabs rushed soldiers from Paris to the front. Afterfour days of fighting, the German generals gave the order to retreat.

Although it was only the first major clash on the Western Front, the First Battleof the Marne was perhaps the single most important event of the war. The defeat

0° 8°E

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ATLANTICOCEAN

N o r t hS e a

B a l t i cS e a

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Rhine

R.

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GREAT BRITAIN

A U S T R I A -

H U N G A R Y

G E R M A N Y

EAST PRUSSIA

BELGIUM

F R A N C E

O T T O M A N E M P I R E

BULGARIA

ROMANIA

GREECE

ALBANIA

SERBIAMONTENEGRO

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S P A I N

ITALY

SWITZ.

SWEDEN

DENMARK

NETH.

LUX.Paris

Berlin

Milan

Rome

Madrid

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Ypres, Nov. 1914

1st Marne, Sept. 19142nd Marne, July 1918 Verdun,

Feb. 1916

Tannenberg,Aug. 1914

Galicia,May 1915

Limanowa,Dec. 1914

Lodz,Nov. 1914

Czernowitz, June 1916

Gallipoli, Feb. 1915–Jan. 1916

Kovel, June 1916

Kerensky Offensive,July 1917

Masurian Lakes,Sep. 1914

Caporetto,Oct. 1917

Somme, July 1916

Amiens, Aug. 1918

Vienna

Dec., 1917

1918

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rest-L i tovsk March, 1918

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Allied countriesCentral PowersNeutral countries

Farthest Central Powersadvance

Central Powers victory

Allied victory

Central Powers advance

Farthest Allied advance

Allied advance

Armistice Line, Nov. 1918

World War I in Europe, 1914–1918

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Location In which country was almost all of the war in the West fought?2. Location What geographic disadvantage did Germany and Austria-Hungary face in fighting

the war? How might this have affected their war strategy?


Interpreting the MapHave students examine the map andnote the countries of northern Europethat remained neutral. (Norway, Sweden, Denmark)

Extension Ask students why they thinkGermany violated Belgium’s neutrality but not that of the Netherlands orSwitzerland. (Possible Answer: TheNetherlands does not border France, andthe Germans planned to move westthrough France away from Switzerland.)

SKILLBUILDER Answers1. Location France2. Location They were located between

the Allies and had to split their forcesbetween western and eastern fronts.

Interactive Students can view this mapin detail on the eEdition.

A Bloody Stalemate

Critical Thinking• Why did Germany attack France first?

(It was better prepared for war thanRussia was.)

• Why were land gains so small? (The sides were closely matched.)

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Geography Application: The Battle of the

Somme, p. 7• Primary Source: Poison Gas, p. 10

World Art and Cultures Transparencies• AT63 The Fate of the Animals

Compound Word Meaning Related Word

stalemate state of inaction checkmate

deadlock standstill deadbolt

battlefields areas of conflict cornfields

outskirts perimeter outlaw

northeast north and east southeast

taxicabs hired cars taxiway

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Task Discussing literature of World War I

Purpose To better understand the personal experience and effects of the war

Instructions Have students read the literaryselections on pages 13–15 of In-DepthResources: Unit 7.

Explain that the authors of all three works experienced the horrors of World War I firsthand.

Ask students to work with a partner to completethe activities listed. Have them share their

sensory-detail charts, letters, and biographicalsketches with the class.

A chart of sensory details follows.



The Literature of War


of the Germans left the Schlieffen Plan in ruins. A quick victory in the west nolonger seemed possible. In the east, Russian forces had already invaded Germany.Germany was going to have to fight a long war on two fronts. Realizing this, theGerman high command sent thousands of troops from France to aid its forces inthe east. Meanwhile, the war on the Western Front settled into a stalemate.

War in the Trenches By early 1915, opposing armies on the Western Front haddug miles of parallel trenches to protect themselves from enemy fire. This set thestage for what became known as trench warfare. In this type of warfare, soldiersfought each other from trenches. And armies traded huge losses of human life forpitifully small land gains.

Life in the trenches was pure misery. “The men slept in mud, washed in mud,ate mud, and dreamed mud,” wrote one soldier. The trenches swarmed with rats.Fresh food was nonexistent. Sleep was nearly impossible.

The space between the opposing trenches won the grim name “no man’s land.”When the officers ordered an attack, their men went over the top of their trenchesinto this bombed-out landscape. There, they usually met murderous rounds ofmachine-gun fire. Staying put, however, did not ensure one’s safety. Artillery firebrought death right into the trenches. “Shells of all calibers kept raining on our sec-tor,” wrote one French soldier. “The trenches disappeared, filled with earth . . . theair was unbreathable. Our blinded, wounded, crawling, and shouting soldiers keptfalling on top of us and died splashing us with blood. It was living hell.”

The Western Front had become a “terrain of death.” It stretched nearly 500 milesfrom the North Sea to the Swiss border. A British officer described it in a letter:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EImagine a broad belt, ten miles or so in width, stretching from the Channel to theGerman frontier near Basle, which is positively littered with the bodies of men andscarified with their rude graves; in which farms, villages and cottages are shapelessheaps of blackened masonry; in which fields, roads and trees are pitted and torn andtwisted by shells and disfigured by dead horses, cattle, sheep and goats, scattered inevery attitude of repulsive distortion and dismemberment.

VALENTINE FLEMING, quoted in The First World War

847

RecognizingEffects

Why was theBattle of the Marneso significant?

▼ Allied troopscrawl through atrench along theWestern Front.

More About . . .

Trench WarfareAt the Battle of the Somme in July, 1916,a soldier was expected to carry the following equipment: a rifle, a bayonet,grenades, 170 rounds of ammunition, agas mask, a shovel and wire cutters, a fullwater bottle and food rations, extra clothing and medical supplies, and aportable cooking stove with fuel. Carryingabout 66 pounds on his back, the soldierhad to fight the enemy—assuming helived while crossing “no man’s land.”

More About . . .

Valentine FlemingValentine Fleming was a member ofParliament and a major in the Britisharmy. His sons—Peter, a travel writer, andIan, the author of the James Bond spynovels—were children during World War I.Fleming ended the letter this way: “It’sgoing to be a long war in spite of the factthat on both sides every single manwants it stopped at once.” He was killedin 1917, fighting on the Western Front.

Sight Sound Feel

gleaming helmets thunder of guns torn

white mist machine-gun rattle hand

tapering rulers howls, pipings, coldof searchlights hisses

pale cradle of booming coalboxestwilight

The Great War 15

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LITERATURE SELECTION “The Soldier”by Rupert Brooke

“Dulce et Decorum Est”by Wilfred Owen

“The Soldier” is one of a sequence of sonnets titled 1914 by English poet RupertBrooke, who died of blood poisoning in 1915 on his way to Gallipoli. “Dulce etDecorum Est” is a well-known poem by English poet Wilfred Owen, who servedas an officer in the British infantry and was killed in combat. What impressionsof World War I do these poems convey?

Section 2

The Soldier

If I should die, think only this of me:That there’s some corner of a foreign fieldThat is for ever England. There shall beIn that rich earth a richer dust concealed;A dust whom England bore, shaped, made

aware,Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to

roam,A body of England’s, breathing English air,Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home.

And think, this heart, all evil shed away,A pulse in the eternal mind, no lessGives somewhere back the thoughts by England

given;Her sights and sounds; dreams happy as her

day;And laughter, learnt of friends; and gentleness,In hearts at peace, under an English heaven.

Rupert Brooke “The Soldier” from The Collected Poems ofRupert Brooke (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1915), 115.

Dulce et Decorum Est

Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed

through sludge,Till on the haunting flares we turned our backsAnd towards our distant rest began to trudge.Men marched asleep. Many had lost their bootsBut limped on, blood-shod. All went lame; all

blind;Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hootsOf tired, outstripped Five-Nines [gas shells]

that dropped behind.

Gas! Gas! Quick, boys!—An ecstasy of fumbling,Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time;But someone still was yelling out and stumblingAnd flound’ring like a man in fire or lime. . .Dim, through the misty panes and thick green

light,As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.In all my dreams, before my helpless sight,He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.

If in some smothering dreams you too couldpace

Behind the wagon that we flung him in,And watch the white eyes writhing in his face,His hanging face, like a devil’s sick of sin;If you could hear, at every jolt, the bloodCome gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs,Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cudOf vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues,—My friend, you would not tell with such high

zestTo children ardent for some desperate glory,The old Lie: Dulce et decorum estPro patria mori [It is sweet and fitting to die for

one’s country].

Wilfred Owen “Dulce et Decorum Est” from The CollectedPoems of Wilfred Owen (Chatto and Windus, Ltd., 1946).Reprinted in X.J. Kennedy, An Introduction to Poetry(Boston: Little, Brown, 1966), 26–27.

Research OptionWriting Expository Paragraphs Research thelife of either Wilfred Owen or Rupert Brooke.Then write a biographical sketch of the poet for ananthology of poetry about World War I.

CHAPTER

29

The Great War 13

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LITERATURE SELECTION from All Quiet on the Western Frontby Erich Maria Remarque

Erich Maria Remarque was a German novelist who fought in World War I. Hisnovel All Quiet on the Western Front provides a vivid description of the fightingas seen through the eyes of a 19-year-old German soldier named Paul Bäumer. Inthe following passage, Bäumer and Stanislaus Katczinsky or “Kat,” the 40-year-old leader of the group, face intense shelling and artillery fire near the front line.What impressions of fighting in World War I does this passage convey?

Section 2

Mist and the smoke of guns lie breast-high overthe fields. The moon is shining. Along the

road troops file. Their helmets gleam softly in themoonlight. The heads and the rifles stand out abovethe white mist, nodding heads, rocking carriers ofguns.

Farther on the mist ends. Here the headsbecome figures; coats, trousers, and boots appearout of the mist as from a milky pool. They becomea column. The column marches on, straight ahead,the figures resolve themselves into a block, individ-uals are no longer recognizable, the dark wedgepresses onward, fantastically topped by the headsand weapons floating off on the milky pool. A col-umn—not men at all.

Guns and munition wagons are moving along across-road. The backs of the horses shine in themoonlight, their movements are beautiful, they tosstheir heads, and their eyes gleam. The guns and thewagons float before the dim background of themoonlit landscape, the riders in their steel helmetsresemble knights of a forgotten time; it is strangelybeautiful and arresting.

We push on to the pioneer dump. Some of usload our shoulders with pointed and twisted ironstakes; others thrust smooth iron rods through rollsof wire and go off with them. The burdens are awk-ward and heavy.

The ground becomes more broken. From aheadcome warnings: “Look out, deep shell-hole on theleft”— “Mind, trenches”—

Our eyes peer out, our feet and our sticks feel infront of us before they take the weight of the body.Suddenly the line halts; I bump my face against theroll of wire carried by the man in front and curse.

There are some shell-smashed lorries [trucks] inthe road. Another order: “Cigarettes and pipesout.” We are getting near the line.

In the meantime it has become pitch dark. Weskirt a small wood and then have the front lineimmediately before us.

An uncertain, red glow spreads along the sky linefrom one end to the other. It is in perpetual move-ment, punctuated with the bursts of flame from themuzzles of the batteries. Balls of light rise up highabove it, silver and red spheres which explode andrain down in showers of red, white, and green stars.French rockets go up, which unfold a silk parachuteto the air and drift slowly down. They light upeverything as bright as day, their light shines on usand we see our shadows sharply outlined on theground. They hover for the space of a minute beforethey burn out. Immediately fresh ones shoot up tothe sky, and again green, red, and blue stars.

“Bombardment,” says Kat.The thunder of the guns swells to a single heavy

roar and then breaks up again into separate explo-sions. The dry bursts of the machine-guns rattle.Above us the air teems with invisible swift move-ment, with howls, pipings, and hisses. They are the smaller shells;—and amongst them, boomingthrough the night like an organ, go the great coal-boxes and the heavies. They have a hoarse, distantbellow . . . and make their way high above the howland whistle of the smaller shells. It reminds me offlocks of wild geese when I hear them. Last autumnthe wild geese flew day after day across the path ofthe shells.

The searchlights begin to sweep the dark sky.They slide along it like gigantic tapering rulers. Oneof them pauses, and quivers a little. Immediately a second is beside him, a black insect is caughtbetween them and trys to escape—the airman. Hehesitates, is blinded and falls.

At regular intervals we ram in the iron stakes.Two men hold a roll and the others spool off the

CHAPTER

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A. Possible AnswerIt meant the ruin ofthe Schlieffen Planand the end to aquick victory forGermany.

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Task Identifying Russia’s weaknesses and strengths

Purpose To understand events on the Eastern Front

Instructions Divide students into small groups. Havethem reread the material on pages 848–849 of the textand discuss it. Suggest that they write down any questionsthey have and note points that are unclear. Then hand outa copy of page 282 of the Reading Study Guide to eachgroup. Have them read the summary of the war on theEastern Front presented in the handout and discuss how it supports or differs from their understanding of the

material in the text. Have them reconcile any disagree-ments in interpretation. Finally, have each group collabo-rate in answering question 3 on page 282. Ask a volunteerfrom each group to share his or her group’s answer withthe class. A sample answer follows.

848 Chapter 29


Analyzing the War on the Eastern Front


848 Chapter 29

VocabularyIn war, a casualtyis anyone killed,injured, captured, or considered missing in action.

Military strategists were at a loss. New tools of war—machine guns, poisongas, armored tanks, larger artillery—had not delivered the fast-moving war they had expected. All this new technology did was kill greater numbers of peoplemore effectively.

The slaughter reached a peak in 1916. In February, the Germans launched amassive attack against the French near Verdun. Each side lost more than 300,000men. In July, the British army tried to relieve the pressure on the French. Britishforces attacked the Germans northwest of Verdun, in the valley of the SommeRiver. In the first day of battle alone, more than 20,000 British soldiers were killed.By the time the Battle of the Somme ended in November, each side had sufferedmore than half a million casualties.

What did the warring sides gain? Near Verdun, the Germans advanced aboutfour miles. In the Somme valley, the British gained about five miles.

The Battle on the Eastern FrontEven as the war on the Western Front claimed thousands of lives, both sides weresending millions more men to fight on the Eastern Front. This area was a stretchof battlefield along the German and Russian border. Here, Russians and Serbs bat-tled Germans and Austro-Hungarians. The war in the east was a more mobile warthan that in the west. Here too, however, slaughter and stalemate were common.

Early Fighting At the beginning of the war, Russian forces had launched an attackinto both Austria and Germany. At the end of August, Germany counterattackednear the town of Tannenberg. During the four-day battle, the Germans crushed the

The New Weapons of War Poison GasSoldiers wore masks like those shown at leftto protect themselves from poison gas. Gaswas introduced by the Germans but used byboth sides. Some gases caused blindness orsevere blisters, others death by choking.

Machine GunThe machine gun, which fires ammunitionautomatically, was much improved by thetime of World War I. The gun, shown to theleft, could wipe out waves of attackers andthus made it difficult for forces to advance.

TankThe tank, shown to the left, was an armoredcombat vehicle that moved on chain tracks—and thus could cross many types of terrain. Itwas introduced by the British in 1916 at theBattle of the Somme.

SubmarineIn 1914, the Germans introduced thesubmarine as an effective warship. Thesubmarine’s primary weapon against shipswas the torpedo, an underwater missile.

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282 CHAPTER 29 SECTION 2

1. Who were the Allies and Central Powers?

A Bloody Stalemate (pages 846–848)

What kind of warfare was used?After the German army moved almost to Paris,French defenses strengthened and stopped themin September 1914. Both sides became boggeddown in a bloody conflict. Soldiers dug deeptrenches into the ground. Trench warfare began.

When soldiers left the trenches to storm enemylines, they faced powerful weapons. Machine guns,tanks, poison gas, and larger pieces of artillerykilled hundreds of thousands of soldiers. This washow the war was fought in France, which wascalled the Western Front.

2. What was the war like on the Western Front?

The Battle on the Eastern Front (pages 848–849)

What happened on the Eastern Front?The war on the Eastern Front showed moremovement at first—but it was equally destructive.Russian armies attacked both Germany andAustria-Hungary. They had some early success butwere driven back in both places. One reason wasthat Russia did not have a fully industrial economy.It could not keep troops supplied.

Still, Russia had a huge population and couldsend millions to war. The large Russian army pro-vided a constant threat to Germany. This threatprevented Germany from putting its full resourcesagainst the Allies in the west.

3. What weaknesses and strengths did Russia have?

Reading Study Guide

Russia’s weaknesses and strengths

Russia’s main weakness was its lack of industriesthat could provide the supplies its troops needed.

Its major strength was its huge population thatcould fight the long war.

Historyin Depth

The New Weapons of WarThe first tanks were made in Great Britainand grew out of a design to put machineguns on motorcycles. When Britainshipped the first of the new vehicles toFrance, it labeled them “water tanks” tokeep the weapon secret. The name stuck.The first tank drivers were from the upperclass, because they were the only oneswealthy enough to have cars and knowhow to drive.

Vocabulary Note: Often-ConfusedWordsMake sure that students do not confuse the word casualty with the similar-looking word causality, whichmeans “the relation between a cause and its effect.”

The Battle on the EasternFront

Critical Thinking• Why might the war on the Eastern Front

have been more mobile than that onthe Western Front? (Possible Answer:due to the extremely long borderbetween Russia and Germany)

• How did Russia’s lack of industrializa-tion affect its war efforts? (It leftRussian soldiers short of supplies andfood, putting them at a disadvantagecompared with the better-equippedCentral Powers.)

World Art and Cultures Transparencies• AT64 L’Assault



1. Central Powers, p. 845 • Allies, p. 845 • Western Front, p. 846 • Schlieffen Plan, p. 846 • trench warfare, p. 847 • Eastern Front, p. 848

2. Sample Answer: I. Alliance System—Germanydeclares war on Russia and France, GreatBritain declares war on Germany, CentralPowers and Allies form; II. Bloody Stalemate—Germany pursues Schlieffen Plan, Allies win at Marne; III. Eastern Front—Germany and Austria push Russia back,Russia holds off Germany. fatigue, disease,hunger, rats, fear

3. Central Powers—Germany, Austria-Hungary,Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire; Allies—GreatBritain, France, Russia, Japan, Italy

4. fighting from trenches and no man’s land,huge losses for little territorial gain

5. lack of industrialization, shortages of food andsupplies, German blockade of ports

6. Different—Western Front: Germany vs. Britainand France, Eastern Front: Russia and Serbiavs. Germany and Austria-Hungary, moremobile than Western Front; Same—huge numbers of soldiers killed, horrifying conditions, stalemate

7. It relied on Germany’s winning a quick victoryin France, which didn’t happen.

8. Both sides lost many soldiers and gained little land.

9. Rubric Essays should • be well structured with a thesis statement

and supporting details.• demonstrate knowledge of the subject.

Rubric Oral reports should • address key details about the origins and

purpose of the monument.• be clearly presented.

CONNECT TO TODAY

ANSWERS

invading Russian army and drove it into full retreat. Morethan 30,000 Russian soldiers were killed.

Russia fared somewhat better against the Austrians.Russian forces defeated the Austrians twice in September1914, driving deep into their country. Not until Decemberof that year did the Austrian army manage to turn the tide.Austria defeated the Russians and eventually pushed themout of Austria-Hungary.

Russia Struggles By 1916, Russia’s war effort was nearcollapse. Unlike the nations of western Europe, Russia hadyet to become industrialized. As a result, the Russian armywas continually short on food, guns, ammunition, clothes,boots, and blankets. Moreover, the Allied supply shipmentsto Russia were sharply limited by German control of theBaltic Sea, combined with Germany’s relentless submarinecampaign in the North Sea and beyond. In the south, theOttomans still controlled the straits leading from theMediterranean to the Black Sea.

The Russian army had only one asset—its numbers.Throughout the war the Russian army suffered a stagger-ing number of battlefield losses. Yet the army continuallyrebuilt its ranks from the country’s enormous population.For more than three years, the battered Russian army man-aged to tie up hundreds of thousands of German troops in the east. As a result, Germany could not hurl its fullfighting force at the west.

Germany and her allies, however, were concerned withmore than just the Eastern or Western Fronts. As the war raged on, fighting spreadbeyond Europe to Africa, as well as to Southwest and Southeast Asia. In the years afterit began, the massive European conflict indeed became a world war.

The Great War 849

SynthesizingWhy was

Russia’s involve-ment in the war soimportant to theother Allies?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Central Powers • Allies • Western Front • Schlieffen Plan • trench warfare • Eastern Front

USING YOUR NOTES2. What were some of the

conditions that soldiers on thefront lines had to face?

MAIN IDEAS3. Which countries made up the

Central Powers? Whichcountries comprised the Allies?

4. What were the characteristicsof trench warfare?

5. What factors contributed toRussia’s war difficulties?

SECTION ASSESSMENT2

PRESENTING AN ORAL REPORT

Find an image of a World War I monument from any one of the combatant countries. In anoral report, present the image to the class and provide details about its origin and purpose.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING How was war on the

Western and Eastern Fronts different? How was it thesame?

7. ANALYZING CAUSES Why did the Schlieffen Planultimately collapse? Cite specific details from the text.

8. MAKING INFERENCES Why might it be fair to say thatneither side won the battles of the Somme or Verdun?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY In anexplanatory essay, describe the effects of the newtechnology on warfare. Use examples from your reading.


CONNECT TO TODAY

I. The Great WarBegins A. B.


The Frozen FrontFor soldiers on the Eastern Front, likethose shown above, the overall miseryof warfare was compounded by deadlywinters. “Every day hundreds froze todeath,” noted one Austro-Hungarianofficer during a particularly brutal spell.

Russian troops suffered too, mainlydue to their lack of food and clothing. “I am at my post all the time—frozen[and] soaked . . . ,” lamented onesoldier. “We walk barefoot or in rope-soled shoes. It’s incredible that soldiersof the Russian army are in rope-soled shoes!”

Social History

The Frozen FrontGermany drastically underestimated theRussians’ determination and endurancewhen facing horrifying conditions. TheSchlieffen Plan was based on theassumption that it would take Russia several months to mobilize. Instead, theRussian army was ready within ten days.It quickly defeated the Germans in oneearly battle and so threatened their armythat German general Moltke took twocorps from the Western Front and sentthem east. The absence of these troopsmade it possible for the Allies to win the Battle of the Marne. Those relocatedtroops helped defeat the Russians atTannenberg, however.

ASSESSSECTION 2 ASSESSMENTHave students share their outlines forquestion 2 with a partner and then keep them to refer to in studying for the chapter assessment.


RETEACHHave students use the Guided Reading activity for Section 2 to reviewthe section.


B. Possible AnswerRussia’s huge armytied up Germantroops in the eastand kept them fromfighting in the west.

1. Drawing Conclusions Pilots need to be able to notify someone oftheir location in case they have to bail out;modern pilots rely on outside communication to locate enemy aircraft.

2. Comparing Rubric Explanations should

• identify the recent fighter-plane innovation.• clearly describe its significance.

850 Chapter 29


850

1. Drawing Conclusions Why wouldcommunication with someoneoutside the plane be important forpilots of World War I and today?

See Skillbuilder Handbook, Page R10.

2. Comparing Using the Internet andother resources, find out more abouta recent innovation with regard tofighter planes and explain itssignificance.

� A World War I pilot showsoff an early air-to-groundcommunication device.

Two Top Fighter Planes: A Comparison

Military AviationWorld War I introduced plane warfare—and by doing so, ushered in an era oftremendous progress in the field of military aviation. Although the plane itself wasrelatively new and untested by 1914, the warring nations quickly recognized itspotential as a powerful weapon. Throughout the conflict, countries on both sidesbuilt faster and stronger aircraft, and designed them to drop bombs and shoot at oneanother in the sky. Between the beginning and end of the war, the total number ofplanes in use by the major combatants soared from around 850 to nearly 10,000.After the war, countries continued to maintain a strong and advanced airforce, asthey realized that supremacy of the air was a key to military victory.

Designers kept nearly all weight in the center, giving the planes tremendous maneuverability.

A timing device enabled machine guns to fire through the propeller.

Engines were continuously strengthened for greater speed and carrying capability.3

2

1

Fokker D VII (German)

Sopwith F1Camel (British)

18 feet 8 inches

28 feet

122 mph

24,000 feet

2.5 hours

Length 23 feet

Wingspan 29 feet 3 inches

Maximum Speed 116 mph

Maximum Height 22,900 feet

Maximum Flight Time 1.5 hours

2

31

RESEARCH LINKS For more on militaryaviation go to classzone.com


Science & Technology

OBJECTIVE• Analyze the contribution of aviation to

the course of World War I.

INSTRUCTInform students that airplanes played amajor role in the battles of World War I.Although the German air force ruled theskies at first, its dominance didn’t lastlong. Both sides soon were engaged in atechnological war to build more effectivefighter planes.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Science and Technology: Industrial

Technology Creates Poison Gas, p. 19

More About . . .

Aircraft EquipmentThe parachute had been invented by thetime World War I ended. German pilotscarried parachutes, but American pilotsdid not. The U.S. War Department had areason for banning them. The assumptionwas that pilots would be more likely tofly an injured plane to safety if they couldnot bail out when they were hit.

OBJECTIVES• Describe the spread of the conflict.

• Identify how governments establishedwartime economies.

• Summarize the Allies’ push to victory.

• Explain the effects of the war.

FOCUS & MOTIVATEHave students discuss conflicts they have been involved in that drew in more and more people. Explain thatWorld War I spread in that way tobecome a global war.

INSTRUCTWar Affects the World

Critical Thinking• Why did the Allies want to establish a

supply line to Russia? (to support theireastern ally)

• How did the Zimmermann note drawAmerica into the war? (by threateningU.S. territory taken from Mexico)

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Guided Reading, p. 3 (also in Spanish)• Primary Source: The Zimmermann Note,

p. 11

Electronic Library of Primary Sources• “A Suffolk Farmhand at Gallipoli”


• Guided Reading, p. 3Formal Assessment



• Guided Reading, p. 206Reading Study Guide (Spanish), p. 283Reading Study Guide Audio CD (Spanish)





• Primary Source: The Zimmermann Note, p. 11Electronic Library of Primary Sources

• “A Suffolk Farmhand at Gallipoli”

eEdition CD-ROMPower Presentations CD-ROMCritical Thinking Transparencies

• CT29 The Human and Financial Costs of World War IElectronic Library of Primary Sources

• “A Suffolk Farmhand at Gallipoli”classzone.com



The Great War 851


ECONOMICS World War Ispread to several continents andrequired the full resources ofmany governments.

The war propelled the UnitedStates to a new position ofinternational power, which itholds today.

• unrestrictedsubmarinewarfare

• total war

• rationing• propaganda• armistice

3

SETTING THE STAGE World War I was much more than a European conflict.Australia and Japan, for example, entered the war on the Allies’ side, while Indiasupplied troops to fight alongside their British rulers. Meanwhile, the OttomanTurks and later Bulgaria allied themselves with Germany and the Central Powers.As the war promised to be a grim, drawn-out affair, all the Great Powers lookedfor other allies around the globe to tip the balance. They also sought new warfronts on which to achieve victory.

War Affects the WorldAs the war dragged on, the main combatants looked beyond Europe for a way toend the stalemate. However, none of the alliances they formed or new battle-fronts they opened did much to end the slow and grinding conflict.

The Gallipoli Campaign A promising strategy for the Allies seemed to be toattack a region in the Ottoman Empire known as the Dardanelles. This narrowsea strait was the gateway to the Ottoman capital, Constantinople. By securingthe Dardanelles, the Allies believed that they could take Constantinople, defeatthe Turks, and establish a supply line to Russia.

The effort to take the Dardanelles straitbegan in February 1915. It was known as theGallipoli campaign. British, Australian,New Zealand, and French troops maderepeated assaults on the Gallipoli Peninsulaon the western side of the strait. Turkishtroops, some commanded by German offi-cers, vigorously defended the region. ByMay, Gallipoli had turned into anotherbloody stalemate. Both sides dug trenches,from which they battled for the rest of theyear. In December, the Allies gave up the

campaign and began to evacuate. They had suffered about 250,000 casualties.

Battles in Africa and Asia In various parts of Asia and Africa, Germany’s colonialpossessions came under assault. The Japanese quickly overran German outposts in

A Global Conflict

Constantinople

B l a c k S e a

Sea ofMarmara

Dardanelles

Bosporus

AegeanSea

GallipoliPeninsula

GR

EE

CE

OT

TO

MA

NE M P I R E

0 100 Miles

0 200 Kilometers

Recognizing Effects Usea web diagram to show the effects of World War I.

TAKING NOTES

Effects of WWI

Gallipoli Campaign



LESSON PLAN





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Task Making a flowchart showing theevents that led to America’s entry into thewar

Purpose To understand why the UnitedStates entered the war

Instructions Have students reread thematerial on pages 852–853 of the text. Youmight also suggest that they read page 283of the Reading Study Guide and work with

a partner to list the events that precededthe United States entering the war on theside of the Allies. Then have each pair ofstudents create a flowchart like the oneshown at right, indicating the events thatpushed America into the conflict. You mightwant to hand out copies of the blankgraphic provided in Critical ThinkingTransparencies CT73 for students to fill in.

852 Chapter 29


Explaining America’s Entry into World War I


852 Chapter 29

China. They also captured Germany’s Pacific island colonies. English and Frenchtroops attacked Germany’s four African possessions. They seized control of three.

Elsewhere in Asia and Africa, the British and French recruited subjects in theircolonies for the struggle. Fighting troops as well as laborers came from India,South Africa, Senegal, Egypt, Algeria, and Indochina. Many fought and died on thebattlefield. Others worked to keep the front lines supplied. To be sure, some colo-nial subjects wanted nothing to do with their European rulers’ conflicts. Others vol-unteered in the hope that service would lead to their independence. This was theview of Indian political leader Mohandas Gandhi, who supported Indian participa-tion in the war. “If we would improve our status through the help and cooperationof the British,” he wrote, “it was our duty to win their help by standing by them intheir hour of need.”

America Joins the Fight In 1917, the focus of the war shifted to the high seas.That year, the Germans intensified the submarine warfare that had raged in theAtlantic Ocean since shortly after the war began. In January 1917, the Germansannounced that their submarines would sink without warning any ship in the watersaround Britain. This policy was called unrestricted submarine warfare.

The Germans had tried this policy before. On May 7, 1915, a German subma-rine, or U-boat, had sunk the British passenger ship Lusitania. The attack left 1,198people dead, including 128 U.S. citizens. Germany claimed that the ship had beencarrying ammunition, which turned out to be true. Nevertheless, the Americanpublic was outraged. President Woodrow Wilson sent a strong protest to Germany.After two further attacks, the Germans finally agreed to stop attacking neutral andpassenger ships.

NORTH

AMERICA

SOUTH

AMERICA

AFRICA

EUROPE

ASIA

SOUTHWEST ASIA

AUSTRALIA

NEW

ZEALAND

INDIA

JAPANATLANTIC

OCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

40°N

40°S

0°

80°E

80°W

120°W

0°

Arctic Circle

Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Capricorn

160°E

The United Statesenters the war onthe side of theAllies in 1917.

Brazil is the only SouthAmerican country toenter the war. It supportsthe Allies with warshipsand personnel.

The European coloniesthroughout Africa becomea battlefield as the warringparties strike at one another’scolonial possessions.

India provides about1.3 million men to fightand labor alongsidetheir British rulersthroughout Europe.

Both countries fight onthe side of the Allies andcontribute many troops tothe 1915 Gallipoli campaignin Southwest Asia.

Japan declares war onGermany in 1914; seizesGerman colonies inChina and the Pacific.

War rages inSouthwest Asia asArab nationalistsbattle their Turkishrulers.Main fighting of

the war occurs onWestern andEastern Fronts.0

0

4,000 Miles

8,000 Kilometers

The World at War, 1914–1918

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Region Which countries were aligned with the European Allies?2. Location Outside of Europe, where was World War I fought?


Interpreting the MapHave students examine the map andnote that World War I involved people onall six inhabited continents. Ask themwhat difference there was between theinvolvement of the colonies of Africa andIndia. (African colonials actually foughteach other on African soil, whereasIndian soldiers fought alongside theBritish in Europe.)

Extension Ask students to use the mapto determine which participating coun-tries did not experience fighting on theirown soil. (United States, Canada, Brazil,India, Australia, New Zealand, Japan)

SKILLBUILDER Answers1. Region Brazil, United States, Canada,

India, Japan, Australia, New Zealand2. Location Africa, Southwest Asia, Asia

Interactive This map is available on theeEdition, where students can view its elements individually.

More About . . .

U-BoatsDuring 1917, German U-boats sankalmost 3,000 ships carrying food,weapons, or troops to the war zones.

Germans use unrestricted submarine warfare.

German U-boats sink three U.S. ships despite Wilson’s warnings.

Zimmermann note threatens U.S. territory gained from Mexico.

U.S. feels duty to honor ties to Allies.

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Task Identifying and finding the meanings of war-related words

Purpose To increase understanding of the text

Instructions Have students work with a partner to reread this page, look-ing for difficult vocabulary items relating to the war and its effects on thehome front. Then ask them to do the following activities:

• Make a list of the vocabulary items.

• Look up each word in a dictionary.

• Write a definition using their own words.

Have students compile their information into a chart and share their charts

with the class. Then have students collaborate to use each of the words ina sentence.

A sample chart follows.



Learning the Vocabulary of War


Desperate for an advantage over the Allies, however, the Germans returned tounrestricted submarine warfare in 1917. They knew it might lead to war with theUnited States. They gambled that their naval blockade would starve Britain intodefeat before the United States could mobilize. Ignoring warnings by PresidentWilson, German U-boats sank three American ships.

In February 1917, another German action pushed the United States closer towar. Officials intercepted a telegram written by Germany’s foreign secretary,Arthur Zimmermann, stating that Germany would help Mexico “reconquer” theland it had lost to the United States if Mexico would ally itself with Germany.

The Zimmermann note simply proved to be the last straw. A large part of theAmerican population already favored the Allies. In particular, America felt a bondwith England. The two nations shared a common ancestry and language, as well assimilar democratic institutions and legal systems. More important, America’s eco-nomic ties with the Allies were far stronger than those with the Central Powers. OnApril 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany. TheUnited States entered the war on the side of the Allies.

War Affects the Home FrontBy the time the United States joined the Allies, the war had been raging for nearlythree years. In those three years, Europe had lost more men in battle than in all thewars of the previous three centuries. The war had claimed the lives of millions andhad changed countless lives forever. The Great War, as the conflict came to beknown, affected everyone. It touched not only the soldiers in the trenches, but civil-ians as well.

Governments Wage Total War World War I soon became a total war. Thismeant that countries devoted all their resources to the war effort. In Britain,Germany, Austria, Russia, and France, the entire force of government was dedi-cated to winning the conflict. In each country, the wartime government took con-trol of the economy. Governments told factories what to produce and how much.

The Great War 853

The Influenza EpidemicIn the spring of 1918, a powerfulnew enemy emerged, threateningnations on each side of World War I.This “enemy” was a deadly strain ofinfluenza. The Spanish flu, as it waspopularly known, hit England andIndia in May. By the fall, it had spreadthrough Europe, Russia, Asia, and tothe United States.

The influenza epidemic killedsoldiers and civilians alike. In India, atleast 12 million people died ofinfluenza. In Berlin, on a single day inOctober, 1,500 people died. In theend, this global epidemic was moredestructive than the war itself, killing20 million people worldwide.

City officials and street cleaners in Chicago guard against the Spanish flu.

▼

War Affects the Home Front

Critical Thinking• Why did wartime governments take

control of their countries’ economies?(to ensure that all resources would bededicated to winning the war)

• How did total war lead to rationing? (It meant devoting essential goods tothe war effort, leaving less for those at home.)

Global Impact

The Influenza EpidemicMany epidemiologists now believe thatthe influenza epidemic started in armycamps in the United States. Influenza was not a new disease in 1918, but itwas targeting the young and healthy,including hundreds of thousands of soldiers in the trenches. To minimize thespread of infection, drinking fountainswere blowtorched every hour, telephoneswere sterilized with alcohol, and peoplewore gauze masks. But the diseasemoved through the countryside andtowns despite such precautions.Treatments that were suggested at thetime included chewing snuff or tobacco,having tonsils or teeth removed, andsprinkling sulfur in shoes.

Word Meaning

munitions guns and ammunition

rationing limiting the supply of goods

censored held back information

propaganda one-sided information

morale positive state of mind

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Task Researching World War I propaganda and creating a display

Purpose To highlight the role of propaganda in maintaining morale andsupport for the war at home

Instructions Explain to students that during World War I, both the CentralPowers and the Allies generated propaganda designed to create a negativeview of the enemy and support for their own cause. Have students doresearch to find posters, flyers, and other graphics representing the enemy

and enlisting support for the war effort at home. Ask them to collect thefollowing information about each graphic:

• origin

• purpose

• intended audience

• method of distribution

Have students make copies of the graphics and mount them on a displayboard for presentation to the class. Each graphic should be accompaniedby a caption explaining the information students have gathered about it.

854 Chapter 29


Making a Propaganda Display


854 Chapter 29

Numerous facilities were converted to munitionsfactories. Nearly every able-bodied civilian wasput to work. Unemployment in many Europeancountries all but disappeared.

So many goods were in short supply that gov-ernments turned to rationing. Under this sys-tem, people could buy only small amounts ofthose items that were also needed for the wareffort. Eventually, rationing covered a widerange of goods, from butter to shoe leather.

Governments also suppressed antiwar activity,sometimes forcibly. In addition, they censorednews about the war. Many leaders feared that hon-est reporting of the war would turn people againstit. Governments also used propaganda, one-sidedinformation designed to persuade, to keep upmorale and support for the war.

Women and the War Total war meant thatgovernments turned to help from women asnever before. Thousands of women replaced

men in factories, offices, and shops. Women built tanks and munitions, plowedfields, paved streets, and ran hospitals. They also kept troops supplied with food,clothing, and weapons. Although most women left the work force when the warended, they changed many people’s views of what women were capable of doing.

Women also saw the horrors of war firsthand, working on or near the front linesas nurses. Here, American nurse Shirley Millard describes her experience with asoldier who had lost both eyes and feet:

A P R I M A R Y S O U R C EHe moaned through the bandages that his head was splitting with pain. I gave himmorphine. Suddenly aware of the fact that he had [numerous] wounds, he asked: “Sa-ay! What’s the matter with my legs?” Reaching down to feel his legs before I couldstop him, he uttered a heartbreaking scream. I held his hands firmly until the drug I hadgiven him took effect.

SHIRLEY MILLARD, I Saw Them Die

The Allies Win the WarWith the United States finally in the war, the balance, it seemed, was about to tipin the Allies’ favor. Before that happened, however, events in Russia gave Germanya victory on the Eastern Front, and new hope for winning the conflict.

Russia Withdraws In March 1917, civil unrest in Russia—due in large part towar-related shortages of food and fuel—forced Czar Nicholas to step down. In hisplace a provisional government was established. The new government pledged tocontinue fighting the war. However, by 1917, nearly 5.5 million Russian soldiershad been wounded, killed, or taken prisoner. As a result, the war-weary Russianarmy refused to fight any longer.

Eight months after the new government took over, a revolution shook Russia(see Chapter 30). In November 1917, Communist leader Vladimir Ilyich Leninseized power. Lenin insisted on ending his country’s involvement in the war. Oneof his first acts was to offer Germany a truce. In March 1918, Germany and Russiasigned the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ended the war between them.

SummarizingHow did the

governments of thewarring nationsfight a total war?

▲ A woman reliefworker writes a letter home for awounded soldier.

More About . . .

Women During the WarWar propaganda sought to glorifywomen’s part in the war effort. In reality,however, women’s work was dangerousand low paying. In Great Britain, forexample, conditions in factories were sobad that the membership of womentrade unionists increased 160 percentduring the war. Women sometimes wenton strike during the war in protest.

The Allies Win the War

Critical Thinking• What effect did the Russian Revolution

have on Russia’s role in World War I? (It brought Lenin to power, who withdrew Russia from the war andoffered Germany a truce.)

• How did the surrender of the OttomanEmpire and Bulgaria and the revolutionin Austria-Hungary lead to the end of World War I? (The collapse ofGermany’s allies left it with no supportwhen the German government itselfcollapsed, resulting in the new Germanrepublic’s signing an armistice with France.)

A. Possible AnswerThey took controlof the economy,directed a rationingprogram, sup-pressed antiwaractivity, censorednews reports, andused propaganda.

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Task Investigating the various ways nations honor their war casualties

Purpose To appreciate how people keep alive the legacy of war

Instructions Tell students that throughout history, people around theworld have shared in a somber, healing ritual: honoring soldiers killed inbattle. In many nations, people come together to honor those citizens whofought and died for their country. After World War I, France built a ceremo-nial grave to honor all of its soldiers killed in the great conflict. Othernations have paid respects to their dead soldiers with medals, monuments,and parades.

Many nations, including France, the United States, Great Britain, Belgium,and Italy, have created memorials to unidentified war dead, often calledthe Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Other memorials include statues, tow-ers, such as Trajan’s Column honoring the Roman emperor Trajan’s victory over Dacia in A.D. 113, and other structures, such as the wall in Washington, D.C., honoring those who died or were missing in action during the Vietnam War. Have student volunteers describe war memorialsthey have seen.


Honoring War Heroes

CONNECTIONS ACROSS TIME AND CULTURES

The Central Powers Collapse Russia’s withdrawal from the war at last allowedGermany to send nearly all its forces to the Western Front. In March 1918, theGermans mounted one final, massive attack on the Allies in France. As in the open-ing weeks of the war, the German forces crushed everything in their path. By lateMay 1918, the Germans had again reached the Marne River. Paris was less than 40miles away. Victory seemed within reach.

By this time, however, the German military had weakened. The effort to reachthe Marne had exhausted men and supplies alike. Sensing this weakness, theAllies—with the aid of nearly 140,000 fresh U.S. troops—launched a counterat-tack. In July 1918, the Allies and Germans clashed at the Second Battle of theMarne. Leading the Allied attack were some 350 tanks that rumbled slowly for-ward, smashing through the German lines. With the arrival of 2 million moreAmerican troops, the Allied forces began to advance steadily toward Germany.

Soon, the Central Powers began to crumble. First the Bulgarians and then theOttoman Turks surrendered. In October, revolution swept through Austria-Hungary. In Germany, soldiers mutinied, and the public turned on the kaiser.

On November 9, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II stepped down. Germany declared itselfa republic. A representative of the new German government met with FrenchCommander Marshal Foch in a railway car near Paris. The two signed an armistice,or an agreement to stop fighting. On November 11, World War I came to an end.

The Legacy of the WarWorld War I was, in many ways, a new kind of war. It involved the use of newtechnologies. It ushered in the notion of war on a grand and global scale. It alsoleft behind a landscape of death and destruction such as was never before seen.

Both sides in World War I paid a tremendous price in terms of human life.About 8.5 million soldiers died as a result of the war. Another 21 million werewounded. In addition, the war led to the death of countless civilians by way of

The Great War 855

ComparingHow was the

Second Battle ofthe Marne similarto the first?

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

Allied View of ArmisticeNews of the armistice affected the Allied and Centralpowers differently. Here, a U.S. soldier named HarryTruman, who would go on to become president, recalls the day the fighting stopped.

German Reaction to ArmisticeOn the other side of the fighting line, German officerHerbert Sulzbach struggled to inform his troops of thewar’s end.

DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS1. Summarizing What is the main difference between these two excerpts?2. Drawing Conclusions How did Herbert Sulzbach’s vision of the armistice differ from

what actually occurred?

Every single one of them [the French soldiers] had tomarch by my bed and salute and yell, “Vive PresidentWilson, Vive le capitaine d’artillerie américaine!” Nosleep all night. The infantry fired Very pistols, sent up all the flares they could lay their hands on, fired rifles,pistols, whatever else would make noise, all night long.

HARRY TRUMAN, quoted in The First World War

“Hostilities will cease as from 12 noon today.” This wasthe order which I had to read out to my men. The waris over. . . . How we looked forward to this moment;how we used to picture it as the most splendid event of our lives; and here we are now, humbled, our soulstorn and bleeding, and know that we’ve surrendered.Germany has surrendered to the Entente!

HERBERT SULZBACH, With the German Guns


Analyzing Primary SourcesBefore students read the Allied andGerman views of the armistice thatended World War I, have them predictwhat each will be. After reading the passages, ask students to discuss theaccuracy of their predictions.

Answers to Document-Based Questions 1. Summarizing The Allied reaction is

joyous; the German reaction is somberand shocked.

2. Drawing Conclusions Sulzbachbelieved that the armistice would follow a German victory, when, in fact, it came after Germany’s surrender.

The Legacy of the War

Critical Thinking• What strategies new to World War I

probably contributed to the destructionof homes, villages, and farms? (trench and air warfare)

• Why might Westerners have experi-enced disillusionment in the wake ofWorld War I? (Possible Answer: despairat the tremendous loss of life and economic devastation and at the uselessness of all the suffering)

Critical Thinking Transparencies• CT29 The Human and Financial Costs of

World War I

B. Possible AnswerBoth times, theAllies defeated theGermans just asGermany seemedpoised for victory.

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856 Chapter 29


1. unrestricted submarine warfare, p. 852 • total war, p. 853 • rationing, p. 854 • propaganda, p. 854 • armistice, p. 855

2. Sample Answer: Effects—millions dead, landdestroyed, economies shattered, mass disillusionment. Most significant: the tremendous loss of life, because the deadwere irreplaceable

3. Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare,Zimmermann note, U.S. ties with Britain andthe Allies

4. They helped run factories, farms, and towns,and kept troops supplied with food, clothing,and weapons.

5. The Allies forced the Germans to retreat from France.

6. Possible Answer: The war was fought in many parts of the world by people from many nations.

7. Possible Answers: Justified—necessary to keep morale and loyalty high during war; Not justified—public has right to know thetruth about the war

8. the United States, because it supplied themost troops and helped turn the tide in theAllies’ favor

9. Rubric Paragraphs should• focus on the economic impact of total war.• be well organized with a strong thesis

statement and good supporting details.

Rubric Graphics should• be well researched and constructed.• clearly depict the comparison of women’s

combat roles in the two countries.

CONNECT TO TODAY

ANSWERS

856 Chapter 29

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • unrestricted submarine warfare • total war • rationing • propaganda • armistice

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which effect do you think was

most significant? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. What factors helped prompt

the United States to join thewar for the Allies?

4. What role did women play inthe war?

5. What was the significance ofthe Second Battle of theMarne?

SECTION ASSESSMENT3

CREATING A GRAPHIC

Using the library and other resources, compare the role of women in combat today in anytwo countries. Display your comparison in a chart or other type of graphic.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. ANALYZING ISSUES In what ways was World War I truly a

global conflict?

7. FORMING OPINIONS Do you think governments arejustified in censoring war news? Why or why not?

8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Which of the non-Europeancountries had the greatest impact on the war effort?Explain.

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write a paragraphexplaining how the concept of total war affected thewarring nations’ economies.

ECONOMICS

CONNECT TO TODAY

Effects of WWI

starvation, disease, and slaughter. Taken together, these figures spelled tragedy—an entire generation of Europeans wiped out.

The war also had a devastating economic impact on Europe. The great conflictdrained the treasuries of European countries. One account put the total cost of thewar at $338 billion, a staggering amount for that time. The war also destroyed acresof farmland, as well as homes, villages, and towns.

The enormous suffering that resulted from the Great War left a deep mark onWestern society as well. A sense of disillusionment settled over the survivors. Theinsecurity and despair that many people experienced are reflected in the art and lit-erature of the time.

Another significant legacy of the war lay in its peace agreement. As you willread in the next section, the treaties to end World War I were forged after greatdebate and compromise. And while they sought to bring a new sense of securityand peace to the world, they prompted mainly anger and resentment.

World War I Statistics

Battlefield Deaths of Major CombatantsTotal Number of Troops Mobilized USA

116,000

Germany1.8 million

Russia1.7 million

France1.3 million

Ottoman Empire325,000

Italy650,000

Austria-Hungary1.2 million

British Empire908,000

*

Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica

* Includes troops from Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and South Africa

Allied Powers: 42 million

Central Powers: 23 million

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Graphs1. Comparing Which Allied nation suffered the greatest number of battlefield deaths?2. Analyzing Issues Which four nations accounted for about 75 percent of all battlefield deaths?


Interpreting the GraphHave students examine the pie and linegraphs. What information suggests a pos-sible reason for the Allied victory? (themuch larger number of troops mobilizedby the Allies)

Extension Ask students to determine thenumber of battlefield deaths for the Allies and Central Powers based on thechart. Which side suffered greater losses?(the Allies)

SKILLBUILDER Answers1. Comparing Russia2. Analyzing Issues Germany, Russia,

France, Austria-Hungary

ASSESSSECTION 3 ASSESSMENTHave students work in small groups to answer the questions and check their answers.


RETEACHDivide the class into two groups, one presenting the factors that brought theUnited States into the war, and the otherdescribing the effects of the war on thehome front.


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DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS: ANSWERS

1. He says the United States entered the war to make the world safe fordemocracy and to protect the rights of humanity.

2. It arouses the emotions of patriotism, nationalistic fervor, and suspicionof, and anger toward, Germany.

3. The experience was gruesome, horrifying, and terrible. It may have madethe soldiers hate warfare or made them feel they had passed a test ofcourage or endurance and been lucky to survive.

Views of WarWhen World War I broke out, Europe had not experienced a war involving all the majorpowers for nearly a century, since Napoleon’s defeat in 1815. As a result, people had anunrealistic view of warfare. Many expected the war to be short and romantic. Many menenlisted in the army because of patriotism or out of a desire to defend certaininstitutions. What the soldiers experienced changed their view of war forever.

Using Primary and Secondary Sources

C P O E T R YB F I C T I O NA P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

D P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

Woodrow WilsonOn April 2, 1917, President Wilsonasked Congress to declare war so thatthe United States could enter WorldWar I. This excerpt from his speechgives some of his reasons.

The world must be made safe fordemocracy. Its peace must be plantedupon the tested foundations of politicalliberty. We have no selfish ends toserve. We desire no conquest, nodominion. We seek no indemnities forourselves, no material compensationfor the sacrifice we shall freely make.We are but one of the champions ofthe rights of mankind. We shall besatisfied when those rights have beenmade as secure as the faith and thefreedom of nations can make them.

Erich MariaRemarqueIn the German novel All Quiet on theWestern Front, Erich Maria Remarquedraws upon his own wartimeexperience of trench warfare.

No one would believe that in thishowling waste there could still bemen; but steel helmets now appear onall sides of the trench, and fifty yardsfrom us a machine-gun is already inposition and barking.

The wire entanglements are torn topieces. Yet they offer some obstacle.We see the storm-troops coming. Ourartillery opens fire. . . .

I see [a French soldier], his faceupturned, fall into a wire cradle. Hisbody collapses, his hands remainsuspended as though he were praying.Then his body drops clean away andonly his hands with the stumps of hisarms, shot off, now hang in the wire.

Wilfred OwenThe English poet Wilfred Owen waskilled in the trenches just one weekbefore World War I ended. Thisexcerpt from his poem “Dulce etDecorum Est” describes a gas attack.

Gas! GAS! Quick, boys!—An ecstasy offumbling,

Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time;But someone still was yelling out and

stumbling,And flound’ring like a man in fire or

lime . . .Dim, through the misty panes and

thick green light,As under a green sea, I saw him

drowning.

In all my dreams, before my helplesssight,

He plunges at me, guttering, choking,drowning.

1. What reasons does WoodrowWilson (Source A) give forentering the war?

2. What emotions does the Frenchposter (Source D) try to arouse?

3. Judging from Sources B and C,what was it like for the averagesoldier in the trenches? Explainhow you think such experiencesaffected the average soldier’s view of war.

857

Maurice Neumont France, 1918This French poster is titled, “TheyShall Not Pass, 1914–1918.”Translated into English, the text atthe bottom reads, “Twice I havestood fast and conquered on theMarne, my brother civilian. Adeceptive ‘peace offensive’ willattack you in your turn; like me youmust stand firm and conquer. Bestrong and shrewd—beware ofBoche [German] hypocrisy.”

Different Perspectives

OBJECTIVE• Compare various views of World War I.

INSTRUCTTell students that these excerpts providefour different perspectives on war and itshuman toll. As they read each passage,have them imagine what it would havebeen like to be in the author’s place.

More About . . .

Erich Maria RemarqueBorn in Germany in 1898, Erich MariaRemarque joined the army when he was18 and was wounded several times dur-ing the war. After it was over, he droverace cars and worked as a sportswriterwhile immortalizing his experiences inthe novel All Quiet on the Western Front.The book was a global success andremains a classic description of the day-to-day experience of war in plain,unemotional terms.

Interactive These excerpts and theposter are available in an interactive format on the eEdition. Students can get help with vocabulary, hear the excerpts read aloud, and obtain background information.

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OBJECTIVES• Explain events that led to the Treaty

of Versailles.

• Identify the effects of the treaty onEuropean powers.

FOCUS & MOTIVATEAsk students how they end arguments orconflicts they’re involved in. (PossibleAnswers: defeat of one side, with bothsides letting the issue drop or agreeingto a compromise; a stalemate, with bothsides agreeing to a compromise)

INSTRUCTThe Allies Meet and Debate

Critical Thinking• Why didn’t Russia take part in the Big

Four negotiations? (It was involved in a civil war.)

• How might self-determination in theBalkans have prevented the outbreak of World War I? (by preventing theimperialism and ethnic conflicts thatsparked the war)


Geography Transparencies• GT29 Danzig and the Polish Corridor

Electronic Library of Primary Sources• The Fourteen Points


• Guided Reading, p. 4• History Makers: Georges Clemenceau, p. 17








• Primary Source: Signing the Treaty of Versailles, p. 12

• Connections Across Time and Cultures: Planning forPeace: Vienna and Versailles, p. 18

eEdition CD-ROMPower Presentations CD-ROMGeography Transparencies

• GT29 Danzig and the Polish CorridorCritical Thinking Transparencies

• CT65 Chapter 29 Visual SummaryElectronic Library of Primary Sources

• The Fourteen Pointsclasszone.com858 Chapter 29

858 Chapter 29


POWER AND AUTHORITY Afterwinning the war, the Alliesdictated a harsh peacesettlement that left manynations feeling betrayed.

Hard feelings left by the peacesettlement helped cause WorldWar II.

• WoodrowWilson

• GeorgesClemenceau

• Fourteen Points

• self-determination

• Treaty ofVersailles

• League of Nations

4

SETTING THE STAGE World War I was over. The killing had stopped. Theterms of peace, however, still had to be worked out. On January 18, 1919, a con-ference to establish those terms began at the Palace of Versailles, outside Paris.Attending the talks, known as the Paris Peace Conference, were delegates repre-senting 32 countries. For one year, this conference would be the scene of vigor-ous, often bitter debate. The Allied powers struggled to solve their conflictingaims in various peace treaties.

The Allies Meet and Debate Despite representatives from numerous countries, the meeting’s major decisionswere hammered out by a group known as the Big Four: Woodrow Wilson of theUnited States, Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of GreatBritain, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy. Russia, in the grip of civil war, was not rep-resented. Neither were Germany and its allies.

Wilson’s Plan for Peace In January 1918, while the war was still raging,President Wilson had drawn up a series of peace proposals. Known as theFourteen Points, they outlined a plan for achieving a just and lasting peace.

The first four points included an end to secret treaties, freedom of the seas,free trade, and reduced national armies and navies. The fifth goal was the adjust-ment of colonial claims with fairness toward colonial peoples. The sixth throughthirteenth points were specific suggestions for changing borders and creatingnew nations. The guiding idea behind these points was self-determination. Thismeant allowing people to decide for themselves under what government theywished to live.

Finally, the fourteenth point proposed a “general association of nations” thatwould protect “great and small states alike.” This reflected Wilson’s hope for anorganization that could peacefully negotiate solutions to world conflicts.

The Versailles Treaty As the Paris Peace Conference opened, Britain andFrance showed little sign of agreeing to Wilson’s vision of peace. Both nationswere concerned with national security. They also wanted to strip Germany of itswar-making power.

The differences in French, British, and U.S. aims led to heated arguments amongthe nations’ leaders. Finally a compromise was reached. The Treaty of Versailles

A Flawed Peace

Clarifying Use a chart to record the reaction by variousgroups to the Treaty of Versailles.

TAKING NOTES

Reaction to Treaty

Germany

Africans& Asians

Italy& Japan

y


LESSON PLAN







Electronic Library of Primary Sources • The Fourteen Points

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Task Reading about the Versailles conference and enacting a debate

Purpose To appreciate the difficulty of negotiating a lasting peace

Instructions Have students research a variety of sourcesabout the deliberations at Versailles. Suggest that theybegin by reading the Primary Source document Signingthe Treaty of Versailles by Harold Nicolson, found on page 12 of In-Depth Resources: Unit 7. Instruct them touse a dictionary of quotations, encyclopedia, biography,

or account of the war to find at least one direct quotefrom each of the following major participants:

• Woodrow Wilson

• Georges Clemenceau

• David Lloyd George

Then have students break into pairs, with each pair representing one of the three major positions. The pairsmay debate more than one opponent as well as differentsides of the issue. At the end of each debate, have theclass vote to determine the strongest argument.



Debating the Provisions of the Versailles Treaty

DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTSName Date

PRIMARY SOURCE Signing the Treaty of Versaillesby Harold Nicolson

The Treaty of Versailles, a 200-page peace treaty between Germany and theAllied powers, was signed on June 28, 1919, in the Great Hall of Mirrors at theFrench palace of Versailles. Harold Nicolson (1886–1968), a British diplomat andwriter, observed the proceedings. As you read this passage from Nicolson’s eye-witness account, think about his impressions of the treaty signing.

Section 4

We enter the Galerie des Glaces. . . . In themiddle there is a horseshoe table for the

plenipotentiaries [diplomatic agents]. In front ofthat, like a guillotine, is the table for the signatures.. . . There must be seats for over a thousand per-sons. This robs the ceremony of all privilege andtherefore of all dignity. . . .

People step over the Aubusson benches andescabeaux [stools] to talk to friends. Meanwhile thedelegates arrive in little bunches and push up thecentral aisle slowly. . . . The table is at last full.Clemenceau glances to right and left. . . .Clemenceau makes a sign to the ushers. They say‘Ssh! Ssh! Ssh!’ . . . The officials of the Protocol ofthe Foreign Office move up the aisle and say, “Ssh!Ssh!’ again. There is then an absolute hush, followedby a sharp military order. The Gardes Républicainsat the doorway flash their swords into their scab-bards with a loud click. ‘Faîtes entrer les Allemands[Let the Germans come in],’ says Clemenceau inthe ensuing silence. His voice is distant but harshlypenetrating. A hush follows.

Through the door at the end appear twohuissiers [ushers] with silver chains. They march insingle file. After them come four officers of France,Great Britain, America, and Italy. And then, isolat-ed and pitiable, come the two German delegates.Dr Müller, Dr Bell. The silence is terrifying. Theirfeet upon a strip of parquet between the savonneriecarpets echo hollow and duplicate. They keep theireyes fixed away from those two thousand staringeyes, fixed upon the ceiling. They are deathly pale.They do not appear as representatives of a brutalmilitarism. . . .

They are conducted to their chairs. Clemenceauat once breaks the silence. ‘Messieurs,’ he rasps, ‘laséance est ouverte [Gentlemen, the meeting isopen].’ He adds a few ill-chosen words. ‘We are hereto sign a Treaty of Peace.’ . . . Then St. Quentin

advances towards the Germans and with the utmostdignity leads them to the little table on which theTreaty is expanded. There is general tension. Theysign. There is a general relaxation. Conversationhums again in an undertone. The delegates stand upone by one and pass onwards to the queue [line]which waits by the signature table. Meanwhile peo-ple buzz round the main table getting autographs. . . .

Suddenly from outside comes the crash of gunsthundering a salute. It announces to Paris that thesecond Treaty of Versailles has been signed by DrMüller and Dr Bell. . . .

We had been warned it [the signing] might lastthree hours. Yet almost at once it seemed that thequeue was getting thin. . . . The huissiers beganagain their ‘Ssh! Ssh!’ cutting suddenly short thewide murmur which had again begun. There was afinal hush. ‘La séance est levée [The meeting isclosed],’ rasped Clemenceau. Not a word more orless.

We kept our seats while the Germans were con-ducted like prisoners from the dock, their eyes stillfixed upon some distant point of the horizon.

from Harold Nicholson, Peacemaking, 1919 (Constable,1933). Reprinted in John Carey, ed., Eyewitness to History(New York: Avon, 1987), 490–492.

Discussion Questions1. Clarifying Who opened and closed the meeting

to sign the peace treaty?2. Summarizing What words or phrases would

you use to describe the mood at the signingaccording to Nicolson’s account?

3. Using Visual Stimuli Compare Nicolson’s writ-ten account with the visual representation in thepainting on page 741 of your textbook. What aresome of the similarities? What are some of thedifferences?

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between Germany and the Allied powers wassigned on June 28, 1919, five years to the dayafter Franz Ferdinand’s assassination in Sarajevo.Adopting Wilson’s fourteenth point, the treatycreated a League of Nations. The league was tobe an international association whose goal wouldbe to keep peace among nations.

The treaty also punished Germany. Thedefeated nation lost substantial territory and hadsevere restrictions placed on its military opera-tions. As tough as these provisions were, theharshest was Article 231. It was also known as the“war guilt” clause. It placed sole responsibilityfor the war on Germany’s shoulders. As a result,Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies.

All of Germany’s territories in Africa and thePacific were declared mandates, or territories tobe administered by the League of Nations.Under the peace agreement, the Allies wouldgovern the mandates until they were judgedready for independence.

A Troubled TreatyThe Versailles treaty was just one of five treatiesnegotiated by the Allies. In the end, these agree-ments created feelings of bitterness andbetrayal—among the victors and the defeated.

The Creation of New Nations The Westernpowers signed separate peace treaties in 1919 and1920 with each of the other defeated nations:Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the OttomanEmpire. These treaties, too, led to huge land lossesfor the Central Powers. Several new countries werecreated out of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslaviawere all recognized as independent nations.

The Ottoman Turks were forced to give up almost all of their former empire.They retained only the territory that is today the country of Turkey. The Alliescarved up the lands that the Ottomans lost in Southwest Asia into mandates ratherthan independent nations. Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan came under British con-trol; Syria and Lebanon went to France.

Russia, which had left the war early, suffered land losses as well. Romania andPoland both gained Russian territory. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, for-merly part of Russia, became independent nations.

“A Peace Built on Quicksand” In the end, the Treaty of Versailles did little tobuild a lasting peace. For one thing, the United States—considered after the war tobe the dominant nation in the world—ultimately rejected the treaty. ManyAmericans objected to the settlement and especially to President Wilson’s Leagueof Nations. Americans believed that the United States’ best hope for peace was tostay out of European affairs. The United States worked out a separate treaty withGermany and its allies several years later.

The Great War 859

VocabularyReparations ismoney paid by adefeated nation tocompensate fordamage or injuryduring a war.

Woodrow Wilson1856–1924Wilson was tall and thin andoften in poor health. Hesuffered from terribleindigestion and sometimeshad to use a stomach pumpon himself. A scholarly man,Wilson once served aspresident of PrincetonUniversity in New Jersey.

Passionate aboutinternational peace, he took on the U.S. Senateafter it vowed to reject the Treaty of Versailles.During the political battle, he suffered a strokethat disabled him for the rest of his term.

Georges Clemenceau1841–1929The near opposite of Wilson,Clemenceau had a compactphysique and a combativestyle that earned him thenickname “Tiger.” He hadworked as a physician andjournalist before enteringthe political arena.

Determined to punishGermany, Clemenceau rarely

agreed with Wilson and his larger quest forworld peace. He once remarked of Wilson, “Hethinks he is another Jesus Christ come uponearth to reform men.”

RESEARCH LINKS For more on WoodrowWilson and Georges Clemenceau, go toclasszone.com

History Makers

Woodrow Wilson and Georges ClemenceauWhat problems might Woodrow Wilsonand Georges Clemenceau have had inworking together at Versailles? (PossibleAnswer: Their completely different per-sonalities might have made negotiationdifficult.) Georges Clemenceau’s desirethat Germany never again be able tothreaten France was a primary motivationat Versailles. He even made this pointsymbolically at the signing of the docu-ment. He insisted that it take place in the Hall of Mirrors, where Wilhelm I hadbeen made emperor of Germany in 1871.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• History Makers: Georges Clemenceau, p. 17

A Troubled Treaty

Critical Thinking• How did the situation in African and

Asian colonies compare before andafter the mandate? (It changed little,with no independence in sight.)

• In what way was the Treaty of Versailles“a peace built on quicksand”? (Itslegacy of bitterness did not provide a solid basis for lasting peace.)

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Task Identifying main ideas about the Treaty of Versailles

Purpose To clarify the legacy of the war

Instructions Divide students into small groups and askthem to reread pages 858–861 of the text, looking foranswers to the following questions about the Treaty of Versailles.

1. Which nations made most of the decisions about the terms of peace? (United States, France, GreatBritain, Italy)

2. How did Great Britain and France feel about Germany?(They wanted to punish Germany.)

3. What was article 231? (It made Germany pay back thelosses it had caused.)

4. What were mandated territories? (former colonies that were placed under the control of one of the winners of the war)

5. Why might the mandated territories feel resentful?(Instead of being given their independence, they wereplaced under a different foreign control.)

Students who need additional help can use the GuidedReading activity for Section 4.860 Chapter 29


Understanding the Flawed Peace


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GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Region Which Central Powers nation appears to have lost the most territory?2. Location On which nation’s former lands were most of the new countries created?

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GUIDED READING A Flawed PeaceSection 4

A. Analyzing Issues As you read this section, take notes to answer the questions about the peace settlement that left many nations feeling betrayed.

B. Summarizing On the back of this paper, define or identify each of the following:

Woodrow Wilson Georges Clemenceauself-determination League of Nations

CHAPTER

29

Name Date

Wilson’s goal of achieving a just peace differed from the peace objectives of France and Britain.

1. What were the guiding principles of Wilson’s Fourteen Points?

2. What were the concerns and aims of France and Britain?

The legacy of Versailles was one of bitterness and loss.

6. Why did the United States reject the treaty?

7. How did this rejection affect the League of Nations?

8. Why did many countries feel bitter and cheated as a result of the treaty?

After heated debate and compromise, the Treaty of Versailles is signed.

3. In what ways did the treaty punish Germany?

4. How did the treaty change the world map?

5. How was Wilson’s Fourteenth Point incorporated into the treaty?



Interpreting the MapsHave students examine the maps todetermine the major changes thatoccurred between the beginning of thewar and its end. Make sure they under-stand that color has no political meaninghere, but merely distinguishes one coun-try from another. Ask them what newnations were created from the formerAustria-Hungary and northwestern por-tions of Russia. (Austria, Czechoslovakia,Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland, Lithuania,Latvia, Estonia, Finland)

Extension What change had occurred in Great Britain after the war? (Irelandhad become a dominion of the BritishCommonwealth.) Have students researchwhen and how Ireland achieved its independence. (home rule granted tosouthern Ireland in 1921; IndependentRepublic of Ireland declared in 1949)

SKILLBUILDER Answers1. Region Austria-Hungary2. Location Russia

wh10te-072904-0858-0861 9/24/03 9:03 AM Page 860



ANSWERS

In addition, the treaty with Germany, in particular the war-guilt clause, left alegacy of bitterness and hatred in the hearts of the German people. Other countriesfelt cheated and betrayed by the peace settlements as well. Throughout Africa andAsia, people in the mandated territories were angry at the way the Allies disre-garded their desire for independence. The European powers, it seemed to them,merely talked about the principle of national self-determination. European colo-nialism, disguised as the mandate system, continued in Asia and Africa.

Some Allied powers, too, were embittered by the outcome. Both Japan andItaly, which had entered the war to gain territory, had gained less than theywanted. Lacking the support of the United States, and later other world powers,the League of Nations was in no position to take action on these and other com-plaints. The settlements at Versailles represented, as one observer noted, “a peacebuilt on quicksand.” Indeed, that quicksand eventually would give way. In a littlemore than two decades, the treaties’ legacy of bitterness would help plunge theworld into another catastrophic war.

The Great War 861

Analyzing IssuesWhat com-

plaints did variousmandated coun-tries voice aboutthe Treaty ofVersailles?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Woodrow Wilson • Georges Clemenceau • Fourteen Points • self-determination • Treaty of Versailles • League of Nations

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which group was most

justified in its reaction to thetreaty? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. What was the goal of Woodrow

Wilson’s Fourteen Points?

4. What was the “war guilt” clausein the Treaty of Versailles?

5. Why did the United Statesreject the Treaty of Versailles?

SECTION ASSESSMENT4

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. FORMING OPINIONS Were the Versailles treaties fair?

Consider all the nations affected.

7. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why might the European Allies havebeen more interested in punishing Germany than increating a lasting peace?

8. EVALUATING DECISIONS Was the United States right toreject the Treaty of Versailles? Why or why not?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Create a list of five interview questions a reporter might ask Wilsonor Clemenceau about the Paris Peace Conference. Thenwrite the possible answers to those questions.

POWER AND AUTHORITY

INTERNET ACTIVITY

Use the Internet to explore a recent achievement or activity by theUnited Nations, the modern-day equivalent of the League of Nations.Present your findings in a brief oral report to the class.

INTERNET KEYWORDUnited Nations

• International peaceorganization; enemyand neutral nationsinitially excluded

• Germany and Russiaexcluded

• Sole respon-sibility for thewar placed onGermany’sshoulders

• Germany forcedto pay the Allies$33 billion inreparations over30 years

• Germany returnsAlsace-Lorraine toFrance; French borderextended to west bankof Rhine River

• Germany surrenders allof its overseas coloniesin Africa and the Pacific

• Limits set on the size ofthe German army

• Germany prohibited from importing or manu-facturing weapons or war material

• Germany forbidden tobuild or buy submarinesor have an air force

The Treaty of Versailles: Major Provisions

League of Nations Territorial Losses Military Restrictions War Guilt

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts1. Analyzing Issues In what ways did the treaty punish Germany?2. Clarifying What two provinces were returned to France as a result of the treaty?

Reaction to Treaty

Germany

Africans& Asians

Italy& Japan

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Interpreting the ChartHave students examine the chart to iden-tify how the provisions are grouped.Which column shows limitations onGermany’s colonial power? (TerritorialLosses) limitations on its military power?(Military Restrictions)

Extension Ask students to discuss howordinary German citizens might have feltabout the treaty. (Possible Answers:cheated out of their territory, outraged at limitations on their military power,worried about the effects reparationswould have on their economy)

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Connections Across Time and Cultures:

Planning for Peace, p. 18

ASSESSSECTION 4 ASSESSMENTHave one student ask question 1 and the student who answers correctly askquestion 2, and so on.


RETEACHAsk students to fill in a concept webdetailing the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.


Critical Thinking Transparencies• CT65 Chapter 29 Visual Summary

2. Sample Answer: Germany—bitterness andhatred at costs exacted; Africans and Asians—anger at lack of independence; Italy and Japan—disappointment at lack of territory gained. Germany, because it was punished most

3. to create a just and lasting peace throughoutthe world

4. provision that blamed Germany for the warand required reparations

5. desire to stay out of European affairs 6. Possible Answers: Fair—Germany was

punished and new nations were established;Not fair—Germany was too harshly punishedand colonies weren’t granted independence.

7. They wanted to ensure Germany could notinvade them again.

8. Possible Answers: Right—staying out ofEurope the best way to avoid conflict; Wrong—ongoing cooperation with Europe the best way to ensure peace

9. Rubric Questions and answers should • follow a logical sequence.• show comprehension of the material.

Rubric Oral reports should • be informative and show evidence of

solid research.• demonstrate understanding of the UN.

1. Woodrow Wilson, p. 858 • Georges Clemenceau, p. 858 • Fourteen Points, p. 858 • self-determination, p. 858 • Treaty of Versailles, p. 858• League of Nations, p. 859

A. Possible Answer They saw the mandatesystem as a continuation ofEuropean colonialism.

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OBJECTIVES• Explain how new scientific theories

challenged old beliefs.

• Describe how the brutality of warprompted philosophers and writers toexplore new ideas.

• Summarize new styles in art, architecture, and music.

• Identify the changing roles of women.

• Trace new technological advances.

FOCUS & MOTIVATEAsk students how they respond aftergoing through a disturbing event such as a quarrel with friends or major illness.(Possible Answers: questioning and seeking change)

INSTRUCTA New Revolution in Science

Critical Thinking• Why were Einstein’s ideas upsetting

to many people? (His ideas destroyedthe order that most people believedwas unchanging.)

• In what way were Freud’s ideas as revolutionary as Einstein’s? (Theyreplaced the deeply held belief inhuman rationality.)



• Guided Reading, p. 47• History Makers: Sigmund Freud, p. 62








• Primary Source: from An Interview with Charles A.Lindbergh, p. 55

• Literature: from This Side of Paradise, p. 59

eEdition CD-ROMVoices from the Past Audio CDPower Presentations CD-ROMWorld Art and Cultures Transparencies

• AT67 The Twittering Machine• AT68 Electric Prisms

classzone.com• NetExplorations: Life in the 1920s



Years of Crisis 897


SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYThe postwar period was one ofloss and uncertainty but alsoone of invention, creativity, andnew ideas.

Postwar trends in physics,psychiatry, art, literature,communication, music, andtransportation still affect ourlives.

• AlbertEinstein

• theory ofrelativity

• SigmundFreud

• existentialism• Friedrich

Nietzsche• surrealism• jazz• Charles Lindbergh

1

SETTING THE STAGE The horrors of World War I shattered the Enlightenmentbelief that progress would continue and reason would prevail. In the postwarperiod, people began questioning traditional beliefs. Some found answers in newscientific developments, which challenged the way people looked at the world.Many enjoyed the convenience of technological improvements in transportationand communication. As society became more open, women demanded morerights, and young people adopted new values. Meanwhile, unconventional stylesand ideas in literature, philosophy, and music reflected the uncertain times.

A New Revolution in ScienceThe ideas of Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud had an enormous impact on the20th century. These thinkers were part of a scientific revolution as important asthat brought about centuries earlier by Copernicus and Galileo.

Impact of Einstein’s Theory of Relativity German-born physicist AlbertEinstein offered startling new ideas on space, time, energy, and matter. Scientistshad found that light travels at exactly the same speed no matter what direction itmoves in relation to earth. In 1905, Einstein theorized that while the speed oflight is constant, other things that seem constant, such as space and time, are not.Space and time can change when measured relative to an object moving near thespeed of light—about 186,000 miles per second. Since relative motion is the keyto Einstein’s idea, it is called the theory of relativity. Einstein’s ideas had impli-cations not only for science but also for how people viewed the world. Nowuncertainty and relativity replaced Isaac Newton’s comforting belief of a worldoperating according to absolute laws of motion and gravity.

Influence of Freudian Psychology The ideas of Austrian physician SigmundFreud were as revolutionary as Einstein’s. Freud treated patients with psycho-logical problems. From his experiences, he constructed a theory about the humanmind. He believed that much of human behavior is irrational, or beyond reason.He called the irrational part of the mind the unconscious. In the unconscious, anumber of drives existed, especially pleasure-seeking drives, of which the con-scious mind was unaware. Freud’s ideas weakened faith in reason. Even so, bythe 1920s, Freud’s theories had developed widespread influence.

Postwar Uncertainty

Summarizing Use achart to identify twopeople who contributedto each field.

TAKING NOTES

Field Contributors

science

literatureand philosophy

art andmusic

technology

People waiting for a free lunch for the unemployed, 1930

Magazine cover, 1926

LESSON PLAN





Electronic Library of Primary Sources • “The Death of God”

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Task Analyzing literature from the “Lost Generation”

Purpose To identify ways in which literature reflectedsociety’s concerns

Instructions Have students work with a partner to rereadthe excerpt from F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby onthis page and the selection from This Side of Paradise onpage 59 of In-Depth Resources: Unit 7. Ask the pairs ofstudents to do the following activities:

• Read the selections silently and aloud.

• Discuss the ideas presented and how they relate tothe historical period.

• Think about the questions that follow the selection.

Then have the groups summarize what they have learnedfrom each selection and discuss how the ideas presentedare alike and different. (Possible Answers: Both selectionsexpress disillusionment and lack of hope for the future in response to the mass destruction and political and economic unrest following World War I. This Side ofParadise is more cynical, focusing on loss of individualityand of heroes, while The Great Gatsby expresses a moregeneralized and deeper despair.)

898 Chapter 31


Exploring the Literature of the 1920s


898 Chapter 31

Literature in the 1920sThe brutality of World War I caused philosophers and writers to question acceptedideas about reason and progress. Disillusioned by the war, many people also fearedthe future and expressed doubts about traditional religious beliefs. Some writersand thinkers expressed their anxieties by creating disturbing visions of the presentand the future.

In 1922, T. S. Eliot, an American poet living in England, wrote that Westernsociety had lost its spiritual values. He described the postwar world as a barren“wasteland,” drained of hope and faith. In 1921, the Irish poet William Butler Yeatsconveyed a sense of dark times ahead in the poem “The Second Coming”: “Thingsfall apart; the centre cannot hold; / Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world.”

Writers Reflect Society’s Concerns The horror of war made a deep impressionon many writers. The Czech-born author Franz Kafka wrote eerie novels such asThe Trial (1925) and The Castle (1926). His books feature people caught in threat-ening situations they can neither understand nor escape. The books struck a chordamong readers in the uneasy postwar years.

Many novels showed the influence of Freud’s theories on the unconscious. TheIrish-born author James Joyce gained widespread attention with his stream-of-consciousness novel Ulysses (1922). This book focuses on a single day in the livesof three people in Dublin, Ireland. Joyce broke with normal sentence structure andvocabulary in a bold attempt to mirror the workings of the human mind.

Thinkers React to Uncertainties In their search for meaning in an uncertain world,some thinkers turned to the philosophy known as existentialism. A major leader ofthis movement was the philosopher Jean Paul Sartre (SAHR•truh) of France.Existentialists believed that there is no universal meaning to life. Each person createshis or her own meaning in life through choices made and actions taken.

DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS1. Making Inferences What seems to be the narrator’s attitude toward the future?2. Drawing Conclusions How would you describe the overall mood of the excerpt?

Vocabularystream of conscious-ness: a literary tech-nique used topresent a character’sthoughts and feel-ings as they develop

Writers of the “Lost Generation”During the 1920s, many American writers,musicians, and painters left the United Statesto live in Europe. These expatriates, peoplewho left their native country to live elsewhere,often settled in Paris. American writer GertrudeStein called them the “Lost Generation.” Theymoved frantically from one European city toanother, trying to find meaning in life. Lifeempty of meaning is the theme of F. ScottFitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1925).

And as I sat there brooding on the old, unknownworld, I thought of Gatsby’s wonder when he firstpicked out the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock.He had come a long way to this blue lawn, and hisdream must have seemed so close that he couldhardly fail to grasp it. He did not know that it wasalready behind him, somewhere back in that vastobscurity beyond the city, where the dark fields ofthe republic rolled on under the night.

Gatsby believed in the green light, the . . . future thatyear by year recedes before us. It eluded us then, but that’sno matter—tomorrow we will run faster, stretch out ourarms farther. . . . And one fine morning—

So we beat on, boats against the current, borne backceaselessly into the past.

F. SCOTT FITZGERALD, The Great Gatsby

A 1920sphoto ofF. ScottFitzgerald

Years of Crisis 59

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Name Date

LITERATURE SELECTION from This Side of Paradiseby F. Scott Fitzgerald

This Side of Paradise, the first novel by American author F. Scott Fitzgerald,appeared in 1920 and was an immediate success. Fitzgerald captured the cyni-cism, doubt, and disillusionment that followed World War I. How does the maincharacter, Amory Blaine, feel that the war affected his generation?

Section 1

CHAPTER

31

“Why shouldn’t you be bored,” yawned Tom.“Isn’t that the conventional frame of mind

for the young man of your age and condition?”“Yes,” said Amory speculatively, “but I’m more

than bored; I am restless.”“Love and war did for you.”“Well,” Amory considered, “I’m not sure that

the war itself had any great effect on either you orme—but it certainly ruined the old backgrounds,sort of killed individualism out of our generation.”

Tom looked up in surprise.“Yes it did,” insisted Amory. “I’m not sure it did-

n’t kill it out of the whole world. Oh, Lord, what apleasure it used to be to dream I might be a reallygreat dictator or writer or religious or politicalleader—and now even a Leonardo da Vinci orLorenzo de Medici couldn’t be a real old-fashionedbolt in the world. Life is too huge and complex. Theworld is so overgrown that it can’t lift its own fingers,and I was planning to be such an important finger—”

“I don’t agree with you,” Tom interrupted.“There never were men placed in such egotisticpositions since—oh, since the French Revolution.”

Amory disagreed violently.“You’re mistaking this period when every nut is

an individualist for a period of individualism.Wilson has only been powerful when he has repre-sented; he’s had to compromise over and overagain. Just as soon as Trotsky and Lenin take a defi-nite, consistent stand they’ll become two-minutefigures like Kerensky.1 Even Foch2 hasn’t half thesignificance of Stonewall Jackson.3 War used to bethe most individualistic pursuit of man, and yet thepopular heroes of the war had neither authority norresponsibility: Guynemer and Sergeant York.4 Howcould a schoolboy make a hero of Pershing5? A bigman has no time really to do anything but just sitand be big.”

“Then you don’t think there will be any morepermanent world heroes?”

“Yes—in history—not in life. Carlyle6 would

have difficulty getting material for a new chapteron ‘The Hero as a Big Man.’”

“Go on. I’m a good listener to-day.”“People try so hard to believe in leaders now,

pitifully hard. But we no sooner get a popularreformer or politician or soldier or writer or philoso-pher—a Roosevelt, a Tolstoi, a Wood, a Shaw, aNietzsche, than the cross-currents of criticism washhim away. My Lord, no man can stand prominencethese days. It’s the surest path to obscurity. Peopleget sick of hearing the same name over and over.”

“Then you blame it on the press?”“Absolutely. Look at you; you’re on The New

Democracy, considered the most brilliant weekly inthe country, read by the men who do things and allthat. What’s your business? Why, to be as clever, asinteresting, and as brilliantly cynical as possibleabout every man, doctrine, book, or policy that isassigned you to deal with. The more strong lights,the more spiritual scandal you can throw on thematter, the more money they pay you, the more thepeople buy the issue. You, Tom d’Invilliers, a blight-ed Shelley7, changing, shifting, clever, unscrupulous,represent the critical consciousness of the race. . . .

Footnotes 1. Kerensky: Russian revolutionary.2. Foch: World War I Commander in Chief.3. Stonewall Jackson: U.S. Civil War general.4. Sergeant York: American World War I hero.5. Pershing: commander of U.S. forces during World War I.6. Carlyle: British historian and essayist.7. Shelley: English romantic poet.

Discussion QuestionsClarifying 1. What is Amory Blaine’s opinion about how

World War I affected his generation?2. What dreams did Amory have before the war?3. Making Inferences Amory insists that the war

did not have a great effect on him. Do youagree? Why or why not?


Literature in the 1920s

Critical Thinking• Why did writers’ visions of the present

and future change? (The brutality ofWorld War I caused them to think thepresent and future would be changedby this experience.)

• How might Nietzsche’s ideas have influenced politicians? (by providingphilosophical support for the actions of powerful dictators)

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• History Makers: Sigmund Freud, p. 62

Electronic Library of Primary Sources• “The Death of God”

classzone.com• NetExplorations: Life in the 1920s

Analyzing Primary Sources

Writers of the “Lost Generation”F. Scott Fitzgerald was only 23 years oldwhen This Side of Paradise, his novel ofthe “Lost Generation,” was published. Askstudents to research the lives ofFitzgerald and his wife, Zelda, and consider how they represent both thedesperation and the frantic gaiety ofexpatriate artists.

Answers to Document-Based Questions 1. Making Inferences The future is

elusive and unreachable, and full ofpromises that can never be fulfilled.

2. Drawing Conclusions sad, depressing,hopeless, defeated

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Literature: from This Side of Paradise, p. 59

wh10te-073101-0897-0903 9/15/03 3:48 PM Page 898


Task Creating a chart of three key terms

Purpose To clarify the sense and meaning of three key terms used in this chapter

Instructions Explain to students that the concepts presented on this page are difficultones, so they shouldn’t be discouraged if they have problems understanding them inone reading. Suggest that students work together in pairs to read the Spanish translation of the Guided Reading material provided on page 218 of In-Depth Resources in Spanish.Instruct them to pay particular attention to the key terms existentialism, surrealism, andjazz. Have them discuss this material and then reread the English text on this page.

Then have students create charts like the one here.



Understanding Key Terms


The existentialists were influenced by the German philosopher FriedrichNietzsche (NEE•chuh). In the 1880s, Nietzsche wrote that Western ideas such asreason, democracy, and progress had stifled people’s creativity and actions.Nietzsche urged a return to the ancient heroic values of pride, assertiveness, andstrength. His ideas attracted growing attention in the 20th century and had a greatimpact on politics in Italy and Germany in the 1920s and 1930s.

Revolution in the ArtsAlthough many of the new directions in painting and music began in the prewarperiod, they evolved after the war.

Artists Rebel Against Tradition Artists rebelled against earlier realistic styles ofpainting. They wanted to depict the inner world of emotion and imagination ratherthan show realistic representations of objects. Expressionist painters like Paul Kleeand Wassily Kandinsky used bold colors and distorted or exaggerated forms.

Inspired by traditional African art, Georges Braque of France and Pablo Picassoof Spain founded Cubism in 1907. Cubism transformed natural shapes into geo-metric forms. Objects were broken down into different parts with sharp angles andedges. Often several views were depicted at the same time.

Surrealism, an art movement that sought to link the world of dreams withreal life, was inspired by Freud’s ideas. The term surreal means “beyond or abovereality.” Surrealists tried to call on the unconscious part of their minds. Manyof their paintings have an eerie, dreamlike quality and depict objects in unrealis-tic ways.

Composers Try New Styles In both classical and popular music, composersmoved away from traditional styles. In his ballet masterpiece, The Rite of Spring, theRussian composer Igor Stravinsky used irregular rhythms and dissonances, or harshcombinations of sound. The Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg rejected tradi-tional harmonies and musical scales.

A new popular musical style called jazz emerged in the United States. It wasdeveloped by musicians, mainly African Americans, in New Orleans, Memphis,and Chicago. It swept the United States and Europe. The lively, loose beat of jazzseemed to capture the new freedom of the age.

ThePersistence ofMemory (1931),a surrealist workby Spanish artistSalvador Dali,shows watchesmelting in adesert.

MakingInferences

What was themajor trend in postwar art?

Years of Crisis 899

▼

Revolution in the Arts

Critical Thinking• How was surrealism connected with

Freud’s ideas? (By depicting dreamimages, it accepted and validated the reality of Freud’s concept of theunconsciousness.)

• What aspects of earlier music did newcomposers rebel against? (its tonality,harmony, and strict rhythms)

World Art and Cultures Transparencies• AT67 The Twittering Machine• AT68 Electric Prisms

More About . . .

The Persistence of MemorySalvador Dali called his The Persistence of Memory “a hand-painted dream photograph.” The work mixes realismwith absurd images like the soft watches.Some critics have suggested that thesewatches imply the disintegration of nor-mal time. Insects feeding on the watchesseem to reinforce this idea of a world inthe grip of destruction.

More About . . .

JazzJazz musicians are known for improvisa-tion, or creating variations of the music asthey play it. Often the music is synco-pated, with irregular rhythmic patternsand accents falling in unexpected places.These elements give jazz its characteristicenergy and excitement.

Key Term

existentialism

surrealism

jazz

Meaning

belief that peoplemake their ownmeaning

art form based on images from the unconscious

loose, free style of music

How It Reflectsthe Time

shows reaction touncertain world

uses new imagesand forms

breaks with orderand discipline

A. Answer Artistsbroke away fromrealism; some triedto draw on theunconscious part oftheir mind.

wh10te-073101-0897-0903 9/15/03 3:49 PM Page 899


Task Creating a chart showing the waystechnological advances in transportationand communications changed life in the1920s and 1930s

Purpose To clarify information in the text

Instructions Have students reread thematerial from the bottom of page 900through page 901. Also suggest that theyread the last section of page 300 of the Reading Study Guide. Then divide

students into four groups with each groupfocusing on either the automobile, the air-plane, radio, or movies.

Have each group discuss the way its tech-nology changed people’s lives and fill intheir section of the class chart. You mightwant to copy and enlarge the verticalchart in Critical Thinking TransparenciesCT80 for students to use.

A sample chart follows:

900 Chapter 31


Charting the Effects of Technology


900 Chapter 31

Society Challenges ConventionWorld War I had disrupted traditional social patterns. New ideas and ways of lifeled to a new kind of individual freedom during the 1920s. Young people especiallywere willing to break with the past and experiment with modern values.

Women’s Roles Change The independent spirit of the times showed clearly in thechanges women were making in their lives. The war had allowed women to take onnew roles. Their work in the war effort was decisive in helping them win the rightto vote. After the war, women’s suffrage became law in many countries, includingthe United States, Britain, Germany, Sweden, and Austria.

Women abandoned restrictive clothing and hairstyles. They wore shorter, loosergarments and had their hair “bobbed,” or cut short. They also wore makeup, drovecars, and drank and smoked in public. Although most women still followed tradi-tional paths of marriage and family, a growing number spoke out for greater free-dom in their lives. Margaret Sanger and Emma Goldman risked arrest by speakingin favor of birth control. As women sought new careers, the numbers of women inmedicine, education, journalism, and other professions increased.

Technological Advances Improve LifeDuring World War I, scientists developed new drugs and medical treatments thathelped millions of people in the postwar years. The war’s technological advanceswere put to use to improve transportation and communication after the war.

The Automobile Alters Society The automobile benefited from a host of wartimeinnovations and improvements—electric starters, air-filled tires, and more powerfulengines. Cars were now sleek and brightly polished, complete with headlights andchrome-plated bumpers. In prewar Britain, autos were owned exclusively by therich. British factories produced 34,000 autos in 1913. After the war, prices dropped,and the middle class could afford cars. By 1937, the British were producing 511,000autos a year.

SummarizingHow did the

changes of thepostwar years affectwomen?

▲ Women likethese marchingin a 1912suffrage paradein New York Cityhelped gainAmericanwomen’s right tovote in 1920.

Society ChallengesConvention

Critical Thinking• How did the changes in women’s

clothes reflect their changing roles?(The new styles gave them greater freedom.)

• What goals were women seeking in the1920s? (greater participation in society,expanded career options, and controlover their bodies)

Technological AdvancesImprove Life

Critical Thinking• Which technological advance do

you think had the greatest effect on society? (Possible Answers: transportation—gave people moremobility and options for work andpleasure; communication—gave people access to more information)

• How might World War I have spurreddevelopments in the radio? (It wasneeded for battlefront communication.)

More About . . .

Flappers In the 1920s, stylish women were calledflappers. The term referred to the looseunrestricted styles worn by youngwomen. It also refected the attitudes ofthe young women. They were breakingaway from old ideas and expectationslike a fledging breaking (flapping) out ofthe nest. Flappers became a symbol forthe era’s rebellious youth.

Automobiles

People traveled forpleasure; New businessesdeveloped toserve travelers;Workersmoved to suburbs anddrove to cityjobs.

Airplanes

Major passenger airlines wereestablished;Internationaltravel becamea possibility;Pioneeringpilots brokerecords.

Radio

Commercialradio stationsflourished;People hadready accessto news, entertainment,and otherinformation.

Movies

They provideda new form ofentertainment;With theaddition ofsound, moviesgained widerappeal andimpact.

B. Answer Womenwon the right tovote, changed styleof dress, soughtnew careers.

wh10te-073101-0897-0903 9/15/03 3:49 PM Page 900



ANSWERS

Increased auto use by the average family led to lifestyle changes. More peopletraveled for pleasure. In Europe and the United States, new businesses opened toserve the mobile tourist. The auto also affected where people lived and worked.People moved to suburbs and commuted to work in the cities.

Airplanes Transform Travel International air travel became an objective after thewar. In 1919, two British pilots made the first successful flight across the Atlantic,from Newfoundland to Ireland. In 1927, an American pilot named CharlesLindbergh captured world attention with a 33-hour solo flight from New York toParis. Most of the world’s major passenger airlines were established during the 1920s.At first only the rich were able to afford air travel. Still, everyone enjoyed the exploitsof the aviation pioneers, including those of Amelia Earhart. She was an Americanwho, in 1932, became the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic.

Radio and Movies Dominate Popular Entertainment Guglielmo Marconi con-ducted his first successful experiments with radio in 1895. However, the real pushfor radio development came during World War I.

In 1920, the world’s first commercial radio station—KDKA in Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania—began broadcasting. Almost overnight, radio mania swept theUnited States. Every major city had stations broadcasting news, plays, and evenlive sporting events. Soon most families owned a radio.

Motion pictures were also a major industry in the 1920s. Many countries, fromCuba to Japan, produced movies. In Europe, film was a serious art form. However,in the Hollywood district of Los Angeles, where 90 percent of all films were made,movies were entertainment.

The king of Hollywood’s silent screen was the English-born Charlie Chaplin, acomic genius best known for his portrayal of the lonely little tramp bewildered bylife. In the late 1920s, the addition of sound transformed movies.

The advances in transportation and communication that followed the war hadbrought the world in closer touch. Global prosperity came to depend on the eco-nomic well-being of all major nations, especially the United States.

Years of Crisis 901

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Albert Einstein • theory of relativity • Sigmund Freud • existentialism • Friedrich Nietzsche • surrealism • jazz • Charles Lindbergh

USING YOUR NOTES2. In your opinion, whose

contribution has had the mostlasting impact?

MAIN IDEAS3. Why were the ideas of Einstein

and Freud revolutionary?

4. How did literature in the 1920sreflect the uncertainty of theperiod?

5. What impact did the increaseduse of the automobile have onaverage people?

SECTION ASSESSMENT1

PREPARING AN ORAL REPORT

Movies in the 1920s reflected the era. What do films made today say about our age? Reviewsome recent, representative films and present your ideas in an oral report.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. HYPOTHESIZING Why do you think writers and artists

began exploring the unconscious?

7. DEVELOPING HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Why did somewomen begin demanding more political and socialfreedom?

8. MAKING INFERENCES Why were new medical treatmentsand inventions developed during World War I?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write anadvertisement that might have appeared in a 1920snewspaper or magazine for one of the technologicalinnovations discussed in this section.


CONNECT TO TODAY

▲ Dressed in aragged suit andoversize shoes,Charlie Chaplin’slittle tramp usedgentle humor toget himself outof difficultsituations.

RecognizingEffects

What were theresults of thepeacetime adapta-tions of the technol-ogy of war?

Field Contributors

science

literatureand philosophy

More About . . .

Charles LindberghNicknamed, “Lucky Lindy” and “Lone Eagle” by the press, Lindbergh won international fame and became theobject of hero worship following his solo,nonstop flight across the Atlantic. He hadbeen a stunt flyer at county fairs and anairmail pilot before competing for the$25,000 prize offered for the first nonstopNew York–Paris flight. Several pilots hadbeen killed or injured seeking the prize,which had been offered since 1919.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Primary Source: from “An Interview with

Charles Lindbergh,” p. 55

ASSESSSECTION 1 ASSESSMENTHave students work with a partner to complete the questions and checktheir answers.


RETEACHUse the Guided Reading worksheet for Section 1 to review the main ideas of the section.


2. Sample Answer: Science—Albert Einstein,Sigmund Freud, Literature—Friedrich Nietzsche,James Joyce; Arts—Pablo Picasso, ArnoldSchoenberg; Technology—Charles Lindbergh,Guglielmo Marconi. Possible Answer:Einstein’s because his theories are still trans-forming science and mathematics

3. They weakened faith in reason and changedpeople’s view of the world.

4. It focused on the meaninglessness of life. 5. It allowed them to drive for pleasure and

commute to work. 6. Possible Answers: Real life was too brutal;

the unconscious offered escape.7. Possible Answer: They had gained freedom

during World War I and didn’t want to give it up.

8. Possible Answers: to help war casualties andimprove the technology of warfare

9. Rubric Advertisements should• be written for a 1920s audience.• celebrate the product’s original features.• include slogans or catchy phrases.• incorporate pictures or drawings.

Rubric Oral reports should • summarize themes from recent films.• be supported by details from movies.• compare the 1920s and the present.

CONNECT TO TODAY

1. Albert Einstein, p. 897 • theory of relativity, p. 897 • Sigmund Freud, p. 897 • existentialism, p. 898 • Friedrich Nietzsche, p. 899 • surrealism, p. 899 • jazz, p. 899 • Charles Lindbergh, p. 901

C. PossibleAnswers Autoswere improved; air-lines carried passen-gers; most familiesowned a radio.

wh10te-073101-0897-0903 9/15/03 3:50 PM Page 901

BooksPetroski, Henry. The Evolution of Useful Things.Reprint ed. New York: Vintage Books, 1994.

Williams, Trevor I., ed. A History of Invention:From Stone Axes to Silicon Chips. Rev. ed. New York: Checkmark Books, 2000. Includes information on the invention of the telephone, the refrigerator, and the vacuum cleaner.

VideosInventions. VHS. Films for the Humanities &Sciences, 1995. 800-257-5126. Explores the impactof many inventions, with a close look at the radioand mass communications.

Radio History. VHS and DVD. Films for theHumanities & Sciences, 1997. 800-257-5126.

Telephone: Quest for Instant Communication.VHS. Library Video Company, 1994. 800-843-3620.

902 Chapter 31


902

Labor-Saving Devices inthe United StatesSeveral changes that took place during the 1920s made the use ofelectrical household appliances more widespread.

• Wiring for electricity became common. In 1917, only 24 percent ofU.S. homes had electricity; by 1930, that figure was almost 70 percent.

• Merchants offered the installment plan, which allowed buyers tomake payments over time. That way, people could purchaseappliances even if they didn’t have the whole price.

• The use of advertising grew. Ads praised appliances, claiming thatthey would shorten tasks and give women more free time.

Ironically, the new labor-saving devices generally did not decreasethe amount of time women spent doing housework. Because the tasksbecame less physically difficult, many families stopped hiring servantsto do the work and relied on the wife to do all the jobs herself.

� Washing MachineTo do laundry manually, women had tocarry and heat about 50 gallons of waterfor each load. They rubbed the clotheson ridged washboards, rinsed them intubs, and wrung them out by hand.

This early electric washing machine,photographed in 1933, made the jobless strenuous. The casters on the legsmade it easier to move tubs of water.The two rollers at the top of themachine squeezed water from clothes.That innovation alone saved women’swrists from constant strain.

RESEARCH LINKS For more on daily lifein the 1920s, go to classzone.com

� RefrigeratorPeople used to keep perishable food in iceboxes cooled by largechunks of ice that gradually melted and had to be replaced.Electric refrigerators, like the one in this 1929 advertisement, keptthe food at a fairly constant temperature, which reduced spoilage.Because food kept longer, housewives could shop less frequently.

Social History

OBJECTIVES• Identify the changes that made the use

of electrical appliances more practical.

• Describe the effects of the new labor-saving devices on people’s lives.

FOCUS & MOTIVATEAsk students to discuss both the positive and negative effects of technol-ogy on their lives. (Possible Answers:Positive—makes communication, travel,and awareness of global events fast andeasy; Negative—isolates people from personal interaction)

INSTRUCTCritical Thinking• How might owning a refrigerator have

made housewives feel more isolated?(They wouldn’t have the social outlet of shopping frequently.)

• Why might twice as many Ford employees have had irons as washingmachines? (Irons were less expensive.)

More About . . .

Electric AppliancesAnother revolutionary appliance, the gasor electric stove, was actually among thefirst labor-saving devices introduced intopostwar kitchens. This technologicaladvance replaced stoves fueled by coal or wood and relieved people of the physically taxing burden of hauling thesefuels for cooking. By the 1920s, manyhomes also included electric refrigerators.

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES




1. Analyzing IssuesThe advertisers promised that the appliances were more efficient andthat they would give women more time for other activities. The appli-ances did make work less strenuous, but most women just ended updoing more chores.

2. Comparing and ContrastingMany adults will report that modern technology has increased theirworkload; for example e-mail and wireless phones have created theexpectation that workers will stay in touch with the office even on their days off. This is similar to what happened in the 1920s when newappliances actually caused women to do more household chores.

APPLIANCES INTHE HOME

• In 1929, a survey of 100 Fordemployees showed that 98 ofthem had electric irons in theirhomes.

• The same survey showed that49 of the 100 had washingmachines at home.

� IronBefore electrical appliances, women heated irons on a stove. The irons cooled quickly, andas they did so, women had to push down harder to press out wrinkles. Early electric ironsalso had inconsistent heat. This 1926 ad offered an electric iron that stayed evenly hot, sowomen didn’t have to put so much force into their ironing. Therefore, they could ironsitting down.

Coffee PotThe electric coffee pot shown in this 1933photograph was a vacuum pot. The waterin the bottom chamber would come to aboil and bubble up into the top chamber,where the grounds were. The resultingvacuum in the lower chamber pulled theliquid back through the grounds and intothe lower chamber.

Vacuum CleanerThis 1920 ad promised “Twice asmany rooms cleaned. . . . twice asmuch leisure left for you to enjoy.”However, women rarelyexperienced that benefit. Becausethe new appliances madehousework easier, people began toexpect homes to be cleaner. As aresult, many women vacuumed moreoften and generally used theirnewfound “leisure” time to do evenmore household chores than before.

1. Analyzing Issues What benefits didadvertisers promise that the newelectrical appliances would providefor women? Explain whether womenactually received those benefits.

See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R17.

2. Comparing and Contrasting Ask twoor three adults about the way thattechnology has affected their work lifeand whether modern technologies are“labor-saving devices.” How do yourfindings compare to the effect ofelectrical appliances in the 1920s?

�

�

500

700

900

1100

1300

1500

1927 1931 1935 1939Source: Historical Statistics of the United States

Num

bers

in T

hous

ands

Mechanical Washing Machines Shipped

0

100

200

300

400

500

1920 1930 1940 1950

Source: Historical Statistics of the United States

Num

bers

in T

hous

ands

Persons Employed as Private Laundress

903

More About . . .

Vacuum CleanersThe first motorized vacuum cleaner, pow-ered by gasoline, was invented andpatented by John Thurman in 1899. Twoyears later, a British patent for a vacuumcleaner was awarded to Herbert Booth.This was quickly followed by Americanvariations including a machine thatsucked dust into a wet sponge and amassive device set up in the cellar of ahouse and connected to every room witha series of pipes. This contraption wasmoved from house to house by an armyof men. Not to be outdone, in 1903, John Thurman began offering home vacuuming services to St. Louis housewives for $4.

OBJECTIVES• Describe the impact of World War I

on postwar Europe.

• Identify the problems faced by theWeimar Republic.

• Trace the events that led to the financialcollapse of the U.S. economy.

• Analyze the worldwide effects of theGreat Depression.

FOCUS & MOTIVATEHave students share what they haveheard about the Great Depression fromtheir relatives or reading. Note the devastating effect this event had on theworld economy.

INSTRUCTPostwar Europe

Critical Thinking• What was one positive political

effect of World War I? (the rise of new democracies)

• Why were democratic governmentsoften unstable? (little experience, toomany political parties)


Electronic Library of Primary Sources• “Famine in Russia”


• Guided Reading, p. 48• Skillbuilder Practice: Identifying Problems and

Solutions, p. 52Formal Assessment



• Guided Reading, p. 219• Skillbuilder Practice, p. 222

Reading Study Guide (Spanish), p. 301

Reading Study Guide Audio CD (Spanish)


• Guided Reading, p. 48• Building Vocabulary, p. 51• Skillbuilder Practice: Identifying Problems and

Solutions, p. 52• Reteaching Activity, p. 66



eEdition CD-ROMPower Presentations CD-ROMElectronic Library of Primary Sources CD-ROM

• “Famine in Russia”classzone.com

904 Chapter 31

904 Chapter 31


ECONOMICS An economicdepression in the United Statesspread throughout the worldand lasted for a decade.

Many social and economicprograms introduced worldwideto combat the Great Depressionare still operating.

• coalitiongovernment

• WeimarRepublic

• GreatDepression

• Franklin D.Roosevelt

• New Deal

2

SETTING THE STAGE By the late 1920s, European nations were rebuilding war-torn economies. They were aided by loans from the more prosperous United States.Only the United States and Japan came out of the war in better financial shape thanbefore. In the United States, Americans seemed confident that the country wouldcontinue on the road to even greater economic prosperity. One sign of this was thebooming stock market. Yet the American economy had serious weaknesses that weresoon to bring about the most severe economic downturn the world had yet known.

Postwar EuropeIn both human suffering and economic terms, the cost of World War I was immense.The Great War left every major European country nearly bankrupt. In addition,Europe’s domination in world affairs declined after the war.

Unstable New Democracies War’s end saw the sudden rise of new democra-cies. From 1914 to 1918, Europe’s last absolute rulers had been overthrown. Thefirst of the new governments was formed in Russia in 1917. The ProvisionalGovernment, as it was called, hoped to establish constitutional and democraticrule. However, within months it had fallen to a Communist dictatorship. Even so,for the first time, most European nations had democratic governments.

Many citizens of the new democracies had little experience with representa-tive government. For generations, kings and emperors had ruled Germany andthe new nations formed from Austria-Hungary. Even in France and Italy, whoseparliaments had existed before World War I, the large number of political partiesmade effective government difficult. Some countries had a dozen or more polit-ical groups. In these countries, it was almost impossible for one party to winenough support to govern effectively. When no single party won a majority, acoalition government, or temporary alliance of several parties, was needed toform a parliamentary majority. Because the parties disagreed on so many poli-cies, coalitions seldom lasted very long.

Frequent changes in government made it hard for democratic countries todevelop strong leadership and move toward long-term goals. The weaknesses ofa coalition government became a major problem in times of crisis. Voters in sev-eral countries were then willing to sacrifice democratic government for strong,authoritarian leadership.

A Worldwide Depression

Recognizing Effects Use a diagram to show the effects of the Great Depression in the United States.

TAKING NOTES

The GreatDepression


LESSON PLAN





• Primary Source: German Inflation, p. 56Electronic Library of Primary Sources

• “Famine in Russia”

People waiting for a free lunch for the unemployed, 1930

Magazine cover, 1926

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Task Making a flow chart about inflation

Purpose To clarify Germany’s economic problems

Instructions Explain that inflation is an economic situation that comes about when theamount of money in circulation increases. This happened in Germany because the govern-ment had spent more during World War I than it collected in taxes and other payments. Toraise more money, the German government just printed more of its money, the mark. By1923, it was printing 400 quadrillion (400,000,000,000,000,000) marks a day! With somuch money in circulation, its value goes down. As its value goes down, prices rise. Thisforces the government to print even more money to pay its bills. Ask students to work insmall groups to create flow charts that trace these steps in Germany’s inflation.



Understanding Inflation


IdentifyingProblems

What politicalproblems did theWeimar Republicface?

The Weimar RepublicGermany’s new democratic government was set up in 1919. Known as the Weimar(WY•MAHR) Republic, it was named after the city where the national assemblymet. The Weimar Republic had serious weaknesses from the start. First, Germanylacked a strong democratic tradition. Furthermore, postwar Germany had severalmajor political parties and many minor ones. Worst of all, millions of Germansblamed the Weimar government, not their wartime leaders, for the country’s defeatand postwar humiliation caused by the Versailles Treaty.

Inflation Causes Crisis in Germany Germany also faced enormous economicproblems that had begun during the war. Unlike Britain and France, Germany hadnot greatly increased its wartime taxes. To pay the expenses of the war, theGermans had simply printed money. After Germany’s defeat, this paper moneysteadily lost its value. Burdened with heavy reparations payments to the Allies andwith other economic problems, Germany printed even more money. As a result, thevalue of the mark, as Germany’s currency was called, fell sharply. Severe inflationset in. Germans needed more and more money to buy even the most basic goods.For example, in Berlin a loaf of bread cost less than a mark in 1918, more than 160marks in 1922, and some 200 billion marks by late 1923. People took wheelbar-rows full of money to buy food. As a result, many Germans questioned the valueof their new democratic government.

Attempts at Economic StabilityGermany recovered from the 1923inflation thanks largely to the workof an international committee. Thecommittee was headed by CharlesDawes, an American banker. TheDawes Plan provided for a $200 mil-lion loan from American banks tostabilize German currency andstrengthen its economy. The planalso set a more realistic schedule forGermany’s reparations payments.

Put into effect in 1924, the DawesPlan helped slow inflation. As theGerman economy began to recover, itattracted more loans and investmentsfrom the United States. By 1929,German factories were producing asmuch as they had before the war.

Efforts at a Lasting Peace Asprosperity returned, Germany’s for-eign minister, Gustav Stresemann(STRAY•zuh•MAHN), and France’sforeign minister, Aristide Briand(bree•AHND), tried to improve rela-tions between their countries. In1925, the two ministers met inLocarno, Switzerland, with officialsfrom Belgium, Italy, and Britain.They signed a treaty promising thatFrance and Germany would never

▼ Germanchildren usestacks of moneyas buildingblocks duringthe 1923inflation.

Years of Crisis 905

The Weimar Republic

Critical Thinking• How did Germany’s postwar economic

problems begin during the war?(Germany had not raised taxes duringthe war, so it printed new money, whichcaused runaway inflation.)

• What was a major weakness of theKellogg-Briand Treaty? (no means ofenforcing its provisions)

More About . . .

The Weimar RepublicAt the time they signed the VersaillesTreaty, the men who became the leadersof the Weimar government recognizedthat the agreement would cause graveproblems for Germany. Yet they felt theyhad no option but to sign it. The Germanpeople never forgave them.

More About . . .

Germany’s Money ProblemsEconomists typically define severe inflation as an annual inflation rate of 10 percent or higher. The German government’s printing of large amountsof currency to keep it afloat after the warcaused prices in Germany to rise morethan 1 trillion percent from August 1922to November 1923. In 1923, $1 in U.S.currency was worth over 4 trillionGerman marks.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7• Primary Source: German Inflation, p. 56

Germany has hugewar expenses.

Government spendsmore than it takes in.

Germany prints more money.

Value of money goes down.

Government printsmore money.

Prices go up.

Cycle continues.

Economy is in dangerof collapsing.

A. Answers lack ofdemocratic tradi-tion, too manypolitical parties,blamed for coun-try’s defeat

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Task Isolating and analyzing historical problems

Purpose To identify underlying problems that led to theGreat Depression

Instructions Explain to students that identifying problemsin history means finding and summarizing the difficultiesfaced by a group of people at a certain time. Being able topoint to and explain a problem can lead to a thoroughunderstanding of a situation and may lead to a solution.In reading history, students will find that some problemsmay be stated directly, while others might be implied by

the ways people act. For example, workers being laid offindicates that there are problems in an economic systemthat prevent it from providing full employment.

Ask students to identify the problems in the U.S. economythat led to the Great Depression. (uneven distribution of wealth, business overproduction, lessening demand for consumer goods, and decreasing farm profits) Askwhether these problems were stated directly in the text or implied by people’s actions. (Most were stated directly.)Then have students suggest problems that led to others. (Reduction in overproduction led to layoffs and unemployment.)

906 Chapter 31


Identifying Problems in History

SKILLBUILDER PRACTICE: IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

906 Chapter 31

again make war against each other. Germany also agreed to respect the existingborders of France and Belgium. It then was admitted to the League of Nations.

In 1928, the hopes raised by the “spirit of Locarno” led to the Kellogg-Briandpeace pact. Frank Kellogg, the U.S. Secretary of State, arranged this agreementwith France’s Briand. Almost every country in the world, including the SovietUnion, signed. They pledged “to renounce war as an instrument of national policy.”

Unfortunately, the treaty had no means to enforce its provisions. The League ofNations, the obvious choice as enforcer, had no armed forces. The refusal of theUnited States to join the League also weakened it. Nonetheless, the peace agree-ments seemed a good start.

Financial CollapseIn the late 1920s, American economic prosperity largely sustained the world econ-omy. If the U.S. economy weakened, the whole world’s economic system might col-lapse. In 1929, it did.

A Flawed U.S. Economy Despite prosperity, several weaknesses in the U.S.economy caused serious problems. These included uneven distribution of wealth,overproduction by business and agriculture, and the fact that many Americans

were buying less.By 1929, American factories were turning out nearly half

of the world’s industrial goods. The rising productivity ledto enormous profits. However, this new wealth was notevenly distributed. The richest 5 percent of the populationreceived 33 percent of all personal income in 1929. Yet 60percent of all American families earned less than $2,000 ayear. Thus, most families were too poor to buy the goodsbeing produced. Unable to sell all their goods, store ownerseventually cut back their orders from factories. Factories inturn reduced production and laid off workers. A downwardeconomic spiral began. As more workers lost their jobs,families bought even fewer goods. In turn, factories madefurther cuts in production and laid off more workers.

During the 1920s, overproduction affected Americanfarmers as well. Scientific farming methods and new farmmachinery had dramatically increased crop yields.American farmers were producing more food. Meanwhile,they faced new competition from farmers in Australia, LatinAmerica, and Europe. As a result, a worldwide surplus ofagricultural products drove prices and profits down.

Unable to sell their crops at a profit, many farmers couldnot pay off the bank loans that kept them in business. Theirunpaid debts weakened banks and forced some to close. Thedanger signs of overproduction by factories and farmsshould have warned people against gambling on the stockmarket. Yet no one heeded the warning.

The Stock Market Crashes In 1929, New York City’s WallStreet was the financial capital of the world. Banks andinvestment companies lined its sidewalks. At Wall Street’sNew York Stock Exchange, optimism about the boomingU.S. economy showed in soaring prices for stocks. To get inon the boom, many middle-income people began buying

IdentifyingProblems

What majorweaknesses hadappeared in theAmerican economyby 1929?

Investing in StocksStocks are shares of ownership in acompany. Businesses get money tooperate by selling “shares” of stock toinvestors, or buyers. Companies payinterest on the invested money in theform of dividends to the shareholders.Dividends rise or fall depending on acompany’s profits.

Investors do not buy stocksdirectly from the company; instead,stockbrokers transact the business ofbuying and selling.

Investors hope to make moremoney on stocks than if they puttheir money elsewhere, such as in asavings account with a fixed rate ofinterest. However, if the stock pricegoes down, investors lose moneywhen they sell their stock at a lowerprice than when they bought it.

5

10

15

20

25

30

1925

Pric

e In

dex

1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

Stock Prices, 1925–1933

Source: Historical Statistics of the United States

©M

cDou

gal L

ittel

l Inc

. All

right

s re

serv

ed.


Name Date

Imagine that you are a news reporter covering the presidential campaign of 1932 for your radio station. Prepare a report of Roosevelt’s speech to deliver to your radio audience. In your report, summarize the problems the candidate stated directly or implied in his speech.

________________________________________________________________________________________

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SKILLBUILDER PRACTICE Identifying ProblemsTo identify problems in history, find and summarize the difficulties a group ofpeople faced at a certain time. By pointing out and explaining problems, you candevelop a thorough understanding of the situation. During the Great Depression,Franklin Roosevelt was elected president of the United States. The excerpt belowis from a campaign speech Roosevelt delivered on September 23, 1932. As youread the speech, identify the problems in American society that Roosevelt saw.Remember that problems can be directly stated or implied. Then complete theactivity that follows. (See Skillbuilder Handbook)

Section 2

CHAPTER

31

Aglance at the situation today only too clearlyindicates that quality of opportunity, as we have

known it, no longer exists. Our industrial plant isbuilt; the problem just now is whether under exist-ing conditions it is not overbuilt.

Our last frontier has long since been reached,and there is practically no more free land. . . .There is no safety valve in the form of a Westernprairie, to which those thrown out of work by Easterneconomic machines can go for a new start. . . .

Recently a careful study was made of the con-centration of business in the United States. Itshowed that our economic life was dominated bysome six hundred odd corporations, who controlledtwo-thirds of American industry. Ten million smallbusiness men divided the other third. More strikingstill, it appeared that if the process of concentrationgoes on at the same rate, at the end of another cen-tury we shall have all American industry controlledby a dozen corporations, and run by perhaps a hundred men. . . .

Clearly, all this calls for a re-appraisal of values.A mere builder of more industrial plants, a creatorof more railroad systems, an organizer of more cor-porations, is as likely to be a danger as a help. . . .

Our task now is not discovery or exploitation ofresources, or necessarily producing more goods. Itis the soberer, less dramatic business of administer-ing resources and plants already in hand, of seekingto re-establish foreign markets for our surplus production, of meeting the problem of undercon-sumption, of adjusting production to consumption,of distributing wealth and products more equitably,of adapting existing economic organizations to theservice of the people. The day of enlightenedadministration has come.

from Franklin D. Roosevelt, Address to the CommonwealthClub of San Francisco, September 23, 1932. Reprinted inthe New York Times, September 24, 1932.


Financial Collapse

Critical Thinking• Why might Americans have been buying

less in the years preceding the stockmarket crash? (More than half ofAmerican families were too poor toafford manufactured goods.)

• How did margin buying contribute tothe stock market crash? (It created afalse prosperity that could not sustain ahuge change in stock prices)

Historyin Depth

Investing in StocksIn the 1920s, the United States, inresponse to surging demand for cars,radios, entertainment, and a share in thegrowing aviation industry, led investorsinto the stock market in search of fastprofits. The number of shares bought andsold on the New York Stock Exchangerose between 1925 and 1929 from 113 million to more than a billion. Small investors were lured into the market by stories of ordinary peoplebecoming instant millionaires by buyingand selling stocks. The graph shows howdramatically stock prices dropped afterthe market crash in 1929.

B. Answersuneven distributionof wealth, overpro-duction by busi-ness, lesseningdemand for con-sumer goods, drop-ping farm profits

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Task Creating a political cartoon about the Great Depression

Purpose To clarify the effects of this global crisis

Instructions Divide students into two groups. Have one group researchthe impact of the Great Depression on the United States and the othergroup research its effects on Western European countries. When thegroups have compiled their research have them do the following activities:

• Discuss how the Great Depression spread from the United States tothe rest of the Western world.

• Brainstorm ways they can express this spread or indicate the effectson a particular country in a political cartoon.

You might suggest, for example, that they show how raising tariffs hurtworld trade and deepened the depression. Stress to students that theirpolitical cartoons should express one idea or opinion, clearly show a spe-cific effect or response, and include an appropriate caption. Have studentsdisplay their political cartoons in the classroom.



Creating a Political Cartoon


stocks on margin. This meant that they paid a small percentage of a stock’s priceas a down payment and borrowed the rest from a stockbroker. The system workedwell as long as stock prices were rising. However, if they fell, investors had nomoney to pay off the loan.

In September 1929, some investors began to think that stock prices were unnat-urally high. They started selling their stocks, believing the prices would soon godown. By Thursday, October 24, the gradual lowering of stock prices had becomean all-out slide downward. A panic resulted. Everyone wanted to sell stocks, andno one wanted to buy. Prices plunged to a new low on Tuesday, October 29. Arecord 16 million stocks were sold. Then the market collapsed.

The Great DepressionPeople could not pay the money they owed on margin purchases. Stocks they hadbought at high prices were now worthless. Within months of the crash, unemploy-ment rates began to rise as industrial production, prices, and wages declined. Along business slump, which would come to be called the Great Depression, fol-lowed. The stock market crash alone did not cause the Great Depression, but itquickened the collapse of the economy and made the Depression more difficult. By1932, factory production had been cut in half. Thousands of businesses failed, andbanks closed. Around 9 million people lost the money in their savings accountswhen banks had no money to pay them. Many farmers lost their lands when theycould not make mortgage payments. By 1933, one-fourth of all American workershad no jobs.

A Global Depression The collapse of the American economy sent shock wavesaround the world. Worried American bankers demanded repayment of their overseasloans, and American investors withdrew their money from Europe. The Americanmarket for European goods dropped sharply as the U.S. Congress placed high tariffson imported goods so that American dollars would stay in the United States and payfor American goods. This policy backfired. Conditions worsened for the United

Years of Crisis 907

Vocabularytariffs: taxes chargedby a government onimported orexported goods

Life in the DepressionDuring the Great Depression of 1929 to1939, millions of people worldwide losttheir jobs or their farms. At first theunemployed had to depend on the charityof others for food, clothing, and shelter.Many, like the men in this photo takenin New York City, made their home inmakeshift shacks. Local governments andcharities opened soup kitchens to providefree food. There were long lines ofapplicants for what work was available,and these jobs usually paid low wages.

INTERNET ACTIVITY Create a photo-essayon the Great Depression in the UnitedStates. Go to classzone.com for yourresearch.

Social History

Life in the DepressionFrom 1931 through 1933, the depressionin the United States deepened. In 1932alone, more than 32,000 businessesfolded. By August of that year, 5,000banks had closed. Unable to pay teachers, state governments let them go, cut terms, or shut schools downentirely. The businesses that survived didso by cutting production and wages. In1929, manufacturing workers earned anaverage of $25 a week; by 1933, their payhad dropped to $16.73. And they werethe lucky ones—they still had jobs.

Rubric Photojournalism essays should • show the effects of the Great

Depression on different types of people.

• include captions that explain thedepression’s toll.

The Great Depression

Critical Thinking• How did the raising of U.S. tariffs

expand the worldwide depression?(other nations retaliated and worldtrade became even worse)

• Why might the depression have affected countries such as Asia andLatin America? (because they weretrading partners of the United States)

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Task Creating a chart comparing international responses to the depression

Purpose To identify international responses to the worldwide depression

Instructions Have students reread “The World Confronts the Crisis” onpages 908–909 of the text. Divide students into four groups and assigneach group to be responsible for one of the following global areas:

• Britain • France

• Scandinavia • United States

Then have groups fill in a chart indicating their area’s response to the GreatDepression and how effective it was.

908 Chapter 31


Comparing Global Responses to the Great Depression


908 Chapter 31

States. Many countries that depended on exporting goods to the United States alsosuffered. Moreover, when the United States raised tariffs, it set off a chain reaction.Other nations imposed their own higher tariffs. World trade dropped by 65 percent.This contributed further to the economic downturn. Unemployment rates soared.

Effects Throughout the World Because of war debts and dependence onAmerican loans and investments, Germany and Austria were particularly hard hit.In 1931, Austria’s largest bank failed. In Asia, both farmers and urban workers suf-fered as the value of exports fell by half between 1929 and 1931. The crash was feltheavily in Latin America as well. As European and U.S. demand for such LatinAmerican products as sugar, beef, and copper dropped, prices collapsed.

The World Confronts the CrisisThe Depression confronted democracies with a serious challenge to their economicand political systems. Each country met the crisis in its own way.

Britain Takes Steps to Improve Its Economy The Depression hit Britain severely.To meet the emergency, British voters elected a multiparty coalition known as theNational Government. It passed high protective tariffs, increased taxes, and regulatedthe currency. It also lowered interest rates to encourage industrial growth. These meas-ures brought about a slow but steady recovery. By 1937, unemployment had been cutin half, and production had risen above 1929 levels. Britain avoided political extremesand preserved democracy.

France Responds to Economic Crisis Unlike Britain, France had a more self-sufficient economy. In 1930, it was still heavily agricultural and less dependent onforeign trade. Nevertheless, by 1935, one million French workers were unemployed.

The economic crisis contributed to political instability. In 1933, five coalitiongovernments formed and fell. Many political leaders were frightened by the growthof antidemocratic forces both in France and in other parts of Europe. So in 1936,moderates, Socialists, and Communists formed a coalition. The Popular Front, asit was called, passed a series of reforms to help the workers. Unfortunately, priceincreases quickly offset wage gains. Unemployment remained high. Yet France alsopreserved democratic government.

Perc

ent

of W

ork

Forc

e

■ Germany■ Great Britain ■ United States

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

193819361934193219301928

Unemployment Rate, 1928–1938

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

19331932193119301929

Trad

e (i

n bi

llion

s of

dol

lars

)

World Trade, 1929–1933

■ World imports ■ World exports

Sources: European Historical Statistics: 1750–1970; Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970.

Source: Kenneth Oye, Economic Discrimination and Political Exchange

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Graphs1. Comparing What nation had the highest rate of unemployment? How high did it reach?2. Clarifying Between 1929 and 1933, how much did world exports drop? What about

world imports?


Interpreting the GraphsHave students read the graph key toidentify which color line represents each nation. Ask students which nationresponded most effectively to the depres-sion based solely on the unemploymentdata shown. (Germany)

Extension Ask students to study bothcharts. Have them observe how theunemployment rate is related to worldimports and exports. (As unemploymentgoes up the imports and exports godown) Next, have the students predicthow the world trade export and importbars would look in the years between1934–1938. (Trade will go down in 1934,pick up a bit until 1938, when it will bedown again.)

SKILLBUILDER Answers1. Comparing Germany; 30 percent2. Clarifying about $25 billion; about

$22 billion

The World Confronts theCrisis

Critical Thinking• Was Britain’s or France’s response to

the economic crisis more effective?Why? (Possible Answer: Britain’sbecause it cut unemployment andachieved slow, steady recovery)

• How were the responses of theScandinavian countries and the UnitedStates similar? (Both created jobsthrough public works projects and pro-vided welfare services for their citizens.)

Country

Britain

France

Scandinavia

United States

Response

political coalition,tariffs, taxes

political instability,worker reforms

public works projects,welfare, taxes

public works projects,welfare, economicreform

Effectiveness

slow recovery, democracy preserved

high unemployment,democracy preserved

economic health,democracy preserved

slow recovery, democracy preserved

wh10te-073102-0904-0909 9/15/03 3:47 PM Page 908


1. coalition government, p. 904 • Weimar Republic, p. 905 • Great Depression, p. 907 • Franklin D. Roosevelt, p. 909 • New Deal, p. 909

2. Sample Answer: Effects—failed businesses,closed banks, lost savings, foreclosed farms,rising unemployment. He instituted an eco-nomic reform program called the New Deal.

3. Possible Answer: Europe’s resources hadbeen drained by the war; Japan and the U.S.were economically strong.

4. slumping economies, diminishing trade, soaring unemployment, financial panic

5. Britain—tariffs, increased taxes, currency regulation; France—worker reforms;Scandinavia—public works projects, welfare packages

6. Possible Answer: It would be too weak to beeffective in a crisis.

7. Possible Answers: high U.S. tariffs; drop inworld trade; demand for repayment of U.S.loans and investment withdrawal

8. Possible Answer: He knew the programwould give people hope, create many jobs,and begin economic recovery.

9. Rubric Headlines should • report the stock market crash and the

world’s response.• convey each idea in a few strong words.• grab the reader’s attention.

Rubric The line graph should • show the course of the stock market for

a week.• indicate whether the market has gone up,

down, or remained steady.• provide clues about the state of the U.S.

economy today.

ANSWERS

Socialist Governments Find Solutions The Socialist governments in the Scandi-navian countries of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway also met the challenge of eco-nomic crisis successfully. They built their recovery programs on an existingtradition of cooperative community action. In Sweden, the government sponsoredmassive public works projects that kept people employed and producing. All theScandinavian countries raised pensions for the elderly and increased unemploy-ment insurance, subsidies for housing, and other welfare benefits. To pay for thesebenefits, the governments taxed all citizens. Democracy remained intact.

Recovery in the United States In 1932, in the first presidential election after theDepression had begun, U.S. voters elected Franklin D. Roosevelt. His confidentmanner appealed to millions of Americans who felt bewildered by the Depression. OnMarch 4, 1933, the new president sought to restore Americans’ faith in their nation.

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E This great Nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. . . . let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts toconvert retreat into advance.

FRANKLIN ROOSEVELT, First Inaugural Address

Roosevelt immediately began a program of government reform that hecalled the New Deal. Large public works projects helped to provide jobs forthe unemployed. New government agencies gave financial help to businessesand farms. Large amounts of public money were spent on welfare and relief pro-grams. Roosevelt and his advisers believed that government spending would cre-ate jobs and start a recovery. Regulations were imposed to reform the stock marketand the banking system.

The New Deal did eventually reform the American economic system.Roosevelt’s leadership preserved the country’s faith in its democratic political sys-tem. It also established him as a leader of democracy in a world threatened by ruth-less dictators, as you will read about in Section 3.

Years of Crisis 909

AnalyzingPrimary Sources

What effect do you thinkRoosevelt’s speechhad on theAmerican people?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • coalition government • Weimar Republic • Great Depression • Franklin D. Roosevelt • New Deal

USING YOUR NOTES2. What did President Roosevelt

do to try to counter the effects of the GreatDepression?

MAIN IDEAS3. How did World War I change

the balance of economicpower in the world?

4. What problems did thecollapse of the Americaneconomy cause in othercountries?

5. How did Europe respond tothe economic crisis?

SECTION ASSESSMENT2

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 6. MAKING PREDICTIONS What did the weakness of the

League of Nations in 1928 suggest about its futureeffectiveness?

7. ANALYZING CAUSES List one cause for each of thefollowing effects: American market for European goodsdropped; unemployment rates soared; European banksand businesses closed.

8. EVALUATING COURSES OF ACTION Why do you thinkRoosevelt immediately established the New Deal?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write headlines on thestock market crash and the world’s response to it.

ECONOMICS

INTERNET ACTIVITY

Use the Internet to follow the ups and downs of the stock market for aweek. Chart the stock market’s course in a line graph.

INTERNET KEYWORDstock market

▲ Stricken withpolio in 1921,Roosevelt vowedhe would notallow bodilydisability todefeat his will.

The GreatDepression


More About . . .

The New DealBy the late 1930s, the U.S. governmenthad spent $10 billion on the constructionof 122,000 public buildings, 664,000miles of roads, 77,000 bridges, and 285 airports in Roosevelt’s New Deal pro-gram. Although the New Deal improvedeconomic conditions, full recovery did not occur until after the United Statesentered World War II in 1942. At thattime, production of war materials led toalmost full employment for Americans.

ASSESSSECTION 2 ASSESSMENTHave students present and discuss withthe class the concept webs they createdfor question 2 in the section assessment.


RETEACHHave students work in small groups to fill in the charts in the Guided Readingactivity on page 48 of In-DepthResources: Unit 7.


C. Answer Thespeech calmedthem, preparedthem to take actionthat could helpthem deal with theDepression.

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Marching Toward War - Lew-Port

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