1 UNIVERSITYOF NEW SOUTH WALES CPD SEMINAR March , 2015 Sydney Jacobs, LL. M (Cambridge) Barrister 13 Wentworth Chambers Easements : Running a storm water easement case ; principles of construction of easements ; incidental user in easements for access “The claim is a perpetuation of a running dispute between these highly litigious parties bound to each other for 122 long years under a lease …”: Sargeant v Macepark (Whittlebury) [2008] EWCA Civ 1482, per Lord Justice Ward RUNNING AN EASEMENT FOR STORM WATER CASE : FOCUS ON THE OBJECTIVE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THE PROPOSED EASEMENT 1. Section 88K(1) of the Conveyancing Act gives the Court the power to “make an order imposing an easement over land if the easement is reasonably necessary for the effective use or development of other land that will have the benefit of the easement”.
42
Embed
March , 2015 - 13 Wentworth Selborne · Web viewConveyancing Act gives the Court the power to “make an order imposing an easement over land if the easement is reasonably necessary
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
1
UNIVERSITYOF NEW SOUTH WALES CPD SEMINAR
March , 2015
Sydney Jacobs, LL. M (Cambridge)Barrister
13 Wentworth Chambers
Easements : Running a storm water easement case ; principles of construction of easements ; incidental user in easements for
access
“The claim is a perpetuation of a running dispute between these highly litigious parties bound to each other for 122 long years under a lease …”: Sargeant v Macepark (Whittlebury) [2008] EWCA Civ 1482, per Lord Justice Ward
RUNNING AN EASEMENT FOR STORM WATER CASE : FOCUS ON THE OBJECTIVE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THE PROPOSED EASEMENT
1. Section 88K(1) of the Conveyancing Act gives the Court the power to
“make an order imposing an easement over land if the easement is
reasonably necessary for the effective use or development of other land
that will have the benefit of the easement”.
2. In terms of s88K(2)(a)-(c), the Court must be satisfied that the use of the
land having the benefit of the easement will not be inconsistent with the
public purpose; the owner of the servient tenement can be “adequately
compensated for any loss or other disadvantage that will arise from the
imposition of the easement; and in addition: "all reasonable attempts
have been made by the applicant for the order to obtain the easement or
2
an easement having the same effect but have been unsuccessful".
The Sketch ; the opening gambit
3. An order must specify the matters required by subsection (3). Subsection
(4) contains provisions which must be observed on the making of the
Court's order and subsection (5) makes special provisions for costs
(plaintiff usually to pay).
4. “The terms and subject matter of section 88K show that its primary
purpose relates to the public interest in effective land use. The purpose of
section 88K is illustrated by the nature of an easement as a right annexed
to land irrespective of who may from time to time own it, a right which
touches and concerns that land, and to which another piece of land is
servient, again irrespective of who from time to time may own it. The
advantages for the proposed dominant land, and the disadvantages for
the proposed servient land are the most prominent considerations. As
shown in the words of section 88K, that the proposed easement is
reasonably necessary for the effective of use or development of the
dominant land is not enough to produce a positive exercise of the
discretion in section 88K(1); There is discretion, and the effect on the
servient land is also relevant and important”:
Per Bryson J in Tony Stepanoski v Zhimin Chen [2011] NSWSC 1573
para [14], in his Honour’s final judicial act. I appeared for the plaintiff in
that case, which was hard fought until the end.
3
5. It is for the plaintiff / applicant to propose the nature and terms of the
easement and in my experience over a range of cases , some of which
have gone to final hearing, this is best done by:
(a) an engineer’s or architect’s sketch provided to the relevant
neighbours (and which in due course can be attached to the
summons) (not some incarnation of the DP sketch , replete with
multiple irrelevancies) .
This sketch must show , at a glance, the advantages of
disadvantages of the competing alternatives. This is a technical
task , and pinning down one’s owns engineers, architects etc, is not
necessarily easy;
(b) terms propounded that are reasonable;
(c) an appropriate offer for compensation to traverse blot on title,
disturbance , loss of amenity and any other relevant impact on the
land. . .
6. At least one letter attaching one’s sketch and offer for compensation , in
my view, ought be on an open basis and not “without prejudice” -
otherwise how can it be tendered to demonstrate that reasonable efforts
have been attempted but fallen on deaf ears ? In saying this, reasonable
efforts need only be demonstrated (in theory) by the time of closing
submissions (see below); though it would be a dangerous game to save
the pre Summons “without prejudice” offer for some final forensic
flourish in the hope it might be admissible
The letter must be reasonable. It must not penny pinch as regards
compensation. The lawyers could usefully assist the valuers by directing
them to relevant factors to have regard to –it is not merely the value of
the land.
4
If proper compensation consistent with principle is not offered , what is
the point of making the offer ?
Reasonable attempts : circumstances up to hearing relevant
7. The reasonableness of attempts is to be assessed objectively in all the
circumstances. It includes the circumstances up to, and including, the
date of the Court making the order : ie events after Summons are relevant
and admissible on this aspect: For example, in Kocagil v Chen [2012]
NSWSC 1354 , I relied on cases like Coles Myer NSW Ltd v Dymocks
Book Arcade Ltd (Supreme Court of New South Wales, Simos J, 19
March 1996, unreported); and Goodwin v Yee Holdings Pty Ltd (1997)
BPR 15,795 to tender evidence of ongoing correspondence with various
neighbours who were dominant tenements in relation to the storm water
pipe my client wanted to “tap into.” The defendant, Chen justified her
reluctance to consent to my client “tapping into” the existing drainage
pipe at the end of her yard by pointing to a range of other neigbours , all
of whom had rights to use the pipe. She said she did not want to upset her
neighbours by just agreeing to my client “tapping into” the pipe.
8. The way I dealt with this was two- fold : marshal evidence that the
neighbours’ rights were theoretical because their land all sloped away
from the pipe, and out of abundant caution, organise letters to all the
theoretically affected neighbours , advising them of the Court date and
inviting them to attend to voice any objection.
This was a complex exercise in letter writing to neighbours , tracking
multiple responses so as to prove both service of the letters and also the
5
fact of a positive response and also a non response
This correspondence took place at least partially after the Summons had
been filed, but prior to final hearing.
Justice Lindsay said this :
“”[5] On or about 6 August 2012, [the neighbours] were also given
written notice of the dates allocated by the Court for the hearing of the
plaintiffs' application. Four neighbours (the registered proprietors of lots
4 and 5) have expressly granted their consent to the application. Two
others (the registered proprietors of lot 3) have expressly advised the
solicitor for the plaintiffs that they have no objection to the application.
The remaining neighbours (the registered proprietors of lot 2) have
simply accepted service of the plaintiffs' documentation without more
than an acknowledgement of receipt.
……..
[8] The defendants do not oppose the plaintiffs' application, but they have
been reluctant to consent to it lest, by their consent, they might be
criticised by their neighbours, the owners of lots 2, 3, 4 and 5
[9] If the defendants ever had any exposure to risk of adverse action at the
hands of aggrieved registered proprietors of those lots, that exposure has
been substantially diminished, if not entirely eliminated, by the responses
of those neighbours to these proceedings
[10] None have sought to be heard in opposition to the application. Four
6
have expressly recorded their consent. Two have expressly recorded an
absence of objection. The remaining neighbours have maintained a
silence which might, at least, pass for an absence of objection……..”
Demonstrating “reasonable necessity” : The Notice of Determination
and like evidence
9. I appeared for the plaintiff in Stepanoski, in his Sec 88 (k) application for
an easement for storm water drainage. He wanted to develop a large
property in West Chatswood into a dual occupancy. He had good reason
to wish to do so.
10. The easement Tony sought was 1 m wide , along the neighbour’s 21m’s
long boundary, so as to connect to Council’s drainage in a lane. .
Obtaining the easement was a condition of Council’s Development
Consent to allow the property to be developed into a dual occupancy.
11. But his neighbours objected to him running a storm water pipe over their
land, and he was stymied.
12. The factual focus of the case was the consideration of competing
advantages (and disadvantages) of alternative possibilities for the
easement corridor. Central to the legal arguments were the principles
articulated by Chief Justice Preston in the Rainowforce case [2010]
NSWLEC 2 regarding “reasonable necessity”.
13. As is pointed out in the Rainbowforce case at paragraph [70], most of the
cases in which an easement has been sought have involved the carrying
out of a development on land and the subsequent use of the development.
14. Though not all points are relevant to all cases, a with respect very useful
“check list” as the exercise of the discretion as to “reasonable necessity”
7
under section 88(k)(1) is set out by his Honour Chief Justice Preston at
paragraphs [67]ff of Rainbowforce Pty Ltd v Skyton Holdings Pty Ltd
[2010] 171 LGERA 286 at [67]-[83 NSWLEC 2:
15. As my seminar will have the benefit of being preceded by one in the TEN
March 2015 series, covering general principles, I mention only one , viz
“The requirement of reasonable necessity can be satisfied
notwithstanding that some future action may be required, in addition to
obtaining the easement, for the effective use or development of land, such
as obtaining some statutory consent
See further Tregoyd headnote in this respect.
16. The requirement for “effective” development, is met if the development
of land is for some planning purpose such as residential, commercial or
industrial and cannot be achieved without the creation and use of an
easement for, say, drainage: Rainbowforce paragraph [72].
17. As such, putting into evidence the NOD/ DA is very significant; together
with any other relevant communications with Council , especially if the
NOD is deferred ie it contains a condition that consent to commence
building will not be given until an easement for X or Y is obtained.
The easement, if one for storm water, is almost always required to be one
that is gravity fed rather than a pump out. A pump out system would not
generally call for an easement as the owner of land could normally pump
out on its own land to the nearest road.
Gravity fed systems are called for by most Councils ; the reason being
that Councils generally prefer-for good reason-to have storm water
8
systems that can cope with severe storm events that might knock out the
electricity grid.
18. A deferred / conditional NOD / DA (in the sense above) would be the
very good evidence of reasonable necessity. But that would not be the
only way to show reasonable necessity. Say for example, a developer
wished to build a multi story tower block. A full DA for a major project
can costs $100,000’s in consultants fees : architects, town planners,
engineers, surveyors , perhaps a Heritage report; perhaps a statement of
environmental effects the list goes on.
Assume further the development will need to run its storm water
drainage pipe on the land of one of the “down stream” neighbours , all of
whom object to the presence of a 300mm pipe running underneath their
land.
19. A Sec 88 K application, if run surgically, might well cost substantially
less , even having regard to the fact that costs as per Sec 88 (k) (5)
usually have to be paid by the applicant. However, if something more
generous than the usual parsimonious offer for compensation is made ,
which (if rejected) could be followed by a carefully worded Calderbank
that may –just possibly-give some costs protection.
20. How then to prove “reasonable necessity “ ? I suggest that an expert
report by a town planner familiar with the Council’s requirements for the
type of project, might be an option to consider.
Alternative routes for storm water
21. Although the requirement of reasonable necessity does not demand that
there be no alternative land over which the easement could be equally
9
efficaciously routed, alternative routes may be relevant to the ultimate
exercise of the discretion.
see eg Stepanoski; Clarebridge at para [15], citing Khattar v Wiese
[2005] NSWSC 1014; 12 BPR 23,235 at [60] .
22. As pointed out in the sixth proposition in Rainbowforce at paragraph [74]
the requirement that the easement be “reasonably necessary” does not
mean that there must be an absolute necessity and “This reduction in the
quality of necessity to what is reasonable means that an easement may be
able to be imposed although another means of right of way may exist….or
possibly even when the land could be effectively used or developed
without the easement…”.
23. Cases such as Stepanoski involve competing alternatives, with the
defendant advancing the argument that there is a preferable alternative.
Naturally, these are issues to be explored at the conclave. The questions
the experts should answer looms large in the proper management of such
cases.
Give your opponent’s case theory an adjectival designation
24. In Stepanoski, two competing routes for storm water pipes were in sharp
focus . I wanted to give the defendant’s proposal a name that would by
the end of trial become an epithet. The alternative storm water route
proposed by the defendant run diagonally underneath another neighbour’s
property, bisecting it and hence crimping any possible future
development (as Councils generally will not permit building over a storm
I came up with the designation “diagonal bisection” to express that what
the defendant proposed was clumsy .
25. See paras [35] ff where his Honour commented as follows (re-ordered for
this lecture):
“The plaintiffs' proposal is the shortest and simplest and involves
the least engineering work and it is unlikely to involve significant
long-term expense. It will function through gravity and will not
require significant use of machinery or maintenance. It will have
no adverse aesthetic impact. It will have markedly less impact on
the utility of the defendant's land than an easement through the
land of No. 57A would have on that land.
…
…In my judgment [the defendant’s] proposal is remarkably clumsy
and presents no advantages in terms of land use or engineering
work over the plaintiffs' proposal. The potential adverse effect on
further development on No. 57A of the diagonal bisection is in my
judgment prohibitive, and the potential adverse effect of
an easement taken round the boundaries of No. 57A is significant.
The proposal would be more expensive. It involves intervention in
the rights of the owners of two parcels of land not of one. It
depends on Council approvals which are uncertain. It has nothing
to commend it from any point of view except the point of view of an
owner of the defendant's land who very strongly wishes to resist an
easement over her land. It is not beyond the feasible to run
drainage through No 57 and No. 57A, but it would be a far less
satisfactory solution than the plaintiffs' proposal.”
11
The conclave of experts
26. See SC Practice Notes 10 & 11.
27. It will be a rare case where the lawyers should frame the questions
without input from the experts.
28. Sometimes it might be appropriate for the parties to retain a single eg a
surveyor. It is important to know the boundaries of the relevant lots etc,
but it is seldom that the parties are at loggerheads in this regard.
Subjective factors : feng shui
29. “[14] The terms and subject matter of section 88K show that its primary
purpose relates to the public interest in effective land use. The purpose of
section 88K is illustrated by the nature of an easement as a right annexed
to land irrespective of who may from time to time own it, a right which
touches and concerns that land, and to which another piece of land is
servient, again irrespective of who from time to time may own it. The
advantages for the proposed dominant land, and the disadvantages for the
proposed servient land are the most prominent considerations..”
……………………………………………………..
“[51] I have regard to the parties' wishes and feelings which were clearly
expressed on both sides and are not unreasonable. The defendant
reasonably wishes to continue to have her rights undisturbed. However
the wishes and feelings of both parties are completely outweighed in
importance by land use considerations. I exercise the discretion in
subsection (1) in favour of ordering an easement”:
12
Per Bryson J in Stepanoski (ibid) .
In para [25] of Samy Saad v City of Canterbury [2012] NSWSC 389,
Nicholas J specifically endorsed what Bryson J had held in Stepanoski ,
para [14]
30. In Stepanoski, the plaintiff, some weeks out of the hearing , served a
lengthy affidavit of the alleged negative impact the easement, if imposed,
would have on the feng shui of her land. It would affect , from memory
happiness and prosperity and like factors.
I objected to this evidence, on the basis that Sec 88 K was primarily
concerned with the use and development of land, which was by and large,
an objective test , and that issues of feng shui were necessarily subjective.
Out of abundant caution, I did have a feng shui grand master on standby,
ready to give expert evidence in reply. From memory, he was a property
developer in the Western Suburbs during the day.
My objection was upheld, in a voire dire whose judgment on
admissibility which does not seem to have been published on austlii. One
factor was the lateness of the evidence; another the test being largely
objective, so that on balance , it was not admissible.
FORM OF ORDER SOUGHT ; RELEVANCE TO PROCEDURAL
13
MATTERS
31. I appeared for the plaintiffs (as junior) in Gee v Burger [2009] NSWSC
149. There is a steep road in Castlecrag , Knights Place, that runs from
Edinburgh Rd (the suburb’s main road) to narrower Scottish sounding
leafy surrounds eg The Bulwark and The Rampart.
32. Knights Place is a private road . The Burgers owned a house accessible
from it; but numerous neighbours have registered rights of way over it , to
pass and re-pass. There was a concern amongst the neighbours that the
Burgers wished to erect an electrically operated gate at the steep lower
section of Knights Place . The Burgers had also erected CCTV cameras.
As the There had been complex sub division of land in the area of time ,
and it might not have been altogether clear which exact Lot still retained
the benefit of the easement for access.
33. The defendants took the point that the plaintiffs had not properly pleaded
the description of the land which had the benefit of the easements; and
that the relief sought in the initiating process went wider in that regard
than what was registered on title. The sought to strike out the claim ,
saying it was hopeless and doomed to failure.
McLaughlin As. J accepted our submissions on this point, holding :
“[31] It is my understanding that, strictly, the prayers for relief in a
statement of claim do not form part of the pleading. Further, that a Court
of Equity is always entitled and empowered to mould the relief which it
will grant in such a way as to recognise and enforce the rights which a
plaintiff is able to establish.
14
[32] The fact that the relief sought in a pleading appears, on its face, to go
beyond the relief to which a plaintiff might ultimately be entitled if it
establishes all the facts asserted in the body of the pleading does not
necessarily defeat the entitlement of that plaintiff to some form of
equitable relief. It may be, in the instant case, that the declaratory relief
sought in prayer 1 would not be granted to the Plaintiffs for the reasons
submitted by the First Defendant, being that an unlimited right of passage
is inconsistent with the terms of the registered easement. Nevertheless, if
the Plaintiffs are able to establish that the First Defendant has acted in a
fashion that denies to the Plaintiffs the right of passage that is given to
them by the registered easement, the form of prayer 1 will not preclude
the Plaintiffs, if they can otherwise establish a cause of action, from being
granted the appropriate relief.”
34. The strike out was dismissed (on that and other grounds) , but the case
does drive one to wield as sharp a scalpel as available when articulating
the relief sought.
35. The form of Order made in Stepanoski (ibid) was as follows (bearing in
mind my practice to attach a sketch to the Summons showing where the
easement should go, and its dimensions etc):
“(1) Order pursuant to section 88K (1) of the Conveyancing Act 1919 that
an easement be imposed over the land of the defendant in favour of the
land of the plaintiffs referred to in the summons according to the terms of
an order to be made by an Associate Judge under the referral in order (2).
(2) Order pursuant to Schedule D Part 3 Rule 4(b) of the Supreme Court
Rules 1970 that it be referred to an Associate Judge of the Court:
15
(a) to settle the terms of and to make an order giving effect to this order in
accordance with the reasons stated on 16 December 2011 and in
accordance with the terms of section 88K of the Conveyancing Act 1919
particularly subparagraphs (1) (3) and (4) thereof;
(b) to hear and determine questions relating to costs of the proceedings
and to make an order for costs in pursuance of section 88K(5).”
17. In Kocagil v Chen (ibid) , where I appeared for the Plaintiff , Lindsay J had this to say about the form of order for a storm m water easement :
“[11] Having protected themselves against complaints from their neighbours, the defendants have agreed with the plaintiffs upon the terms upon which they are to be paid compensation pursuant to s 88K and their costs. They have also agreed upon the terms upon which, in conjunction with the sought after easement, the plaintiffs are to give (pursuant to s 88BA of the Conveyancing Act) a positive covenant to maintain the drainage line associated with the easement
[12] The proceedings have been adjourned to today to permit the parties to prepare documentation to give effect to that covenant. Before the adjournment of the proceedings on 15 November 2012, evidence adduced for the plaintiffs included evidence from their solicitor deposing to his dealings with officers of the Land Titles Office in relation to the drafting of the documentation necessary to give effect to any easement granted, or ordered to be granted, pursuant to s 88K
[13] That evidence was to the effect that, because the plaintiffs are taking advantage of the existing easement, and, in effect, tapping into it, there is no need of a new plan identifying the course of the new easement, and a simple form, "Transfer Granting Easement", executed by the defendants will suffice.
…………………………
[17] As a matter of conveyancing practicality, the parties envisage that both the easement and the covenant might best be created by the registration of memoranda of transfer.
36. The instructive aspect is that , if there be any doubt as to the
documentation necessary to give effect to the right to have access to a
pipe (or perhaps, lay one’s own pipe; or anything similar) and also the
obligation to maintain and repair, one needs to liaise with LPI as to their
requirement. The upshot of LPI’s views may well need to be put before
the Court . The judicial arm of Government will be slow to impose orders
on other arms’ of Government, where there are practical difficulties in
compliance.
CONSTRUCTION OF EASEMENTS
Introduction
37. The grant of an easement carries with it those ancillary rights which are
necessary for the enjoyment of the rights expressly granted : Westfield
Management Ltd v Perpetual Trustee Co Ltd [2007] HCA 45; (2007) 233
CLR 528 at 535.
An early recognition of this principle is found in Pomfret v Ricroft 1
Saunders 321 [1845] EngR 185; 85 ER 454 (KB) where it was said, at
323, that when the use of a thing is granted, everything is granted by
which the grantee may have and enjoy such use.
Cases dealing with the contention that users of a right of way to obtain access to the dominant tenement are at liberty to use it to pass beyond the dominant tenement to other land have consistently rejected that proposition. This is because the use of an easement cannot be extended, beyond the scope of the grant, to impose a burden greater than that which the servient owner agreed to accept, Harris v Flower (1904) 74 LJ Ch 127 at 132 and Westfield (supra) at 536.
A construction which would deprive the grant of any effective operation ought to be avoided if possible; Paterson and Barr Ltd v Otago University [1925] NZLR 119 at 120.
17
In the absence of any clear indication of the intention of the parties, a grant must be construed more strongly against the grantor; William v James (1867) LR 2 CP 577 at 581 and Paterson and Barr Ltd v Otago University (supra) at 120.
The dominant tenement and the servient tenement need not be contiguous; Todrick v Western National Omnibus Company Ltd [1934] Ch 561.
Legislation
38. Conveyancing Act Sec 181 A, Sch 8 (and the analogues of other States
and Territories eg Transfer of Land Act, Vic, Twelfth Schedule ).
Case law
39. The Schedules in the Conveyancing Act flesh out rights and obligations
of the main types of easements.
40. In Gee v Burger [2009] NSWSC 149 , where I was junior counsel for the
Plaintiffs (the facts are abstracted above) we were acting for multiple
parties who opposed the proposal by the Burgers to gate off the steep and
narrow right of way.
41. Our list of plaintiffs included some spouses who were not actually on title
as owners.
18
42. The defendants sought to strike us out on this basis as well. They asserted
these spouses had no standing.
43. McLaughlin As. J accepted our submissions as follows on this point :
“[63] It must be recognised that the rights in respect to the easement are
limited by the terms of the grant. In Westfield Management Pty Limited v
Perpetual Trustee Company Limited [2007] HCA 45; (2007) 81 ALJR
1887, the High Court of Australia (constituted by Gleeson CJ, Gummow,
Kirby, Hayne and Heydon JJ) emphasised that it is wrong to look for the
intention or contemplation of the parties to the grant of an easement
outside what is manifested by the terms of the grant (page 1893,
paragraph [35]).
[64] In the instant case the terms of the grant incorporate the following
words appearing in Schedule 8 to the Conveyancing Act 1919 , “every
person who is at any time entitled to an estate or interest in possession in
the land”. I am in agreement with the submission of the Plaintiffs that to
construe those words as being limited to registered proprietors is an
incorrect construction and an unwarranted limitation upon the terms of
the grant.
[65] The foregoing passage in Schedule 8 can embrace a wide variety of
different persons and of different circumstances and situations. I am not
persuaded that, as in the circumstances of the instant case, a spouse who
is not a registered proprietor but is married to and resides with the
registered proprietor, or the married child (and her spouse) of a registered
proprietor who are living with the registered proprietor, are unarguably
persons who do not fall within the description of “every person who is at
to construe instruments registered under the Real Property Act.
47. In other words, the rules of evidence regarding the construction of
contracts do not apply to the construction of an easement. This is because
the establishment of the intention or contemplation of the parties to an
instrument registered under a relevant Torrens system (eg Tasmanian
Land Titles Act ) by reference to material extrinsic to the instrument
would be contrary to the principles of the Torrens system of title by
registration : Westfield Management Ltd v Perpetual Trustee Co Ltd
[2007] HCA 45; (2007) 233 CLR 528 at 538 – 541. As explained in that
unanimous decision at 539, the logic that underpins this proposition is:
"The third party who inspects the Register cannot be expected, consistently with the scheme of the Torrens system, to look further for extrinsic material which might establish facts or circumstances existing at the time of the creation of the registered dealing and placing the third party (or any court later seized of a dispute) in the situation of the grantee."
48. The meaning and effect of an easement conferred by a deed of grant is
determined by reference to the language of the grant, construed in the
light of the circumstances existing at the time of the execution of the deed.
The same principles apply to easements over Torrens System land: The
Owners of Corinne Court 290 Stirling Street Perth Strata Plan 12821 v
Shean Pty Ltd [2000] WASC 181 (20 July 2000) para [80].
49. In Gallagher v Rainbow [1994] HCA 24; (1994) 179 CLR 624 at 63,
having referred to these general principles, McHugh J went on to observe,