Mapping the Text of Lilith: MacDonald’s Labyrinths and Gardens Kaitlyn Dryer Abstract Readers of fiction follow the plot of a novel as though walking a labyrinth, with no actual opportunity of turning from the written path, unless one is reading a novel such as Chris Ware’s Building Stories (2012), a graphic novel that defies the conventional reading expectations. However, fiction also has the effect of evoking a fuller gardenlike world as the reader imaginatively fills in gaps left by the narrative. In George MacDonald’s Lilith, the protagonist Mr. Vane enters a fantastical world where he must often define things in terms of what they are not. The word not signals forks in the narrative labyrinth as Vane chooses to do one thing and not another, often frustrating reader. His poor choices lead us to desire greater agency in choosing paths. The two worlds MacDonald describes are not separate but exist in the same space with a different set of dimensions, with Vane’s personal labyrinth of choices mediating between the mundane world in which he still lives and the spiritual, allegorical world he strives to comprehend. Through the labyrinth of his text, MacDonald suggests a similar relationship exists for readers between the labyrinth of their lives and the garden he encourages us to believe in and begin to see by reading his novel. MacDonald’s relationship to Lewis Carroll highlights the relation between the labyrinthine nature of fiction and the gardenlike rendering that readers of a text produce. While the gardenlike and labyrinthine could be analyzed in any narrative, they are particularly apt modes for analyzing MacDonald’s fantasy, which is both deeply rooted in the historical, Christian concepts of labyrinth and garden, and didactic, seeking to change the way its readers perceive their world. Introduction George MacDonald’s fairy tales and fantasy novels created a foundation for modern fantasy, influencing The Lord of the Rings, and inspiring C. S. Lewis to write The Chronicles of Narnia. MacDonald published his final fantasty novel, Lilith, in 1895. What about MacDonald’s fantasy gives it lasting impact? North Wind 31 (2012): 65-94
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Mapping the Text of Lilith: MacDonald’s Labyrinths and Gardens
Introduction GeorgeMacDonald’sfairytalesandfantasynovelscreatedafoundationformodernfantasy,influencingThe Lord of the Rings,andinspiringC.S.LewistowriteThe Chronicles of Narnia.MacDonaldpublishedhisfinalfantastynovel,Lilith,in1895.WhataboutMacDonald’sfantasygivesitlastingimpact?
returntohisownworldwithknowledgegainedfromtheotherandbeliefinadivineworldorderingbothofthem,aworldhehasstillbarelybeguntoimagine.Fromadidacticstandpoint,hislessonhappensforthereader’sbenefit.Readersimaginativelyenvisionanotherworldwhilereading—fromreadingChristianfantasytoentertainingbeliefinatheologicalworldsuchasMacDonaldproposes.Readersnaturallytendtocomeawayfromfictionseeingtheirownworldinanewlight.MacDonaldrecognizesandbuildsuponthiseducationalqualityoffictionbyusingspecifictechniquestodiscouragereadersfromreturningwithoutreconsideringtheirworldbasedontheirreadingexperience.First,hegivesreaderssomenarrativedistancefromtheprotagonist,promptingustocriticizeVane’sdecisionsandimagineotherroutes.ThechoicesVanemakesinbothworldsoftenfrustratereaders,andtheyevenfrustrateVanehimselfashelooksback.Henarrateseverythinginthepasttense,analyzinghisactionsandmoralizing.Then,asifthatwerenotenoughforcontemporaryreaderstoswallow,MacDonaldhasMr.RavenstandingbytocriticizeVaneandmakeeveryattempttoguidehiminrightpaths,whichVanerarelychooses. Thefrustrationthatmanyreadersfeelalertsustothepresenceofimportantfactorsthatmakefantasywork,suchastherelationbetweenthereader’ssenseofparticipationoragencyandtheprotagonist’schoices.ArecentcollectionofessayseditedbyLucasHarriman—Lilithin a New Light—has15scholarsgrapplingwiththefrustrationthenovelenvokes.Vane’serror-filledjourneyinfluenceshisperceptionandbehavior,leadinghimtobelieveinworldsofendlesslyrichpossibilitiesthattranscendthewallsofhismundaneworld,existinginandthroughit.Readersoperatefromaperspectiveoutsideofthatoftheirunreliablenarrator;nevertheless,theyembarkonaparalleljourney.Inthecourseofthenovel,theirsensesofidentityandperceptionshifttomakeroomforMacDonald’sframeworkofinterrelatedrealitiessothat,atthecloseofthenovel,theyhavebeenintroducedtoanewwayofseeingthattheycanalsouseinlife.
Gardens and their Rendering GardensrecallingtheparadisicalGardenofEdenappearofteninliterature.InLiliththeyofferavaluablewayofinterpretingtherelationbetweenVane’sworldandthefantasticalworldthatMr.Ravenguideshimtoexplore.InSaving Paradise,astudyoftheevolutionofChristianpracticeandtheology,RitaBrockandRebeccaParkerexplainthat“earlyChristianparadisewassomethingotherthan‘heaven’ortheafterlife.Ourmodern
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viewsofheavenandparadisethinkofthemasaworldafterdeath.However,intheearlychurch,paradise—firstandforemost—wasthisworld,permeatedandblessedbythespiritofGod”(Brockxv).ThehistoryofthegardenasaChristiansymbolhasparticularresonanceforreadersofLilithbecausethespiritualroutethatMacDonaldpresentsforVaneandforreadersalikeinvolvesthesamestepstowardunderstandingofidentityandperception.Vanemustlearntorecognizeparadiseinhisownworldbeforehecanconceiveofresurrectionintoanotherparadise. ThesecondtimeVanejourneysintothefantasticalworld,hehappenstostepoutintoagarden.There,VanemeetscharactersfromtheGardenofEdenstory,includingAdamandEve,alittleserpenthidinginthebranchesofatree,andLilith.HealsomeetsagroupofcharactershecallstheLittleOnes,whostilllivespirituallyandpsychologicallyintheGardenofEden.Atthesametimeandplace,hemeetscharacterswhoareexperiencingHell,whichindicatesthatthejourneybetweenVane’sworldandthisoneisnotasimplereturntoEdenbutsomethingmorecomplex.LikeHell,Edenisnotasingle,physicalplacethatcanbeuniversallyexperienced.Rather,theperspectivesandperceptionsofthosewhohaveorhavenotfallendefinetheirworlds. FromwhatevidenceVanerecordsoftheirperception,weassignChristiansignificancetotheverydifferentwaysheandothercharactersexperiencethefantasticalworld.FortheLittleOnes,theworldisinfacttheGardenofEden.Theyeatgood,littleapplesandavoidbig,bad,greenones.Theoneswhoavoidbadapplesnevergrowup.MeanwhileLilith,herconsorttheShadow,andvariousothercharactersonMr.Raven’ssideofthemirror,perceiveandexperienceHell.Theyrecoilfromthingsthatothersfindrefreshing,likethewarm,healingriver.Fromtheirperspective,thesameworldoperatesunderadifferentsetoflawsandassumptions.C.S.LewislaterdescribedHellinmuchthesamewayinThe Last Battle.Aftertheirdeaths,unbelievingcharactersinLewis’novelremaintrappedinapersonalHell,annoyedbythehappinesssurroundingthem.Vane,forhispart,experiencesneitherEdennorHell,butthefallenworld,onbothsidesofthemirror.Becausehumanityhasfallen,VanecannolongerexperiencetheGardenofEden,butthatdoesnotpreventhimfromcomingtobelieveinitsexistence. ThecharactersfromtheGardenofEdenstoryarenotstaticbeingsthatonceexistedbutspiritualfigureswithwhomVanecaninteract.NordoesVaneeverstepintotheroleofalarger-than-lifeorbetter-than-humanheroicfigure.Vanelacksgrandcosmicordivinesignificance,yethehaspersonalinteractionwithfiguressuchasAdam’sdaughters,LonaandMara,
MacDonald and Carroll Amongcontemporarywriters,MacDonaldwasnotaloneinwritingenticingglimpsesofagardenintohisfantasticalworld.In1862,hisfriendLewisCarrollhadshownhimamanuscriptcalledAlice’s Adventures Under Ground,askingforhisopinionbeforegivingittoayoungfriend.AlreadythestorythatwoulddevelopintoAlice in WonderlandcontainedAlice’sjourneydowntherabbitholeandintoanotherworld,itspuzzlesinvolvingsizeandidentity,thelovelygarden,andthenightmarishQueenofHearts.MacDonaldandhisfamilyreadthemanuscripttogetherandpraisedithighly,encouragingCarrolltoaddmorepartstothestoryandgetitpublished(Mendelson33).Inresponse,CarrolladdedtheHatter,theMarchHare,andtheCheshireCat.LikeMacDonald,CarrollwrotefromaChristianideologicalperspective.ThetwoauthorssharedaformofChristianityunorthodoxinitscertaintythateveryone,eventhedevil,willeventuallyacceptsalvationandbereunitedwithGod.Carroll’s“EasterGreeting,”firstaddedtoAlicein1876,placesthereligiousor“solemn”alongsidetheplayful“fairytale”(58).UnlikeMacDonald,however,CarrolldoesnotdirectlyincorporateChristianideologyintohistales.Hisgarden,thoughenticing,isnotEden;itisjustagarden. Alice in WonderlandisahighlypersonaltalethateveninitsmostfantasticalpartsbasesitsconceptsofidentityandperceptionoftheworldonCarroll’sfriendshipwiththeactualgirlforwhomhismanuscriptwasintended,AliceLiddell.“SomeofCarroll’sjokescouldbeunderstoodonlybyresidentsofOxford,andotherjokes,stillmoreprivate,couldbeunderstoodonlybythelovelydaughtersofDeanLiddell,”explainsMartinGardner,editorofThe Annotated Alice(7).Since“TheMadTeaParty”wasoneoftheepisodesCarrollwroteuponMacDonald’ssuggestionthatheexpandandpublishAlice’s Adventures Under Ground,itispossiblethattheHatter’squestion“Whyisaravenlikeawritingdesk?”wassomethingofaprivatejokebetweenthetwoauthors.WhetherornotCarrollhadMacDonaldinmindwhenheimaginedtheHatterandhisunansweredriddle,thereareseveralnotableconnectionsbetweentheAliceof1865andLilith,whichMacDonaldwouldpublishthirtyyearslater.
The Raven: Guiding Identity through Transition InbothAlice in WonderlandandLilith,themaincharacter’sjourney
Thesimilaritiesbetweenthesetwoscenescouldhaveoccurredcoincidentallyaseachauthorsoughttodescribethedisorientingpsychologicaleffectofliminalexperience(movingbetweenselvesandworlds).However,MacDonald’sknowledgeofAliceandclosefriendshipwithitsauthorpointtowardadeeperconnection.Alice’sconversationwiththeCaterpillarexistedinthemanuscripthefirstshowedtoMacDonaldandhischildren,Alice’s Adventures Under Ground.Thatthedialogueappears,unaltered,inAlice’s Adventures in Wonderlandsuggeststhatthefamilyfounditdelightfulandeffective.WhenMacDonaldlateremploysthesamesortoflogicalwordplayconcerningidentity,hecertainlydrawsfromCarroll. Vane’swindingjourneytowardunderstandingidentitycontinues
throughoutthenovel.RogerSchlobinwritesthatheistroubledbyMr.Vane’scontinuinglackoforientation:“Atboththebeginningandtheend,ifnotthroughout,Vaneisconstantlyintransition—notbeing,notbecoming,andnotbeen.Heneverachievesastateofbeingorastasis”(84).WhatSchlobinseesasproblematic,perhapsnihilistic,isexactlytheliminalstateofpersonalitythatwriterandprofessorBarbaraHurddescribessoecstaticallyinherbookStirring the Mud: On Swamps, Bogs, and the Human Imagination.Transitionisthetruestateofhumanidentity,Hurdargues,herperspectivematchingthatofMacDonaldandofmodernsocialpsychologistsaswell,whoproposethatindividualhumanidentityandperceptionoftheworlddevelopthroughsocialinteraction.“Whoweareinsideandwhatwesharewithothersarebothassembledinthepracticeofeverydaylife,”explainsJamesHolstein,editorofInner Lives and Social Worlds(13).WhenVaneistakenoutofhisdailylifeandplacedinnew,unfamiliarterritory,hisfirstinstinctistoseekoutotherslikehim.Byinteractingwithotherhumanshecanconstructatemporarysocialroleforhimselfandskirttheuncomfortableissueofwhetherhehasadeeper,stable,inherentidentity.Indoingso,VanerisksfollowingLilith’sexamplebyrefusingtransitionandtryingtoremainpermanentlyinasinglesocialidentity.DuringhisadventuresinMr.Raven’sworld,however,Vaneinteractswithandlearnsfromcharacterswhohavedrasticallydifferentperspectivesfromhisown,andhisidentityremainsintransition. InadditiontoVane’slackofstaticidentity,SchlobincomplainsaboutMr.Raven’s“refusal(orinability)toexplicateorstabilize”(84),somethingHurdassuresuswecannotdo.AccordingtoHurd,“Weareshape-shifters,allofus,liquidmosaicsofmutableandtransienturges,andwegiveourselvesheadacheswhenwepretendotherwise,whenwestiffenourselvesintopermanentandseparateidentitiesunsulliedbythedriftingslop,theveryrealambiguitiesofourselvesandtheworld”(73).Evenintheseeminglyunhazardousactofreadinganovel,weexposeourselvestothepossibilitythatweandourworldsmaychange,andthatisagoodthing.Asreaders,ifourfunctionalidentitiesweren’tinflux,readytomold,atleasttemporarily,totheperspectivesanauthorcreatesforus,readingfantasywouldbeadull,abstract,andhighlyirrelevantexperience. Mr.Ravenshiftsfrequentlybetweenhishumanformasalibrarianandthebirdformthatfitshisname.HeadvocatesthatVanelearntodothesame,explainingthat“everyone,asyououghttoknow,hasabeast-self—andabird-self,andastupidfish-self,ay,andacreepingserpent-selftoo—which
Multicursal Labyrinth based on the one at Valencia
The Maze at Versailles (Wright 228)
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Despite“closelyplantedtreesandthickundergrowth”usedtoformwalls(127),thefreedomofvisitorstochoosetheorderoftheirfablesmadethemazeatVersaillesmoregardenlikeandlessrestrictivethananirrgarteninwhichthevisitorsmustavoidwrongturns. Inourowncenturywehavewitnessedabranching-outofnarrativelabyrinthsfromthetraditionalformsusedinwritingandstorytellingtonew,interactiveformslikevideo-andcomputergamesthatallowtheuservaryingdegreesofagencyintheoutcomeofthestory.Freefromthelimitationsofafictionalplotthatonceanalyzedandironedoutbecomeslinear,gamedesignallows“branchedstorylinesforinteractive,personalizedstorytelling”andcreatestheoptionof“multiplepathsthroughthegameenvironment”(Kickmeier-Rust654).Likeseventeenth-centurygardenmazes,thesegamesdonotofferthetotalfreedomthatagardenwouldprovide.Instead,thewallscreateobstacles,promoteproblem-solving,guideusersandaddinteresttothegamingexperience,keepingusersmotivatedandpreventingarapid,directpathfromstarttofinish.Likehistoricalgardenlabyrinths,thenarrativelabyrinthsofnovelsgenerallyofferonlyonetruepath.Forksoccur,twistingtheroute,andevenattimesforcingittodoubleback,butthenovelcannotbranchinbothdirectionsatonce.Whilerole-playinggamescannotprovideasmanychoicesasthegamerorreadercanimagine,theycomeclosertocreatingagardenforreaderstoexploreatwillthanabookwithasingletwistingnarrativecan.Whatdotheyloseintheprocess? InThe Idea of the Labyrinth,herstudyofthewaysinwhichphilosophersfromPlatoandSocratestoAugustineusedlabyrinthsoflogictoinstructtheirstudents,PenelopeReedDoobassertsthatwithoutlabyrinths,somelessonscannotbetaught:“Thepath,thechoicesbetweenpaths,theprescribederrors,allaredesignedtocarrythewandereroverjusttherightterritorytoachievesomethingthatcouldnothavebeenreachedbyadirectroute.Thearchitectknowsthatacertainprocessisnecessaryifthewandereristogetwherethearchitectwantshimtogoandlearnwhatshouldbelearned”(56).Thefurtherliteratureorothercreativeendeavorsdepartfromalabyrinthinestructure,thelesscontrolcanbeexercisedovertheeffectoftheworkonitsreaders,viewers,orparticipants.Inpurelygardenlikeconditions,withoutanywallsorlimitations,the“reader”wouldreceivenodirectionwhatsoeverbutcouldexploreentirelyonawhim,examiningthingsthatcaughthiseyeor,perhaps,inthemostextremecases,inventingthemtosuithisfancy.Whiletantalizing,suchtotalfreedomwouldnotbeidealforthepurposeoflearning.Certainlytherearemanydistinctpossibleactions,not
The Labyrinth and Carroll LewisCarrollsharedMacDonald’sChristianityandhisunorthodoxviewofsalvation.Inlater,lesspopularworksthanAlice in Wonderlandsuchashis1889novelSylvie and Bruno,Carrollsought,likeMacDonald,toinspireChristianbeliefthroughfantasy.Sylvie and Brunobeginswithapoem,whichbeginswithaquestionaboutphilosophyparticularlyrelevanttoChristianbelief:“IsourLife,then,butadream?”ThelastsentenceofLilithanswersthatquestion:“Novalissays,‘Ourlifeisnodream,butitshouldandwillperhapsbecomeone’”(252).ByplacingthequotationfromNovalisattheend,MacDonaldemphasizestherealityofdecisionsandtheirconsequences,whileatthesametimepointingtowardsomethingmorethathumanscannotcompletelyperceivebecauseofourfallenstate.ManytimesinLilith,Mr.RaventriestowarnoradviseVaneandgethimtoactbasedonwhathecanseeandVanecannot.Conversely,inAlice,Carroll’sCheshireCatcleverlyavoidsgivingprescriptiveadvice,whileatthesametimeteachingAlicealesson.FrustrationwithVane’sactionsorwiththeimpossibilityof
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directlyconveyinginformationthatVanecannotunderstandoccasionallypromptsMr.RaventoechotheCheshireCat’sdidactictechnique. Alice’sfirstencounterwiththeCheshireCatwasaddedbetweenMacDonald’sfirstreadingandthe1865publicationofAlice in Wonderland andhasaparallelpassageinLilith.“Wouldyoutellme,please,whichwayIoughttogofromhere?”AliceaskstheCheshireCat,whoanswers,“Thatdependsagooddealonwhereyouwanttogetto”(Carroll88).Mr.VaneasksasimilarquestionofMr.Raven,“WillyounotinpitytellmewhatIamtodo—whereImustgo?”andMr.Raven’sanswerechoestheCat’s:“HowshouldItellyourto-do,orthewaytoit?”(Lilith45).Inbothcases,theprotagonistlooksforguidanceandfindsthequestionturnedaroundinadisconcertingway.Withoutasenseofselfandorientationtowardagoal,itbecomesimpossibletoaskmeaningfulquestions.Inthissituation,neitherMr.RavennortheCheshireCatiswillingtolendanidentitytoourprotagonistsbycreatingagoalforthem.Instead,bothAliceandVanemustjourneytowardunderstandingidentityontheirownbymeetingothersandtryingoutnewsocialrolesbasedontheirinteractions. Asthenarrativeproceeds,bothVaneandAliceexpressapreferenceforstabilityovertransitionandcertaintyoverfurtherquestions.WhereAlicesays,“Ithinkyoumightdosomethingbetterwiththetime...thanwastingitinaskingriddlesthathavenoanswers,”Vaneexclaims,“Enigmatreadingonenigma!...Ididnotcomeheretobeaskedriddles”(Lilith45).Mr.Ravencountersbothofthem.“Youmustanswertheriddles,”hetellsVane.“Theywillgoonaskingthemselvesuntilyouunderstandyourself.”(Lilith45).Identityintransitionatoncebegsforandpushesawayfromtheideaofsettlingdown.Ontheonehand,tobefullyhumanistobeconstantlyadaptingandreacting,andtobefullyawakemeansbeingawareofthatprocessatworkandevensometimesincontrolofit.AccordingtoMr.Raven’sdaughterMara,though,eachofushaveaname—notthenamewewerebornwithbutonethatsignifieswhoweare—anamethatswirlsonourforeheaduntilitstabilizesenoughtobereadbyothersevenifweourselvescannottellwhatitsays. InMara’sview,settlingintoastableidentitydoesnotmeanlosingotheridentitiesbutacceptingthedeepestandtruestofone’sselves.Thedanceofever-changingidentities,ifitcontinuesuninterruptedbystubbornnessorimpatience,guidesustogrowintoourtrueidentityorname.InhisbookLabyrinth: Symbol of Fear, Rebirth, and Liberation,HelmutJaskolskiexplainsthatreturningfromthecenterofthelabyrinthmeans,not
The Writing Desk: Worlds in the Process of Creation In1871,CarrollpublishedasecondAlicebook,Through the Looking-Glass,whichraisedquestionsaboutfantasywritingandtheroleofliteratureinidentity.OnceagaintherearestrikingparallelsbetweenCarroll’sworkandLilith.Carrollreportsgettingtheideafortravelthroughthelookingglassin1868fromayounggirlwhoimaginedbeingontheothersideofhismirrorandlookingout,orin,atherproperself(Gardner180).CarrolldescribesAlice’sjourneythroughthemirror,saying,“Theglasswasbeginningtomeltaway,justlikeabrightsilverymist”(184).Intwopassagesdescribingthesamemodeoftravelbetweenworlds,MacDonaldemployssimilarlanguage:Indescribinghisfirstpassagethroughthemirror,Vanerelates,“Ihaveanimpressionofhavingseenthewallmeltaway”(Lilith11).Later,Vanediscoversanaccountthathisfatherwroteafterasimilarjourney,inwhichthemirrorbecame“fullofawhitemist”(42).ThatMacDonald’slanguagemirrorsCarroll’smaybetheresultofcommunicationbetweenthemonthesubjectofmirrortravel,directincorporationofthewordingonMacDonald’spart,orpurecoincidence. Bothauthorsusethemirrorasadoorbetweenworlds;MacDonaldalsousesabookassuchadoorwhen,attheendofthenovel,abookclosingbehindVaneputsanendtohistravelsbetweenworlds.InhisessayonLilith,MichaelMendelsoninterpretsthisendingasametatextualhinttoreadersconcerningtherelationbetweenfictionandreality,claimingthat“byframingthequestromanceasabibliographicadventure,MacDonaldmakesthe
Nots: Defining in the Negative Thenovelwriterbeginswithagardenlike,ratherdirectionlessworldofendlessimaginativepossibilitiesandendswithaskeletallabyrinthinestructurehehopeswilldirectreaderstorenderafantasticalworldinspecificwaysastheyread.Fictionalworldsfeelgarden-likeinthesensethattheircharactersseemtohaveseveralpossiblecoursesofactionandreadersseemtohavecontrolovertheirownperceptionandinterpretation.However,thesegardenlikefeaturesoffictionasawholeareillusory.Apublishednovelisbynaturelabyrinthine:itscharactersarepredestined,theirchoicesalreadywritten.Thereader’ssensescanonlyoperatewithintheprovidedframebasedondetailsthathavealreadybeenchosen.Whileherinterpretationisherown,thedetailssheperceivesandreactstohavebeenselectedforher.Whileformsofstructurednarrativelikethenoveldonotallowthecompletefreedomofagarden,theyofferguidedfreedom.Theunderlyinglabyrinthcansuggestagardenlikeworldmorecomplexandfulfillingthananythingcontainedinthetextitself.Atthesametime,thelabyrinthguidesustounderstandthatgardeninlightofspecificmessages—itprovidesawayofteachingnotbydirectinstructionbutbydesignedexperience. Inhisstudyoflabyrinthsasverbalart,WarnerSennexplainsthat“metaphor,bycontentingitselfwithnamingthelabyrinthasvehicle,achievesnopresenceoftheobjectinthetextitself”(225).Indeed,theoneoccurrenceoftheword“labyrinth”inLilithconveysmuchlessaboutthenarrativelabyrinthMacDonaldhascreatedthananother,seeminglyunrelated,word;not.ThewordstandsoutinLilith’sepigraph,apassagefromThoreau,whereitappearsanastonishingtentimesinundertwopages.InthetextofLilith,notandothernegationsplayimportantrolesinevokingafantasticalworld. Recentdevelopmentsinthefieldoftextualanalysisprovideanexcitingopportunityforanalyzingandlearningfromanauthor’swordusage,includinguseofnegations.Asimpleconcordanceprogramcanaccuratelyaccomplishinsecondswhatotherwisewouldtakehourstodo:identifyingandcompilingallinstancesofthewordnotalongwiththeessentialdetails
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oftheircontextforeasyreferenceandanalysis.RunningthefreewareconcordanceprogramAntConcontheentireGutenbergtextofLilithrevealsastartling1,038instancesofthewordnot.However,appearingathousandtimesina95,156-wordtextdoesnotmakethewordnotinherentlysignificant;thepotentialforbroaderimplicationscomesfromanalysisincomparisontootherworks.Inhis2007LinguisticInquiryandWordCountprogram(LIWC),JamesPennebakerhascreatedatoolthatmovesbeyondthecapabilitiesofaconcordance.Pennebaker’sprogramincludesspecificallydesignedcategoriessothatitidentifies no,not,cannot,never,andothernegationsaspartofthesamecategoryofwords.BecauseLIWCcategorizesallwordsusedinthetext,itallowsdirectcomparisonbetweenthepercentageofnegationsandthepercentageofallothercategoriesofwordsinLilith.Moreimportantly,itallowsdirectquantitativecomparisonofLilithtoothernovels,andPennebakerhascompiledresultsfromamassivedatabaseofreferencetexts,makingthiscomparisonpossible. RunningtheGutenbergtextofLiliththroughLIWCrevealsatrendofunusuallyfrequentnegationuse.Negationsmakeup4.29%ofallwordsusedintheepigraphfromThoreau’sessay“Walking.”Meanwhile,negationsmakeup2.19%ofwordsusedinLilith,ascomparedto1.69%innovelsonaverage(Pennebaker11).Perhapsnotcoincidentally,LewisCarroll’sAlice in Wonderlandalsocontainsmorethantheaveragenumberofnots,with2.15%ofallwordsbeingnegations.Bycontrast,Thoreau’sessayasawholecontainsonly1.88%negations.AnalysisofthefrequencyandcontextofMacDonald’susageofthewordnotyieldsaclearerviewofthestructurallabyrinthofLiliththanweobtainsimplybyreading. Lilith’snarratorfrequentlyusesnottosignifyinabilityortodefinethingsinthenegativethatheisunabletootherwiseunderstandorexplain.However,notalsooftensignalsaroadnottaken.Itcancauseaforkinthepath,forcingVanetotakeonerouteandnottheother,oritcansignalhisrefusaltomoveforward,favoringstasis.MappingforksinVane’spathcreatedbythewordnot,weseethreedistinctimpactshischoicesatvarioustimescreate:theycangiveusabriefglimpseofanalternativepath,revealthatthepathatthatpointwasstraightandthatheactuallyhadnochoicetomake,andreturnustoapreviousquestion,showingthatVane’spathhasloopedordoubledbackonitself.(Examplesshowbelow.ForafullmapofLilith’s Forksmarkedbynegation,seeFigure2intheAppendixonpage106).
Likethewordnot,othernegationslike“nothing”and“never”playessentialrolesindefiningpaths,circumstances,andperceptionsinthenegative.Anabove-averagenumberofnegationsdifferentiatesLilithandAlice in Wonderlandfromnovelsingeneral,suggestingthat“nots”andothernegationsmaybeparticularlyusefulfordefiningfantasyworlds.Comparedtotheaveragenovel,bothalsouseagreaterpercentageofwordsthatconcernmotion,space,andtime(Pennebaker11).Aswithnegations,thedifferenceinthesecategoriesisslightlygreaterforLiliththanforAlice.AtthesametimeastheuseofnegationscreatesforksinLilith’snarrativelabyrinth,thespatialorientationofMr.Raven’sworldtoVane’spresentsastructuralphenomenonthatallowscharacterstotakeshortcutsthroughtheirownworldsandeventranscendthewallsoftheirpersonallabyrinthstogainaviewfromoutside.
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Figure 3: The Otherworld Journey of Mr. Vane
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Writing Links between Gardenlike and Labyrinthine Worlds AlthoughVanestumblesbackintohisownworldthroughvariouslittle-understoodgates,heentersMr.Raven’sworldatthesamespotfouroutoffivetimes.Thefifthentrance,atthesexton’scottage,occurswhileVaneisdreaming.Havingsingleentry-pointinthepineforestandmultiplepathswithinmakesMr.Raven’sworldautomaticallyrathermazelikefromVane’sperspective.EvenMr.RavenacknowledgeshisdependenceonVane’shouseasaconvenientpassageway.WhereasVane’sworldcanbeenteredatmultiplelocations—hisgarret,hiscloset,hisfountain,andhislibrary,tonameafew—bothhisgardenandhisgarretexitreliablyintothepineforest,makingtravelinMr.Raven’sworldwithVane’shouseasashortcutfasterandlessfraughtwithperilthantravelthroughMr.Raven’sworldalone. LikeMr.Raven,LilithalsousesVane’sworldasashortcut,atrickthatbyitsnecessityindicatestheobstructionofherworldbylabyrithinewalls.ThewallsLilithexperiencesonherownsideofthemirrorarenotthesamewallsthatVaneexperiencesthere.Infactthelabyrinththatindividualcharactersexperiencecomesintoexistenceduetotheirownlimitedperceptionandthesenseofidentityeachstrivestoholdonto.Mr.Ravenperceivestherealityofagarden’sopenspacewhereMr.Vanefindswalls.LilithfindsadangerousandnearlyimpassablebarrierbetweenherandherdaughterLona.Toreachherdaughterandkillher,LilithmusttravelthroughVane’sworld.Vaneontheotherhand,canmoveeasilybetweenLilithandLona,evenwithintheworldontheirsideofthemirror.Still,Vane’sabilitiesofperception,actionandmovementaremuchmorelimitedthanthoseofMr.Raven. AmongthemanyphenomenaVanecannotproperlyconceivearetheflowersaddingsweetnesstopianomusicandevenatreegrowingrightwhereitsupperbranchesformthefountainonhislawn.Nowonder,then,thathefailstoseetheinfinitepossibilitiesofexperiencebeforehimandinsistsonchoosingunnecessarilycomplicated“right”(usually“wrong”)pathsthatadduptoaplot.WhentheRavenwoulddirectVane—asthecrowflies—bystraightpaths,Vanefindshimselfirresistablydrawntootherroutes,inpartthroughselfishnessbutlargelybecauseofthelimitedperceptionwhichdefinesrealityforhim.Evenwhenactingunselfishlyoutofcompassion,pity,orthedesiretorightthewrongshehasdone,Vanecannotaccessastraightpathtoheaven.Whenheattempts,heisgentlypushedbackintohisworld,wherehemustwalkinrightbutneverthelesslabyrinthinepathsofsorrowandhopeinordertoreachhisdestination.
Layers of Lilith LilithreflectsMacDonald’sconvictionsabouthumaninabilitytopermanentlyavoidredemptionandtheinabilityofanyone—evenGod—toleadtheindividualonastraightpathtowardthatend.Theindividualwilltakeallthetwistsandturnsofhispersonallabyrinth,ifMr.Vaneisanyexample.However,asMarkHawthornewritesinhisessayonlabyrinthsinPynchon,“Oneproblemwiththeverbalmulticursallabyrinthisthat,whiletheoutcome
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dependsonthemoralorpsychologicalnatureofthewanderer,thereaderfollowsthewanderer’spathwayasalinearprogression;thereader,unlikethewanderer,cannotdetermineprogressormakechoicestoaltertheoutcome”(12).Ifwrittennarrativesareinherentlyinflexible,whatmakesaliterarylabyrinthrelevantforreadersandrichtoexperience? MacDonaldbelievedthatfantasyworldsevokeamorecompleteandpersonalrenderingthanthatgiveninthetextitselfbecauseofspirituallayersofmeaningthattheauthorpullsinunconsciouslythroughimagery.In“TheFantasticImagination”hewrote:“OnedifferencebetweenGod’sworkandman’sisthat,whileGod’sworkcannotmeanmorethanhemeant,man’smustmeanmorethanhemeant.ForineverythingthatGodhasmade,thereislayeruponlayerofascendingsignificance...itisGod’sthings,hisembodiedthoughts,whichalonemanhastouse”(9).FromMacDonald’sperspective,writerscanscarcelyunderstandthepowerofwordsandimagestheyweaveintostory,muchlessthecombinedeffectofsymbolsinacompletedpiece.Whilethewriterworkswithonelevelofmeaning,orperhapsseveral,thesymbolssheworkswitharemuchmorecomplexthanthewaysinwhichsheusesthem.Whenwordscauseustoimagine,theyevokeobjects,memories,people,orimagesthatexisted,tiedtothetextbutoutsideit,beforeweopenedthebook. MacDonaldevokesagarden—analternativeworldwithendlesspossibilities—bycreatinganarrativelabyrinth.Ifnovelstendnaturallytowardthelabyrinthine,Lilithismadesignificantlysobyitscyclical,non-linearformatanditsChristianideologythatreliesonalabyrinth-drivenworldview:Humansinafallenstatefindobstaclesintheirway,andiftheycannotwalkbyfaiththeywillhavetogothelongwayarounduntiltheylearnhow.SeveralcharactersinMr.Raven’sworld,includinghisdaughtersMaraandLona,perceiverealityasagardenandoperateinitinwaysthatthenarrator,trappedinalabyrinththatislayeredoverandthroughthatreality,cannotcomprehend.Ourvisionasreadersofboththeirinhibitedmovementandhisfrustrating,frustratedattemptsatmovingaboutandactingusefullytohimselforanyoneelsepointustowardagardenoutsidethetext.MacDonaldsuggestswemayperceiveanothersuchworldifweallowourownworldtobecomeattimesliminalandshimmering,asVanedoesattheend.Reality,then,accordingtoLilith,isagardeninandthroughthealsoveryreallabyrinththatweandVaneinhabit. To understandhowlabyrinthsandgardenscanbelayeredinthesamespaceorthesametext,wemustviewlabyrinthandgardennotasexclusive,
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oppositeterms,butastwosimulateouslypresent,interwovenrealities.InheressayonmythologythatinfluencedthewritingofLilith,VerlynFliegermentionsMacDonald’sCelticheritageandintroducesustoapoemcalledVoyage of Bran,inwhichcharactersconverseacrossworlds.Shewrites,“Theimagesinthepoemarenotparallelbutincompatiblerealitieswithadoorbetweenthem,butoverlapping,co-existing,anduncompetingperceptionsoccupyingthesamespaceandthesametime.Soitiswiththeseaandthewood,andsoitiswiththetreeandVane’schimney”(43).Justbecausetheworldappearstobeonethingandisanotherdoesnotmeanitisnotthethingitappearstobealso.Withoutspecificboundaries,theworldsintersect,becominglayeredinandthroughoneanother.InLilith,parallelworldscanbeperceivedatonce,andareperceivedatthesametimebyMr.Raven,butournarratorlacksthecapacity.Infact,thetwoworldsthatVanetravelsthrougharenotsolid,uncontestable,unchangingrealities,buthisperceptions. TheworldVaneexperiencesafterpassingthroughthemirrorisnotfundamentallythesameastheworldothersonthatsideofthemirrorperceive.WhereastheLittleOnesfindnothingterrifyingordangerousinadrylakebedtheymustcrosscalledtheBadBurrow,Vaneseesitoverrunwithhorriblemonsters.Mr.Ravenatonceseesthatthereareflesh-and-bloodmonsters,thatthemonstersarealsohumansins,andthattheLittleOnesarenotmerelyblindedbyinnoncenceasitwouldappear;intheirworld,nothingphysically,spiritually,orevenmetaphoricallydangerousexistsintheBadBurrowatallbecausenoactionintheirworldhascreatedanythingsobad.NorcanthemonstersperceivetheLittleOnesorattackthem,evenwhentheyoccupytheexactsamespace.LiketheRavenremarkingonthelayeringofobjectsinsomanyofVane’sencounters,VanenowhastheabilityseeboththeLittleOnesandthemonstersatonceandwitnessthattwocompletelyvalidperceptionscanoperateinthesameplaceatthesametime.Threeinfact,countinghisownviewofbothwhenneithercanseetheother.Mr.Raven’sadditionalviewofeachlivingmonsterasasinaddsafourthperception—seeingthesinswithoutseeingthemonsters,theLittleOnes,orMr.Vane—andafifth,hisown,seeingallofitinthesamespaceatonce,overlappingandevenmutuallyinfluencingthroughdialogueandcauseandeffect,allwithoutnegatinganyoftheotherperceptions. If,fromaChristianideologicalperpectivelikeMacDonald’s,eatingfromtheTreeofKnowledgecausedthefall,thenitwasafallintoalabyrinthofknowledge.Theknowledgeistrue,thelabyrinthreal,butatthesametimeourwallsofknowledgehinderusfromperceivingthegardenthatisalsotrueandexistent,inandthroughourreality.Welacktheperspectivetoseethroughourwallsandthedimensionstotranscendthem.Whatbettersymbolicplaceforalabyrinthofknowledgethanalibrary,wherethenovel
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