Manual of Ect

7/29/2019 Manual of Ect

1/43

Energy Conservation technique

EXPERIMENT NO:-01 DATE:- ____________

Aim: - To Study the Element OF Energy Conservation

Energy Definition:-

To pedal our backs, heat over homes we turn on lights & solid our

boats. We need energy. To turn on our tube lights we use electrical energy and

wind power are just across in the of many kind of energy we come across the

world around as;

Any object that has energy no matter in what from it gets ability to do

the way.

Change in the energy is on all time in the world. For example when

we switch on the torch the chemical energy starts in the torch. Battery is converted

in the heat energy. The filament of the bulb heats up so much that it starts to glow.

The heat energy is now converted in to light energy. From this example we can

require the basic law of nature known as the conversion of energy.

Energy Scenario:-

The importance & necessity of energy conservation will be realized.

If we study the energy consumption in past present & for cased future by scientists.

Energy is a modern industrial society. Indian energy infrastructure is

normally based on possible coal hydropower and nuclear energy. Energy analysis

was not for interest and importance before 1973. The process was continuously

reduced in past but in 1973 Arab section head out the production in protect of

western support. At the same time prices of oil was hiked by 86%. This event

reversed the decline of the energy price. Some the world raised that energy from

possible fuels was possible. Fuel is available in limited quantities. So developed

countries charged their energy policy to achieve objectives like

Improved energy efficiency throughout energy conservation


2/43

Energy Conservation Technique

Reduce dependence on possible fuel capacity oils.

Energy and Environment Effect:-

The process of energy from the nature and process of transport &

civilization of energy creates significant environment pollution. Different process

emits solid and liquid gas pollutants in environment. Gas pollution gives rise to

green house effect & hence global warming is produced. Due to green house effect

it gives rise to 2 to 4%. The average temperature of the earth atmosphere is likely

to increase by 1.5 C to 4.5 C in next 50year pollution of environment disturbs the

economical balance.

In the third conference at Kyoto in December 1997 a protocol is

formed under which different countries have to reduce their green house gas

emission to achieve this energy consumption must be reduced which requires new

energy technologies.

Concept Of Energy Conservation:-

The world annual energy consumption rate is increasing at a rate of 2

to 4%.The value of the energy used in the form of renewable oil, natural gas and

coal.

The resource are being consumed at the rate of all most billions of

tones of coal equivalent to 0.32 million. We have provided recoverable world

resources of 20.3 pet Jules of oil and natural gas. But it has been estimated by

scientists that energy demand will be rise by 1.11 million per amount.

Possible fuel wasting assent so in future energy storage will band to

go up. For these we should stop our waste fuel practices in energy by all possible

2


3/43


means as burden duty to those who come after use. As yet unknown we almost

strive after good energy economy to reduce manufacturing cost. About 80% of the

power generation in India is by thermal power station which has efficiency of 60%

to 85%. The transmission distribution losses are 20% to 25%. One unit of

electricity at the uses end requires four units of primary fuel at the generating

stations. Thus electricity is very expensive. The capital cost of the power station

has Rs. 4 to 5 Crores/MW i.e. 40,000 to 50,000/- KW transmission and distribution

cost almost 50 to 60% of above figure.

The construction of power station requires of gas time of 5 to 10 years

due to problem related to investment fuel leakage and environmental. Hydro

project in India like Narmada have been bagged down by Everson metal contacts.There is no simple economically available starting electricity. Hence

demand & supply have been much instant.

Saving electricity leads to reduction in environment pollution which

is good for the society as a whole so far the above reason electricity must be

converted by its efficient use.

Specific energy consumption measures have a result in the following

reasons.

Industrial sectors

Transport sectors

Agriculture sectors

Power generator sectors

Transmission and D.B. sectors

Energy intensity per unit of industrial production is designing from last 4

years in industry. Of course this is a positive sign for India in valuing heavy

modernization costs. Following industrial sub sectors have a good scope for energy

conversion

3


4/43


Aluminum

Cement

Copper

Paper

Petroleum Industry

Process Industries

Steel

Sugar

Large Industry depends upon the modernization mostly on the improved

equipment. So they have tested energy efficiency technologies from the

environmental market while in the medium and small scale industries they largely

depends on the local manufacturers to produce energy efficient equipment almost

user and small medium industries both need incentive like task credit which has no

rather than subsides. It should be noted that small scale industries account for 60%

of Indias export. So any improvement in this area can be significantly contributed

in energy conversion.

For large sectional industries energy conversion through magnetically

improvement and change in their capital cost

Government effective terms port policy will lower energy consumption per

capital convince the transport or the individual owners of the vehicle for energy

consumption from the cost electiveness of their system & environment point of the

view.Encourage the manufacturer of the automobile and transport through

financial and logistical nature to produce energy efficient vehicle also encourage

the automobile component manufacture to development which will improve the

efficiency of the exciting vehicle.

4


5/43


As regards to agriculture sector emphasis is to depend on the diesel engines

and pump sets and their accessories. It is necessary to think about operation

maintenance schedule and patterns of maintenance.

Educate the farmers by the dealers or irrigation pump set for battery energy

conversion. Show the difference between an efficient and all maintenance pump

and energy efficient pump.

Electricity diesel oil and others results in unnecessary waste of energy

thereby ineffective equipment and machinery. Approximate pricing shall control

the consumption any try to think towards energy efficient machinery & equipment.

Losses must be tacked seriously in power generation transmission and

distribution the arrangement has already identified. This sector is for privateinvestment. But private are only investors interested in power generation side.

They are not interested to take risk.

For power generation government has to go for the latest technology for

operation of different steps which can be taken to basic higher economic return by

material and technology.

5


6/43



Aim: To study of Energy Management

Energy Management Concept:-

Energy Management means the judicious and effective use of

energy to maximum productivity and controlling the supply and consumption of

energy so it deals with energy conservation measures.

To have effective measurement people must have an energy

awareness and a desired to conserve energy an absolute benefit of energy

consumption is that organization save many as a result of their effect energy

management in desired energy statuary energy policy and energy planning.

Energy startory means factory used to plan and direct large scale

energy supply adopted of National level.

Energy planning means detailed fermentation of action to achieve

objective there follows the moraine logical national stator.

Principle of Energy Management:-

Unlimited low energy is available in nature but usable energy is

limited. Usable energy can be obtained by conversion processor during conversion

process some energy is lost into environment so energy needs must be acute from

global level to invalid level supply and use side management must have energy

policy. The higher authority in organization must stick to their energy policy.

6


7/43


Per unit energy consumption means energy consumption per unit

output of the organization per unit energy cost will reduced by above method so

consult energy function as a produced cost not a part of manufacture of gentle over

head.

If manual process is converted into output process is less, co energy is

used so such energy through cautioned. Get the suggestion from the energy person in

organization for saving energy.

Element of energy management planning:-

In planning top level management appoints the person as a energy

manager the energy management co ordinary energy manage coordinator has to

develop and employ and energy management program.

Exaction:-

In Exaction phase the top level manages the appoints a person as a

energy management. Energy management coordinates energy management.

Coordinator has to develop and implement and energy management program. If

required the management forms a committee to help the energy management

coordinator. According and respect billets for energy management program are

wasted in the individual not a committed. Many times the commonly also here an

outside professional management consulted to assist the energy management

coordinator part.

Next step in this phase is to create database for internal and external

energy information. The internal database sets the energy utilization in the company.

The external database rotes to available energy conversant approximates with their

cost of implementation.

7


8/43


At the last identity energy conservation cooperates are analyzed with

respect to

i. The capital expenditure needed to implement.

ii. Control energy cost

iii. Return an investment.

Control:-

The results at all the implement stages are obtained. If is compared with

the planned goal and corrective measured schedule taken the energy management

coordinators taken. The energy management like monitoring can be performed by

installing sub meters.

Different Approaches of Energy Management:-

Today most attend management equivalent of low time more energy than

needed for base survival. So natural resources are diminished and demand for energy

is increasing world wide for maintaining reasonable cost, people have to use it in

efficient way.

There are three ways to manage energy use:-

1) Reduced use or reduction interment. They can be achieved either through self

demand or through information regular action or economic measured e.g. usesunlight instead of tube light, go to office using ladder instead of elevator up to

1st/2nd floor in multi stored buildings.

2) Government actions are being taken to efficient patterns of energy use. There

actions can be categorized in three ways.

8


9/43


1) Direct Regulation

2) Educational Regulation

3) Financial Program

3) Use an alternative method process of equipment to achieve the desired result

with efficiency i.e. increase efficiency of equipment of course implementation of

this depends on the availability of technology and economical just function.

4) Subv structure on fuel or energy source for another (i.e. substituted energy

form) this may or may not lead to net energy savings but shifting of fuel save

resources.

Energy Manager:-

The following qualities are desirable on energy manager technical

background with different resources.

Business & management skills &

Extreme communication skill.

Training or degree in energy management.

Discipline Enthusiasm

Equipment Efficiency:-

Life cycle costing gives the importance of efficiency. It depends on

design on design and constructor of energy using equipment. The increasing ratio of

fuel to combustion of air flow due to duty filters, etc.

Additionally of recovery equipment to external normally collection

may increase net efficiency. These device do not change efficiency of the original

equipment but do it in prove the overall energy efficiency of a plant.

Design of energy use equipment can be improved through technical

development and performance standards so by improving efficiency available same

output level for reduced energy consumption.

9


10/43



Aim: Energy Audit & Techniques.

Introduction:

Saving many an energy bills is attractive to business, industries and individuals.

Some of the companies energy bills represent a traction of operating water. A

customers and companies have customers or industries can save 10, 20% on utility

bills by number cost.

In many case, these energy cost control programs will result in both reduced

energy consumption and reduced adverse environment effects.

Energy Audit & Concept:-

A word audit varies as a formal examination & verification of

financial account.

An examination with a latent to verify survey of the energy aspect

related with an organization plant.

1) To determine have & where energy being used from one from the other.

2) To identify opportunities to reduce energy.

3) To formulation recommendation for implement process to save energy.

Element of Energy Audit:-

Basic elements are common to energy audit regardless of the nature &

size of the operation briefly. This is definite as follows:

10


11/43


1) Data collection & production over previous mounts to establish as base line

in terms of specific energy consumption.

2) Pre-Planning work to the plant to identify major energy using components.

To identify obvious source of energy waste such as lakes and

equipments.

3) Consumption of mass and energy follows as estimating of energy losses.

Energy Audit Metrology:-

Historically energy audits are broadly classified as,

1. Preliminary energy audit.

2. Dated energy audits.

Consumption benefits and detailed energy audits are as under.

Preliminary detailed audit

Objectives Set properties for optimizing energyQuantity energy

Conversion. Utilization

Scope Highlight energy cost & waste in Formulated detailed

of

Major equipment process. Control energy.

Duration 2 to 10 days. 1 to 10 weeks.

Audit frequency Difficult to decide. May be 2 to 3 years.

Preliminary Energy Audit:-

War against waste sludge for the industrial unit has been formed the

entire preliminary energy audit.

11


12/43


Excise can be divided into three steps.

1) Identity the quantities and cost of various energy from used in the plant.

2) Identify energy consumption at the department process level.

3) Rated energy input to production which energy waste in measurements.

The following steps are taken in a conduct a energy audit.

1. Organize resources

2. Identify data requirement

3. Collect data

4. Analyze data5. Develop action plan

6. Implementation.

Detailed Energy Audit:-

The detailed energy audit provides the basic for quantities for analyze of

energy performance.

After energy conversion the energy plan may be drawn up to three phase.

1. Short term setting

2. Medium term action

3. Long term action.

12


13/43



Aim:- To study energy conservation in various industries.

Energy conservation in industries:-

The industries in India account for approximately 36% by the total

energy consumed. The principles are iron and steel, aluminum, cement pulp and

paper textiles and oil refineries. The iron and steel industries is the most significant

uses of energy. An attempt to conserve energy in the industries sector is thereforeworth while.

Energy conservation in the iron and steel industries:-

The major saving in the energy have been account for in the blast

furnace operation but more recently the introduction of basic oxygen steel making

and continues have been contributed forward to high efficiency. Table highlights

the way in which

type of fuel used in

steel making has

changed in the used

of low cost control

by increased

requirement for fuel

oil and gas.

Sr.

No % of total energy used

196

5

197

0

197

5 1980

1 Cooking and products 61 63 57 52

2 Non-cooking coal 23 12 6 0

3 Fuel oil etc. 7 13 22 25

4 Electricity plus overhead 7 10 13 16

5 Gas cton & Natural 2 2 2 7

13


14/43


Table 1 Fuel substitution in steel making

The four major stages in production of iron and steel as for energy use

in concerned are mining and are preparation manufacture of pig-iron manufacture

of steel and the steel finishing processor.

The manufacture of pig-iron is prepared by the conservation of cool

to coke with cock oven thermal conservation efficiency to the order of 85% & thepreparation of sinters.

A modern blast furnace is a very large steel surface having as its main

members refractory line steel cylinders typical 30m high with a height 10m in

diameters at its base are sinter cock. Limestones are feed in at the top of the blast

furnace and air is supplied via. the base furnace operate at a temperature above

1100 C and the products are modern iron and slag about 35% of the energy used

to produce back furnace. The pig iron produced by the blast furnace. There are

three main types of open health furnace typically 250 tones of steel in 5 to 8 hours

but this products rate even with the improvements brought about by uses at oxygen

and fast firing rates is inferior to that of the basic oxygen converter.

The lengths formed by cooling of the molten steel from the furnace in

modules are then subjected to verify of rolling and finishing process. Most of while

are highly energy intensive. This produces elements needs to produce steel lengths

as moth steels which can be feed directly in a pendant water converted modules to

produce lengths of steel.

Summary of energy conservation in iron and steel industries:

14


15/43


There are the large number of ways which energy consumption can be

reduced in the iron and steel industries many of which have already been

implemented in the UK, USA, JAPAN or when and also where the use of higher

grade one. When obtained is one obvious way of improving efficient but this

section will concentrate or improvement which can be brought about using

advantage technological.

In Japan which has having improved cooling cool reduction of the

cock rate in the blast furnace has been achieved by several modification.

These include:-

Improvement of blast furnace burden.

Increase in blast furnace temperature and pressure.

Improvement in cock quality.

Friction of auxiliary fuel from tuners.

Improvement in charging and blast furnace control technology.

As a result the cock rates in Japanese blast furnace average 340-350

kg/tones while the average rate is 580 kg/tones in the O.R.

Energy conservation in the Aluminum Industries:-

The manufacture of primary aluminum is carried out in three stages.

i. Mining of the bauxite to extract aluminum.

ii. Reduction of the aluminum to obtain primary aluminum.

Further stages involve rotating extrusion to obtain aluminum sheet

section and tubes. The mining process involves only very small proportion of the

15


16/43


energy used in the above stage. The electrical energy required to produce one of

the damming having been reduced by about 35% during this period. An

approximate energy balance sheet process is given in the table.

The large heat losses evident amount to about half of the total energy

consumption are primarily due to the large inter poles distance (5 to 6) cm between

the electrodes. This Utilization of this heat in other areas of the plant may be

possible but the investment needed may be prohibitive most of the reviews of the

aluminum industry agree. Half the efficiency achieved to date. In the Hault

Herault process represent the realization of most of the possible energy savings and

refresh iron concentrate on others improvement such as the manufacture of non-

consumable anodes.

Energy conservation in the cement industries:-

The cement industry is one of the major causing industries having a

high priority in energy conservation in India. Energy conservation in these

industries is particularly important in view of its present size and the rapid

expansion taking place in it which is expected to continue for several decades.

Energy supplier Gj/Ton Energy ConsumedElectrical energy 54 Rating heat Al2O3 34.4

Reaction heat 13 Warming uplunt 3.3

Aluminum reaction 7.8 Heat losses 3.32

Total 68.8 68.8

16


17/43


Status of Energy Utilization (Coal):-

The quantities of coal generally receive by cement plants in the

quantity as ash content in the range of 30-40%. The power and variable quantity of

coal from more than one coal field coupled with an inconsistent supply results in

various operational quantity and maintenance problem. The input of this is lower

available of requirement and the effect on the cover of the economy of the

industries. The high starting current drawn by the mobs on account of just three

stoppages have shown due to power fail rules consumption of approximately

10,000 KWh per month and mills of 1200 tones per day also process cement plant.

Status of Energy Utilization (Raw Material):-

About 60% of existing cement plant meets their prime raw material

requirement largely from marginal grade line stone deposit. Besides in some cases

its arrangement beneficiation of marginal grade lime stone for upgrading for

quality to make it suitable for cement manufacturing further. In order to maintainuniform feel to the film, additional energy is required for per-blending raw

material.

Optimization of Energy Consumption Efficiency:-

Optimization of operation may involve marginal or very small

investment with almost immediate payback benefit. Some of the important areas

can be

i. False air infiltration.

ii. Raw mix propertionary.

iii. Efficiency feeding system for raw mills and fuel.

iv. Improved refractory liming parties.

v. Use of mineral zero.

17


18/43


vi. Particle manufactures reduction process by slurry thinners.

vii. Integrated apache to maintenance for energy count.

viii. Conservation of energy in the operation of electrical machineries such as

improvement of the power factor and load factor.

ix. Manufacture of branded cement.

Energy Conservation in Pulp and Paper Industry:-

In the past was generally used because of the speed variation required but

as is now being introduced modern practice uses a combination of ac-dc motors forconstant speed drivers of choppers and beaters. For these squirrel or synchronous

motors are used. The paper machine requires very excited control and the ward-

Leonard system is often used.

The trends in energy consumption over the past have been introduced by

the four major factors.

1. An increasing emphasis on production of high quality groups which

have higher energy content.

2. Progress in efficient treatment application to both water and gases

waste which also tends to increase the energy consumption at a plant.

3. Increased recycling of waste by forward reduction in the use of

wastage resources.

4. Modernization programs including better process control and plant

integration.

Energy Conservation in the Textile Industries:-

18


19/43


In this industries the type of device used are the group drive from line

shafts drive directly by motors. The semi-ground drive in which the motors shaft

has several pulleys driving numbers of machines and individual drive.

These are phase motors are used as their speed is fixed by the frequency of

the supply. D.C. motors are not suitable as their speed varies voltage and

temperature. The motors must be of high efficiency and used for conservation

purposes.

Surveys of typical process between successive SGJ and others are done by

eliminating all imposing longer processor times.

These lines of experimentation are being followed to reduced energy

requirement steam purging combining desired catalyst bleaching.Energy Conservation in Oil Refineries:-

Of the total energy used in chemical processes in oil refineries, about 50%

is required in the primary traction distribution column. This energy is being used to

heat the crude oil and to raise steam used in the column. A further 35% is

consumed in a sub sentiment is used for finishing the products. A number of

options are available to repairing operators which could contribute towards

increasing fuel efficiency.

1. Better control of operation using computers.

2. Improved blast heat recovery.

3. Increased distribution plant efficiency by using additional stage.

4. Improved furnace efficiencies.

5. Total energy schemes.

6. Upgrading of heat using heat pumps.

7. The use of low grade waste heat for space heating.

Of the above only items it can be considered as being unique to an oil

refinery as petrochemical complex. Other items are usually applied to large

number of energies.19


20/43



Aim: - Energy Conservation by Energy Efficient Motor

Use of Energy Efficient Motors:-

Motor systems are the most important type of electrical load. Motors

are ranging from small fractional h.p. in corporate home appliances to multi

megawatt used for driving pumps and turns in power plants. Motors consume more

than half of the total electricity and more than 75% of the electrical consumption in

industry. These are millions of pumping sets operating in the country for

agriculture purpose. There is a waste potential for saving energy and money byincreasing the efficiency of motors and motor system.

Factors Affecting Motor Performance:-

The system parameters and motor characteristics which relate to the

efficiency are as follows.

1) Voltage and Frequency:-

Operating the motor at other than rated voltage and frequency can

result in decreasing motor efficiency. It also adversely affect other performance

characteristics like power factor.

2)Voltage Unbalance:-

20


21/43


Energy design of electric motor is best suited for a balanced 3-phase

supply for efficient operation. 1% voltage unbalance will increase the motor losses

by 5%.

3) Load:-

Every load is designed for optimum performance at full load motor

efficiency will change as the load changes. It loads in operation differ from metal

load than efficiency may change. The use of motors having an output rating greater

than the load can cause the reduction in operating efficiency.

4) Output:-

The efficiency of a motor operating at rated load increases as the motoro/p have higher efficiency and power factor as compared to motor with a lower

output.

5) Speed:-

For the same H.P rating motors with higher speed generally have a higher

efficiency at rated load than motor with lower rated speeds. But it is not wiser to

use a high speed motor and use pulley gears.

6) Speed:-

Slip is a measure of losses in the rotor winding of polyphase induction

motor. Further the slip power is the efficiency due to higher losses.

Motor Efficiency:-

Efficiency of electric motor is defined as the ratio of the mechanical output

to electrical input.

Efficiency = Output/Input

= Output

Output + Losses

= Input - Losses

Input

21


22/43


The losses in electric motor are as follows:

i. Core loses

ii. Windbag and friction losses

iii. Stator copper losses

iv. Rotor copper losses

v. Stray load losses

Stray losses are extra magnetic and I2R losses due to effect of slot openings

leakage flux and harmonic field. These losses are difficult to measure or calculate

at low loads. The loads core magnetic losses are dominant, whereas at higher loads

the copper resistive losses are the important. The electric motor is not a majorconsumer of energy by itself. It merely converts electrical energy to mechanical

energy with some above mentioned losses. If motor losses are reduced to some

extent, the energy will be saved by reducing electricity consumption in the

mechanical equipment itself.

Energy Efficient Motor:-

Energy efficient motors ensure better performance. It is achieved by

optimized design, more generous electrical and magnetic circuit, and higher quality

materials, incremental efficiency improvements are still possible with the use of

superior materials and optimized computer aided design techniques. EEMs

increase efficiency approximately 6% for SHP motors. 3% for a 150 HP motors. If

motor is operated for more hours, the payback is less than 2 years.

Advantages of EEEMs:-

Reduced power consumption.

Improved power factor of operation.

Lower temperature rise & increase in life service.

Efficiency will be constant for long band. So less in efficiency of lower loads is

less.

22


23/43


Measures to Improve Efficiency of Motors by Design:

Core losses are reduced by using low loss steel larger than core area and thinner

steel stampings. The materials are more expensive.

Friction & windage losses are reduced by improved bearings, better fan design

and improved function of air flow.

Stator copper losses are reduced by increasing the copper cross section of

winding wires. But weight of copper is increased.

Rotor copper losses are reduced by increasing the section of rotor bass and

earrings. But more material is used.

Stray losses are reduced due to increase in air gap.

Reduction in Heat In Motor Control Centre:-

To achieve a cost effective electrical system, the components of the system

must be chosen carefully and the system must be operated in such a way as to

minimize costs. There are losses in all electrical system components. Power loss

occurs as a percentage of the device power rating. The losses are mostly ohmic

losses (I2R losses). They result in heat dissipation.

Cables:-

Cable losses are essentially ohmic (I2R) losses which must be dissipated as heat.

In most industrial plants, cables losses are in range at 2 to 4% at peak loads. It is

difficult to measure cable losses. It can be estimated from the cable current and the

cable resistance data. Generally, cables are sized on the basis of capacity and

voltage drop. Consideration looses can be reduced by choosing a larger cable with

greater cross-sectional area.Star-delta Change Over:-

It may be appreciated that an induction motor loaded above 50%. Motor

operate with a higher efficiency in a delta mode. While at loads below 50% the

operation in a star mode will be more efficient. Net energy switching over to star

mode operation varies from 3 to 10% because the rated output drop to 1/3rd of delta

23


24/43


configuration without affecting its performance. This is one of the least cost

methods available to save electrical energy in motor.

So, if there is only a very small difference between the motor current with

load and without load, then the motor can be conducted to star-delta change over.

This method can be used for rating the motors with delta connected stators. As

motors vary with duties, change over switch is useful to switch from star to delta or

star as and when required.

Soft starters:-

Soft starters are solid-state electronic components. They control the stator

input voltage according to the starting torque required for the driven equipment.This results in smooth starting of the motors by drawing lower current. They avoid

the high instantaneous current normally encountered.

They are suitable for the application having

Restriction on starting current

Frequent starts and stops

Undesirable jerk staring due to step change in voltage.

Problem of sudden declaration when supply is switched off.

Soft starters at high loads are also available. They control the output voltage

from zero to full on. Thus they permit the motor to acceleration smoothly from

zero to full running speed. They combine voltage control and current limit to

provide constant current (Torque) to the motor till it achieve full speed. The power

factor is also maintained consistently at a high level due to reduced reactive power

at low voltage. The actual savings depends on the time for which higher power is

required during each duty cycle. Lower the high power requirements greater will

be savings.

24


25/43



Aim: - To study of energy saving in Arc Furnace.

Energy Saving in Welding Equipment:-

There are two sets electrical welding.

i. A.C. Welding Sets.

ii. D.C. Welding Sets.

D.C. Welding Sets:- There are two types in the D.C Welding sets.

i. Use of electrical control

ii. Use of proper low melting filler material.

A. Generator Type (B) Rectifier Type :-

Generator type welding sets consists of a differential compound d.c

generator driven by any types of prime mover. The control may be obtained by

tapping the series field or by providing a suitable shunt across the series field

winding.

If the d.c distribution system field winding a resistance is put in series with

equipment and control is obtained by varying this external resistance. This method

is generally suitable when a number of operators are working on same supply

system.

Rectifier type welding set consists of a multi-phase, high leakage reactance

transfer. The control obtained by regulating the terms output in d.c welding. Initial

cost is very high and efficiency is low.25


26/43


A.C. Welding Set:-

A.C welding sets are 1- or 3- step down transformer which provides low

voltage (80-100) volts on open circuit power welding.

Primary of transformer has one or low tapings to take core of voltage variation

cooled type. The control of current is achieved by using

A. Magnetic shunt

B. A chock coil or reactor placed in series with primary of a secondary

winding.

C. Tap changing switch on the primary winding.

One disadvantage of a.c. welding is comparatively low power factor (about 0.5

lagging). This can be improved by using the capacitors and energy can be saved.

Energy can be saved by using amorphous core than a silicon core. The

reduction of core losses is due to the unique random atomic structure of the phase

core alloy. The amorphous strips are just 1 mm thick while RGO silicon steel is

7mm to 14mm thick. Of course manufacturing of the amorphous core transformer

needs special technology and expertise. When switching on transformer after long

periods of non use transformer oil condition, lightness of connection must be

checked. Generally transformer with larger capacity than normal load gives

marginally better efficiency. But it does not mean to provide larger capacity

transformer deliberately.

26


27/43



Aim: - To study of Pole Amplitude Motor (PAM).

Use of PAM Motor For Speed Control:-

Motor efficiency is generally highest when motor operates within

about 50% of their rated load. However for many applications the load placed on

motor varies over time. In some applications like fans and pumps, the load varies

with the cable (V3) of the air or water velocity. So, when the velocity is reduced by

20%, the load on the motor is reduced by 50%. For applications where the load

varies with time, some means of speed control is usually employed traditionally

speed is controlled with fluid couplings, eddy current coupling throttles. But these

controls are inefficient because speed varies by introduced friction. Thereby energy

is wasted.

Multi speed Motors:-

Multi speed motors generally contain two or more than two sets of

windings. This allows the motor to operate at two or more than two different

27


28/43


speeds. Here fine tuning is left to traditional speed controls multi speed motors

provided a fairly cost approach to motor speed control. These motors typically cost

from 30-80% more than a similar sized single speed. Motor savings vary

depending on the application but savings 8-10% are typical. Multi speed motors

are not approximate for all motor applications. It is not used where

1) Variable speed required.

2) Physical space limitations may apply.

3) Variable speed drives (VSPS) required.

Approximately 20-25% of motor energy use can benefit from multi-speed motors.

PAM Motors:-

The dahlander connection is one of the approach to connect the single

winding to obtain two speeds. In recent years a new method of Pole Amplitude

Modulation developed by G.H Raw cliff and his team. The advantages of this

approach are that it requires only single winding and can yield close ratio as well

as wide-ratio speeds.

The PAM motors is similar in construction. A squirrel cage motor

except for stator winding coil connections because they use single windings. They

use a single winding. They have the same frame horse power.

The winding coil connections are usually same as that of a standard

induction motor. For one of the speed the other speed is obtained by reversing the

currents in one half of the coils in each phase with respect to the other half

operation. Comparatively simple gear is sufficient and requires only six leads to be

28


29/43


brought out from the stator winding. The basic scheme of connection is shown in

the fig.

In PAM motor windings the coils in each phase are sub-divided into two

sections in specific manner depending upon the speed ratios. PAM motors have

been built in USA and UK up to ratings of 10,000 H.P.

Space Harmonics of PAM Winding:-

In conventional motor windings the mmf waveform is symmetrical and

the major harmonics can be easily controlled by proper pitching. While in PAM

motor winding, the mmf gives rise to non-identical pole pairs. This irregularity in

the waveform introduces additional space harmonics such as sub-substation

medium harmonics & higher order harmonics.

Advantages of PAM Motors:-

1) PAM motors is a rugged motor identical in construction to the squirrel cagemotor identical in construction to the squirrel cage motor so it is well suited for

applications like power station, mines, chemical plants, etc.

2) It is simple to maintain so normally a trained person can maintain it which is

not in case of electronic drives.

3) Compared to multi-winding motors they are more compact and their first cost is

less.

4) In starting high inertia loads like fans for power stations, use of PAM motors

can lead to energy saving during starting when started on low speed windings.

29


30/43


5) Normal 2-speed motor gives2:1 speed ratio. PAM motors can give close speed

ratio in the range of 1:5:1 which is best suited for energy conservation.

PAM Motors Application Areas:-

The majority of PAM motor applications are falling torque applications

for energy conservation. The possible energy conservation application areas are

a. Thermal power stations.

b. Water/sewage pumping installations.

c. Fan for ventilation installations.

In the case of thermal power stations it is known that auxiliaries consume

about 10-12% of the power generated. In India single speed squirrel cage motors

are used for auxiliaries. The load on power stations is not constant & the

requirement of cooling air, cooling water etc. The major drives in a power station

when PAM motors can be applied are Induced draft fan.

Primary air fan.

Cooling water pumps.

Force draft fan.

Cool & Ash handling plant.

Cooling towers fans etc.

Main buildings and ventilations needs change with climate. A two-speed

fan can save energy by adjusting the flow to seasonal demand.

30


31/43



Aim: - To study energy conservation by power factor improvement

Introduction:-

Our standard of living and industrial productivity depends on a reliable

supply of competitively priced energy. Industry needs energy to generate heat and

steam for industrial processes electrical power for motors machines, lighting

etc.Industries consume approximately 35% of total energy it should be noted that

in India six major industries accounted for about 80% to 85% of all energy used in

manufacturing The cost of energy for the industrial sector is very high obviously

any measures that can reduce energy use in industrial will have beneficial results

for the Indian economy. Electric power management in industry can be used to

improve energy efficiency. Energy efficient technologies such as motors and

lighting can contribute to a more energy efficient industrial sector

Improvement in power factors in electrical system

Power basis:-

The total power requirement is comprised of two components as illustrated

in the power triangle

31


32/43


Power factor is the ratio of active power to apparent power active. Active

power is directly converted to useful work while reactive current is necessary to

build up the flux for the magnetic field of inductive devices

Power in watt = 3 VL IL cos0 for3 0

= VL IL cos0 for1 0

KVA = hp * 0.7355 / n * cos0

Where,

VL= line voltage

IL= line current

Hp= horse power

n = efficiency

cos0 = power factor

Advantages of power factor correction:-

There are several advantages indicated below

(1) the monthly electric bill is lowered due to the structure

(2)The electrically machinery is always rated in KWA By improving P.F. the plant

system capacity is increased.

(3)Electrical system losses are decreased and voltage regulation is improved

32


33/43


(4)The conductors will carry less current at high power factor. This necessitates

smaller conductor size.

How to improve the plant power factor:-

The plant power factors is improved by,

(1)Running motor at full load have a scientifically betters power factors

(2)Providing external capacitors at the motor or at the motor or at the

distribution equipment

(3)Use of energy efficient motors.

(4)Using synchronous condenser

Use of capacitors:-

- Electrical power devices like induction motors , induction furnaces, welding

transformers, chokes, lighting ballasts etc. draw large reactive component of

current and operate at low P.F. This results in higher power losses and over

sizing of the system capacity

- Capacitors supply the reactive kilovars or magnetizing power required for

reactive load. Thus the kilovers required from the generating source

decreased this is illustrated in fig. energy losses in capacitors are very small

and negligible for all practical purposes.

33


34/43


Location of capacitors:-

- the primary purpose of capacitors is to reduce the power consumption

additional benefits are derived by capacitors location

- Maximum benefits are obtained normally by locating the capacitors near the

loads At this location , its KVAR is confined to the smallest possible

segment decreasing the load current. This will reduce power losses of the

system substantially power losses are proportional to the square of the

current. When power losses are reduced voltage at the motor increases Thus

motor performance also increases Thus location is practical if load is large

and fairly constant. So it avoids over compensation is harmful & may also

give rise to excessive voltage build up when the motor is switched off

- The capacitor may be connected to the bus bars from where the supply is

given to number of loads. When several motors are running intermittently

the capacitors are permitted to be on line all the time so capacitors will

reduce the total regardless of load so connect the capacitors to compensate

the load at the minimum load condition

What method should be used?

- The used of capacitors is usually the most economical method of improving

the system power factor when the load consist mainly of groups of small

motors. If a very large load. Operates continuously synchronous motor

should be used

34


35/43


- Synchronous condensers are generally not used. It syncro. Motor which is

operated without load It is rarely used in industry

- One note is aelbled here that the economics of P.F. correction generally not

advice to current P.F. beyond 0.95 P.F. correction using capacitors usually

base pay back period of 3 years or less.


Aim: - Energy conservation by good illumination design.

Improved illumination design by use of energy efficient light

sources:-

Let us define effective lighting philosophy of the 80s.

At the right place

At the right time.

Lighting systems account for approximately 13% of total electricity

consumption in India. In India,

Four diff. types of lighting systems are widely used.

(1)Incandescent lamps

(2)Fluorescent lamps

35


36/43


(3)Mercury vapor lamps

(4)Sodium vapor lamps

Terms :-

- A lumen is the measurement of light output from a lamp or tube. All

lamps are rated in lumbers

e.g. 100 incandescent lamp produces about 1750 lumens.

- The ratio of light output from a lamp to the electric power it consumer is

called efficacy. It is measured in

Lumens/Watt.

- Color redesign index (CRT) is an estimate of the closeness of color

artificial light to that under natural

Sunlight. It is measured on a scale of 100.

Uses:-

Lighting uses can be divided into three categories.

(1)Ambient

(2)Task

(3)Accent

- Ambient lighting provides security and safety.

- Task lighting is to provides enough illumination so that task can be

completed accurately. It is not necessary to cover entire area.

- Accent lighting illuminates walls to bland more closely with naturally

bright areas. Like ceilings & windows.

36


37/43


Optimum lighting design :-

The lighting design should include consideration of initial cost,

maintenance cost, energy use, and Appropriateness for the use.

This could be achieved by the following means.

(1)Choosing the proper light sources suited to the system such as color

rendering higher efficiency etc.

(2)Proper selection of luminaries to use the lamp output efficiency.

(3)Proper arrangement luminaries considering the standard of lighting and

structural limitations.

(4)Combining local lighting and general lighting for intricate jobs requiring

very high level of illumination.

Commonly used lamps (Light sources) :-

There are four types of lamps commonly used

(1)Incandescent lamp

(2)Fluorescent lamp

(3)Mercury vapor and

(4)Sodium vapor lamp

(a) Incandescent lamps :-

- Incandescent lamps produce light by heating a filament to the point of glowing.

Tungsten is commonly used as a filament. The higher the filament temp, the higher

37


38/43


is the efficacy and more quickly the lamp burns out. Introduction of krypton gas

reduces the evaporation rate of the filament & increased efficiency.

- Florescent lamps are much more efficient with efficacy ranging from 50-

80 lumens/watt for products

Produced in India. &90 lumens/watt for products produced in developed in

countries.

(1) New florescent fixtures

(2) Ballasted circular florescent lamps.(3) Compact florescent lamps.

(4) New florescent fixtures.

(1) New florescent fixtures:-

In new applications, the most cost effective alternative to the

incandescent fixtures is a florescent tube fixtures. Initial cost of new fixtures is

high versus Rs.30/- for incandescent fixtures but operating cost of florescent tube

is lower & tube needs to be replaced less often. Approximately 50% of

incandescent lamp application is approximately for new florescent lamp

applications are appropriate for new florescent tube fixtures.

(2) Ballasted circular florescent lamps:-

Ballasted circular florescent lamp is a florescent tube bent into a circle, with

a ballast. in inserts into a standard lamp socket via adapter. Approximately 15% of

38


39/43


incandescent lamp applications are appropriate for ballasted Circular florescent

lamps.

(b) compact florescent lamps (CFLS) :-

Compact florescent lamps (CFLS) are more efficient and smaller in size than

circular florescent lamps but also more expensive. This represents an energy

savings of nearly 75% over the incandescent lamps it can come with adapter

which fit into incandescent lamp sockets.

Compact florescent lamps are more costly per kHz saved than new

florescent fixtures or circular florescent lamps.

This compact florescent will be limited to incandescent applications.

Florescent lamps :-

In India, the most common florescent lighting system is a 40w florescent

tube plus a 12-15w magnetic ballast. 40w florescent tubes are standard throughout

the world.

The reason for the higher consumption in India include use of aluminum

wire, poor quality lamination materials and poor stamping of laminations. So

Indian ballast suffer from low P.F. problem.There are two measures to improve efficacy of florescent lamps:

TLD lamps

Electronic ballasts.

39


40/43


TLD Lamps :-

The standard TL Florescent tube in India uses 40U of power tubes half

this length use 20w. The TLD lamps are thinner than the TL lamps .The major

disadvantages of the TLD lamps is that it will extinguish when voltage drops to

155-165 volts, whereas TL Lamps will not extinguish until voltage drops to

130v. In India, due to voltage stability problems TLD lamps are less used.

Electronic Ballasts:-

A magnetic core-coil ballast uses a transformer with a magnetic core

coiled in a copper or aluminum wires to control the current provided to a

lamp.Maganetic ballasts operate at an input frequency of 50Hz It consumes 12-15

watts .

Electronic high frequency ballasts uses electronic circuitry rather than

magnetic component to control current. Electronic ballast uses standard 50HZ

power but operate lamps at much higher frequency. Many electronics ballasts have

a high power factor In addition ,electronic ballasts eliminate flicker, weight less

than ballasts are widely available ,but their uses is limited because of their high

cost conventional ballasts costs Rs.60 while electronic ballasts costs from Rs.200

to Rs.300/-. Electronic ballasts have a life of 15-20 year.

40


41/43


High Intensity Discharge Lamps:-

Like, fluorescent lamps ,high intensity discharging (HID) lamps produce

light by discharging an electrical are through a mixtures of gases. In contract to

fluorescent lamps, HID lamps use a compact arc tube in which both temperature

& pressure are very high .HID lamps are more powerful .There are currently three

common types of HID lamps available.

(1) Mercury Vapor (MV)

(2)Metal Halide (MH)

(3)High pressure sodium(HPS)

- Because of their very high light levels, HID lamps are most often used for

exterior applications such as street lighting and commercial, industrial, residential

flood lighting etc

- The mercury vapor lamps was the first HID lamp developed, including ballastlosses, the efficiency of MV lamps range from 2 to 50 lumens/watt. Their color

radiation poor

- Including ballast losses, metal halide lamps range in efficiency from 46-100

lumens/watt.

- Including ballast logses,high pressure sodium lamps have efficient ranging from

60 lumens/watt to 110 lumens/watt standard HPS Lamps emit yellow light and

have poor colour rendition.

- In most application,MV lamps can be replaced with HPS lamps resulting in an

energy savings of approximately 40% The monochromatic light makes it very

difficult to discern the colour of cars, peoples clothing and other objects. So low

41


42/43


pressure sodium lamps provide an extremely yellow light which is not suitable for

many applications.

New Development in Efficient lamps (light Sources) :-

Mainly there are efficient lamps developed

(I) Electrode less induction lamp

(II) Sulfur lamp

(I) Electrode less Induction lamp:-

It was introduction to the U.S. market in 1994 It is a modification of a

standard compact fluorescent lamp. In an induction lamp, the power supply

converts ordinary 50HZ current into radio frequency power that is fed into anelectrical coil. Although lamp efficacy is only about 50 lumens/Watt, the induction

lamp has a very long lamp life. As the lamp has no filament, lamp life is limited

only by the degradation of the lamp phosphors. Its color rendering index is

approximately 82.

(II) Sulfur lamp :-The sulfur lamp is a very new high intensity discharge source. The lamps

system consists of a power source. Power source feeds radio frequency or

microwave radiation to a small, rotating quartz sphere. Quartz sphere contains

sulfur and a mixture of noble gases. The radiation creates molecular emissions in

the sulfur gas and visible light is produced The advantage of the lamp are its long

42


43/43


life ,lack of mercury in the lamp ,while color ,high color rendition etc These lamps

are most likely to be used to light large spaces such as stadiums, tunnel lighting

etc

Manual of Ect

Documents