1 MECH 498: Introduction to Robotics Actuation, Sensing, and Design M. O’Malley 2 Manipulator Mechanical Design • Particular structure of a manipulator influences kinematic and dynamic analysis • The tasks that a manipulator can perform will also vary greatly with a particular design (load capacity, workspace, speed, repeatability) • The elements of a robotic system fall roughly into four categories – The manipulator mechanism & proprioceptive sensors – The end-effector or end of the arm tooling – External sensors (e.g. vision system) or effectors (e.g. part feeders) – The Controller 3 Manipulator Mechanical Design – Task Requirements • Robots usually don’t fit the ideal of universally programmable devices • Task Specific Design Criteria – Number of degrees of freedom – Workspace – Load capacity – Speed – Repeatability accuracy 4 Task Requirements - Number of DOF • The number of DOF in a manipulator should match the number of DOF required by the task. – Minimizes cost (hardware, computing power, and power consumption) – Minimizes size/weight 5 Task Requirements • Not all the tasks required 6 DOF for example: – End effector with an axis of symmetry - Orientation around the axis of symmetry is a free variable, – Placing of components on a circuit board - 4 DOF • Dividing the total number of DOF between a robot and an active positioning platform 6 Task Requirements • Workspace (Work volume, Work envelope) – Placing in the work space of the manipulator – Singularities – Collisions • Load Capacity – Size of the structural members – power transmission system – Actuators • Speed – Robotic solution must compete on economic basis – Process limitations - Painting, Welding – Maximum end effector speed versus cycle time • Repeatability & Accuracy – Matching robot accuracy to the task (painting - spray spot 8 +/-2 “) – Accuracy function of design and manufacturing (Tolerances)
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
1
1
MECH 498: Introduction to Robotics
Actuation, Sensing, and Design
M. O’Malley
2
Manipulator Mechanical Design• Particular structure of a manipulator influences kinematic and
dynamic analysis• The tasks that a manipulator can perform will also vary greatly with a
• The elements of a robotic system fall roughly into four categories– The manipulator mechanism & proprioceptive sensors– The end-effector or end of the arm tooling– External sensors (e.g. vision system) or effectors (e.g. part feeders)– The Controller
3
Manipulator Mechanical Design –Task Requirements
• Robots usually don’t fit the ideal of universally programmable devices
• Task Specific Design Criteria– Number of degrees of freedom– Workspace– Load capacity– Speed– Repeatability accuracy
4
Task Requirements - Number of DOF
• The number of DOF in a manipulator should match the number of DOF required by the task.
– Minimizes cost (hardware, computing power, and power consumption)
– Minimizes size/weight
5
Task Requirements
• Not all the tasks required 6 DOF for example:– End effector with an axis of symmetry - Orientation
around the axis of symmetry is a free variable,– Placing of components on a circuit board - 4 DOF
• Dividing the total number of DOF between a robot and an active positioning platform
6
Task Requirements• Workspace (Work volume, Work envelope)
– Placing in the work space of the manipulator– Singularities– Collisions
• Load Capacity– Size of the structural members– power transmission system– Actuators
• Speed– Robotic solution must compete on economic basis– Process limitations - Painting, Welding– Maximum end effector speed versus cycle time
• Repeatability & Accuracy– Matching robot accuracy to the task (painting - spray spot 8 +/-2 “)– Accuracy function of design and manufacturing (Tolerances)
2
7
Kinematic Configuration
• Joints & DOF -– For a serial kinematic linkages, the number of joints
equal the required number of DOF• Overall Structure
– Positioning structure (link twist 0 or +/- 90 Deg, 0 off sets)
– Orientation structure• Wrist
– The last n-3 joints orient the end effector– The rotation axes intersect at one point.
• Joints– Three (or two) joints with orthogonal axes
• Workspace– Theoretically - Any orientation could be
achieved (Assuming no joint limits)– Practically - Severe joint angle limitations
• Kinematics– Closed form kinematic equations
4
19
Kinematic Configuration - Wrist
• Three intersecting orthogonal Axes– Bevel Gears Wrist
• Limited Rotations
• Three Roll Wrist (Cincinatti Milacron)• Three intersecting non-orthogonal
axes• Continuous joint rotations (no limits)• Sets of orientations which are
impossible to reach
20
Kinematic Configuration - Wrist
21
Kinematic Configuration - Wrist
• Non intersecting axes wrist
• A closed form inverse kinematic solution may not exist
• Special Cases (Existing Solutions)– Articulated configuration
• Joint axes 2,3,4 are parallel– Cartesian configuration
• Joint axes 4,5,6 do not intersect 22
Actuation Schemes
23
Reduction & Transmission Schemes
24
Kinematic ConfigurationsDesign
• Decide degrees of freedom first• Then choose kinematic configuration to
obtain the best– Workspace– Dynamic properties– Use of actuators and sensors– Accuracy
• A general, 6 dof manipulator is usually classified by the first 3 dof plus a wrist
5
25
Workspace Attributes
• Design efficiency• How much material is needed to build different
designs with the same workspace?• Length sum
• Structural length index
• (W = workspace volume, di = distance between joint limits)
26
Condition of Workspace
• When the manipulator is near a singular point, actions of the manipulator are said to be poorly conditioned.
• Singular conditions are given by• Thus, use the Jacobian as a measure of
manipulator dexterity
27
Manipulability Measure (vel)
• Yoshikawa defines manipulability as
• For a nonredundant manipulator
• A good manipulator has a high w over large areas of its workspace
28
Manipulability (acc/force)• Asada examines the eigenvalues λI and
eigenvectors of the Cartesian mass matrix
• Graphically, this can be represented as an inertia ellipsoid
• This is the equation of an n-dimensional ellipsoid, where n is the dimension of X– Axis directions are eigenvectors and lengths are .– See Craig, figure 8.12.
29
Redundant structures
• Can be useful for avoiding collisions while operating in cluttered work environments
30
Closed Loop structures
• So far, we have only considered serial chain manipulators
• Closed loop, or parallel, structures can be stiffer and more precise
• But, they typically decrease joint ranges and therefore workspace size
6
31
6dof Parallel manipulator
• Stewart Platform– (inverse kinematics easy, forward kinematics hard!)
32
DOF for closed loop system
• DOF not readily obvious• Grubler’s formula for closed chain manipulators
states
– Where F is the total dof in the mechanism– l is the number of links (including the base)– n is the total number of joints– fi is the dof associated with the ith joint
• Stewart F = 6(14-18-1)+36 = 6
33
Actuators and Sensors
• First, choose general kinematic structure• Next, choose actuation
– Actuator– Reduction– Transmission
• Finally, select sensors• (And then control)
34
Actuator Location• Direct Drive
– Placed at the joint– Simple and high controllability– No transmission or reduction elements
• However, speed reduction is often required because many actuators are suited to high speeds and low torques
• Also, weight/inertia of actuators affect the dynamics, so the actuators are placed at or near the robot base. Thus, a transmission system must be used.
35
Reduction & Transmission
• Gears produce large reductions in a compact configuration
• Disadvantages:– backlash and friction
• Gear ratio: relationship between input and output speeds & torques
36
Types of gears• Spur Gears
– (parallel shafts)• Bevel gears
– (orthogonal shafts)• Worm gears/cross helical
gears– (skew shafts)
• Rack & Pinion• Consider load, wear and
frictionSRL, Georgia Tech
7
37
• Flexible Transmission– Bands, Cables, Belts
• Capstan drive used in haptic devices• Need large preloads to ensure the cable stays
engaged
Jake Abbott, JHU
38
Actuator Types
• Electric motors– DC (direct current)– Brushed– PM (permanent
magnet)• Pneumatic Actuators
39
PM DC brushed motors
• How do they work?– Rotating armature with coil
windings is caused to rotate relative to a permanent magnet
– current is transmitted through brushes to armature, and is constantly switched so that the armature magnetic field remains fixed.
40
DC Motor Components
41
DC motor terms
• Cogging– Tendency for torque output to ripple as the
brushes transfer power• Friction/damping
– Caused by bearings and eddy currents• Stall torque
– Max torque delivered by motor when operated continuously without cooling
42
Motor Equations
8
43
Pneumatic Actuators
• How do they work?– Compressed air pressure is used to transfer
energy from the power source to robotic device
• Many different types• Concerns are
– friction – bandwidth
44
Robot Sensors
• Manipulators– Proprioception, Force
• Mobile Robots– Dead reckoning, Tactile and proximity,
Ranging, etc.• Recommended reading:
– Mobile Robots by Joseph J. Jones and Anita M. Flynn
– Sensors for Mobile Robots by H.R. Everett
45
Manipulator Sensors
• Primary concern is proprioception• Kinesthesia/Proprioception/Force:
– A sense mediated by end organs located in muscles, tendons, and joints.
– Stimulated by bodily movements.
46
Potentiometers
• Produce a voltage proportional to shaft position
• Voltage divider
47
Potentiometers
• Problems:– Friction (for backdriveable systems like haptic
devices)– Noise– Resolution– Linearity
48
Optical Encoders• How do they work?• A focused beam of light aimed at
a matched photodetector is interrupted periodically by a coded pattern on a disk
• Produces a number of pulses per revolution (Lots of pulses = high cost)
• Quantization problems at low speeds
• Absolute vs. referential
9
49
Optical Encoders
• Phase-quadrature encoder– 2 channels, 90° out of phase– allows sensing of direction of rotation– 4-fold increase in resolution
50
Hall-Effect Sensors
• How do they work?– A small transverse voltage is generated across a
current-carrying conductor in the presence of a magnetic field
– (Discovery made in 1879, but not useful until the advent of semiconductor technology.)
51
Hall-Effect Sensors
• Amount of voltage output related to the strength of magnetic field passing through.
• Linear over small range of motion• Need to be calibrated• Affected by temperature, other magnetic objects in the
environments
52
Measuring Velocity
• Differentiate position– advantage: use same sensor as position
sensor– disadvantage: get noise signal
• Alternative– for encoders, measure time between ticks
53
Digital differentiation
• Many different methods• Simple Example:
– Average 20 readings = P1– Average next 20 readings = P2where t is the
the period of the servo loop• Differentiation increases noise!
54
Time-between-ticks
• Encoders fare poorly at slow velocities– There may be very few ticks during a single servo loop
• Instead, use a specialized chip (PLC) that measures time between ticks– Fares worse at high velocities
10
55
External sensors• Computer Vision
– Use vision to determine linkage position
• Magnetic– e.g., Ascension flock of
birds• Force
– Commercial load cells/force sensors
– Direct application of strain gages
56
Mobile Robot Sensing
• Transducing vs. understanding• Levels of abstraction:
– Is it light or dark?– Is there a wall to the left?– Who just walked in the room?
• Algorithms are required to determine the desired information from basic sensor data