mangifera

Classification and phytochemical

of seeds

3. CLASSIFICATION AND PHYTOCHEMICAL OF SEEDS

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ANNONA SQUAMOSA Kingdom : Plantae Division : Magnoliophyta Class : Magnoliopsida

Order : Magnoliales Family : Annonaceae Genus : Annona Species : A. squamosa Binomial name : Annona squamosa

3.1.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

A. squamosa seed extracts were evaluated for antimicrobial activity against human pathogenic bacterial strain of gram negative Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi and gram positive Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyo genes. Benzene and methanol extracts showed high activity against E. coli, P. aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. The use of essential oil from A. squamosa as a potential antiseptic in prevention and treatment of bacterial infection has been suggested (Namasivayam and Palaniappan, 2005).

Armotemoyin-1 annotemoyin-2, squamocin and cholesteryl glucopyrano side were

isolated from seeds of A. squamosa collected from chapai nawabganj, Bangladesh, in September 2000. The compounds and extracts were evaluated for antibacterial against

Bacillus subtilis, B. cereus, B. megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus haemolyticus, Sarcina lutea, Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. sonnei, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella spp. and antifungal against

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Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. fumigatus and Candida albicans activities by disc diffusion method. All the compounds and extracts were showed antibacterial activity against all bacteria. Annotemoyin-1, Annotemoyin-2, Squamocin and Cholesteryl glucopyranoside were isolated from the seeds of Annona squamosa. These compounds and plant extracts were showed remarkable antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities (Rahman et al., 2005).

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ARTOCARPUS HETEROPHYLLUS

Kingdom : Plantae Division : Magnoliophyta Class : Magnoliopsida Order : Rosales Family Moraceae Genus : Artocarpus Species : A. heterophyllus

Binomial name : Artocarpus heterophyllus


Several species of the genus Artocarpus (Moraceae) have been investigated during the last decade. Over 60 phenolic constituents have been discovered and characterized, including 27 new compounds from 13 Indonesian taxa of Artocarpus, namely A.

champeden, A. lanceifolius, A. teysmanii, A. scortechinii, A. rotunda, A. maingayi, A. kemando, A. bracteata, A. altillis, A. fretessi, A. gomezianus, A. reticulates and A. glaucus. The principles and the most pronounced features of these phenolic constituents

are the assembly of an isoprenyl substituent at C-3 of a flavone skeleton by closure of an

either bridge or a carbon carbon linkage with a B ring of the skeleton, which may further

rearranged into xanthone to produced classes of natural products. The structures of the

new and unusual natural products are presented. Many of metabolites also exhibit

cytotoxic effects against murein leukemia P388 cells (Hakim et al., 2006).

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The crude methanolic extract of the stem and root barks, stem and root heart wood, leaves, fruits and seeds of Artocarpus heterophyllus and their subsequent partitioning with petrol, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and butanol gave fractions that exhibited a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity (Khan et al., 2003). Recent laboratory studies show that lectins found in jack fruit and its seeds may have antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and immunostimulative properties.

3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CUCURBITA MAXIMA

Kingdom : Plantae Division : Magnoliophyta Class : Magnoliopsida Order : Cucurbitales Family : Cucurbitaceae Genus : Cucurbita spp. Species : C. maxima


Cucurbita maxima contained carbohydrates 24.30%, fats 51.49% and proteins 16.80%. The major mineral content of the defatted seed flours was found to include potassium 39 ppm, sodium 11.50 ppm, and calcium 15 ppm. They also found to contain

zinc 0.084 ppm and iron 0.032 ppm (Ojiako, 2007).

Popularity of pumpkin in various systems of traditional medicine for several

ailments (antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antitumor, inmmunomodulation, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemia, intestinal antiparasitia, antiinflammation and antalgic) focused the investigators, attention on this plant considerable evidence form several epidemiological studies concerning bioactivities leads have stimulated a number of animal

model, cell culture studies and clinical trials designed to test this pharmacological actions

(Caili et al., 2006).

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Dried defatted and powdered seeds of Cucurbita pepo were extracted with solvents. Extracts obtained were separately tested for antibacterial and antifungal activities by a disc diffusion method. Test microorganisms were bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, E. coli) and fungi (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus). The results were obtained in the form of an inhibition zone. When compared with the control, results showed significant antimicrobial activities in extracts effective against all the tested microorganisms (Singhal, 2007).

3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM

Kingdom Plantae Division Magnoliophyta Class Liliopsida Order Zingiberales Family Zingiberaceae Genus

Elettaria Species E. cardamomum Binominal name Elettaria cardamomum


The essential oil was found to contain 71 compounds. The major components were a terponyl acetate (44.3%), 1,8- cincole (10.7%) a- terponeol (9.8%) and linalool (8.6%) . the chloroform and methanol oleroresins both contained a terpinyl acetate (21.8 and 25.9% respectively) as the main component while 5-hydroxymethylfurgural (28.9%) was the most abundant compound in the ethanol oleoresin (Singh et al., 2007).

Cardamom owes its aroma and therapeutic properties to the volatile oil present in the seeds (2-8%). The important constituent of cardamom is the volatile oil (6-10%) for which it is valued as a spice and flavouring material. Cardamom oil is rich in oxygenated

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compounds and poor in terpene hydrocarbons. The oil contains about 70 compounds mostly mono terpenoids. The major components are 1, 8-cincole and terpinyl acetate, 1, 8 cinceole gives a harsh `encalypte smell to the oil if present in high proportion. On the other hand, the oil rich in esters like terpinyl acetate and linalyl acetate are known to give 'flowery' smell. Volatile components of cardamom exhibit antimicrobial activity. Oil has antiaflotoxin substances. It has inhibitory properties against aflatoxins synthesis and caused 90% drop in aflatoxin elaboration. Thus oil can be successfully utilized against the danger of aflotoxin on food commodities (Kubo et al., 1984).

Terpineol and acetyl terponed active principles of cardamom seeds showed greater

penetration enhancing capacity than Azone which was used as a comparative penetration

enhancer for the diffusion of perdnisolone through mouse skin in vitro (Yamahara et al., 1989). Ether and methanol extracts of cardamom caused a significant decrease in gastric secretion after hours of treatment. The effect of water extract on gastric secretion as very

similar to that of cimetidine with a significant decrease in acid output. The effect of methanol extract is primarily observed as decreased pepsin output.

The effects of the entire fruits, pericarps and seeds of E. cardamomum on the

microbial populations of the mouth cavity in vitro were studied. Cardamom fruits, pericarps and seeds effectively reduced the microflora in the saliva in vitro. The maximum antibacterial activity was exhibited by the entire fruits, closely followed by the pericarps. The cardamom seeds were also effective but the efficacy was very low compared to that of the entire fruit or pericarp alone (Tiwari and Charaya, 2005).

The essential oil exhibited strong antibacterial activity against the microorganisms

Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi by agar

well diffusion method. Antifungal activity was tested against the food borne fungi

Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium purpurogenum, Fusarium graminearum and Pen icillium

madriti (Singh et al., 2007).

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3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF MANGIFERA INDICA

Kingdom : Plantae Phylum : Magnoliophyta Class : Magnoliopsida Order : Sapindales Family : Anacardiaceae Genus : Mangifera. Species : indica Binomial name : Mangifera indica


The unripe, fully developed mangoes of pickling varieties contain citri, malic,

oxalic, succinic and two unidentified acids. The ripe fruits constitute a rich source of vitamin A, some varieties contain fairly good amounts of vitamin (also 13 carotene and xanthophylls are the principle pigments). The leaves contain the glucoside mangiferine. The bark of the mango tree contains tannin (16-20%) mangiferine has been isolated from the bark.

Mangostin, 29-hydroxymangiferonic acid and mangiferin have been isolated from the stem bark, together with common fiavonoids. The flowers yielded alkyl gallates such

as gallic acid, ethyl gallate, methyl gallate, n-propyl gallate, n-pentyl gallate, n-octyl gallate, 4-phynyl-n-butyl gallate, 6-phynyl-n-hexyl gallate and dihydrogallic acid. The antibacterial assay was done by both agar disc diffusion method and agar well diffusion method. The antibacterial activity exhibited by alcoholic extract was better than the

aqueous extract. The results evaluated as the diameter of the inhibition zone of microbial growth showed that the extracts were more active against gram positive bacteria than

gram negative bacteria. Among the investigated microorganisms, the most resistant

bacteria were Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Alcaligenes fecalis. The most susceptible bacteria were gram positive Bacillus cereus and gram negative Klebsiella pneumoniae

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and the maximum activity was shown by Term inalia chebula, Mangifera indica and Eucalyptus citriodora (Parekh and Chanda, 2006).

The antimicrobial properties of Mango Seed Kernel Ethanol extract (MKE) were investigated Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the MKE against 18 species of 43 strains, containing food borne pathogenic bacteria were determined using the agar

dilution method. The MKE had a broad antimicrobial spectrum and was more active against gram positive than gram negative bacterial with a few exceptions (Kabuki et al., 2000).

Bacterial and fungal infections pose a greater threat to health, most notably in immune compromised subjects, hence the need to find natural cheap an defective antimicrobial agents. The antimicrobial properties of mango seed kernel extract were

investigated (Kabuki et al., 2000). The ethanol extract had a broad antimicrobial spectrum and was more active against gram positive than gram negative bacteria with a few

exceptions. The results indicated that the active component was a type of polyphenol. The

antimicrobial activity of extract was stable against heat (121 C, 15 min), freezing (-20C, 16 hrs) and pH treatment (pH 3-9) normally used in food processing. Therefore the mango seed kernel extract would be used together with other antimicrobial components, effective against gram negative bacteria such as organic acids.

Akinpelu and Onakoya (2006) investigated that the antimicrobial activities of methanolic extracts of Psidium guajava and Mangifera indica. Fifteen different bacterial isolates comprising of both gram negative and gram positive organisms were used. The

results show that P. guajava and M indica extracts exhibited antimicrobial activities at a concentration of 20 mg/ml, the zone of inhibition exhibited by P. guajava extract ranged between 12 mm and 30 mm while that of M indica varied between 11 and 28 mm. the

minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) exhibited by P. guajava extract against the tested organisms ranged between 0.313 and 0.625 mg/ml. On the other hand MIC

exhibited by M indica extract varied between 1.25 and 10.0 mg/ml.

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Mango extract at 50% concentration showed maximum zone of inhibition on Streptococcus mitis. Neem extract produced the maximum zone of inhibition on

Streptococcus mutans at 50% concentration. Even at 5% concentration neem extract showed some inhibition of growth for all the four species of organisms (Prashant et al., 2007).

Mangifera indica is commonly grown in many parts of the world. Its seeds have been used for anti diarrhoeal activity in Indian traditional medicine. This study evaluates the potential anti diarrhoeal activity of methanolic (MMI) and aqueous (AMI) extracts of seeds of M indica in experimental diarrhoea, induced by castor oil and magnesium sulphate in mice (Sairam et al., 2003).

Leaf extracts of Man gifera indica a medicinal and horticultural plant were investigated for antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coil and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Using the agar well diffusion and the gradient serial dilution

methods the extracts showed weak antibacterial activity against the study organisms

compared with the positive control (Gentamicin). The ethanolic extract was most active with minimum inhibitory concentration ranging from 5481.0 to 4375.0 lig (Bbosa et al., 2007).

3.6 CLASSIFICATION OF MOMORDICA CHARANTIA

Kingdom : Plantae Division : Magnoliophyta Class : Magnoliopsida Order : Cucurbitales Family : Cucurbitaceae Genus : Momordica Species : M charantia Binomial name : Momordica charantia

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The seeds of Momordica charantia a better melon fruit that is widely used as food

as well as medicine in Asia. It has a particular clinical usefulness similar to MAP 30

(Momordica anti HIV protein, molecular weight 30 kDa) is believed to have multiple functions that could be beneficial for HIV (Jassim and Naji, 2003). Plants such as Ananas comosus (pine apple), Momordica charantia (bitter gourd) and Azadirachta indica (neem) containing anthelmintic compounds and for their use for controlling internal parasites

(Makkar et al., 2007).

Last few decades has certified several such claims of use of several plants of

traditional medicines. Popularity of Momordica charantia (MC) in various systems of traditional medicine for several ailments (antidiabetic, abortifacient, antihelminthic, contraceptive, dysmenorrheal, eczema, emmenagogue, antimalarial, galactagogue, gout,

jaundice, abdominal pain, kidney (stone), laxative, leprosy, leucorrhea, piles, pneumonia, psoriasis, purgative, rheumatism, fever and scabies) focused the investigator's attention on this plant. Over 100 studies using modem techniques have authenticated its use in diabetes

and its complications (nephropathy, cataract, insulin resistance), as antibacterial as well as antiviral agent (including HIV infection) as antihelminthic and abortifacient (Grover and Yadav, 2004).

3.7 CLASSIFICATION OF MORINGA OLEIFERA

Kingdom : Plantae Division : Magnoliophyta Class : Magnoliopsida Order : Brassicales Family : Moringaceae Genus : Moringa Species : M oleifera Binomial name Moringa oleifera

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The organic extracts of M oleifera had higher activity compared to the aqueous extracts. It has been reported that different solvents have different extraction capacities and different spectrum of solubility for the phytoconstituents (Majorie, 1999; Srinivasan et al., 2001). Several evidences revealed that M oleifera had various pharmaceutical activities such as antibacterial (Eilert et al., 1981; Dayrit et al., 1990) antifungal, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory and diuretic activates (Caceres et al., 1992) mutagenic activity of M oleifera was also proposed by Villasena et al., (1989). The nutritional values of this plant were demonstrated by Verma et al., (1976) and Chakraborti et al., (1988).

Moringa oleifera leaves as a source of plant growth factors, antioxidants, beta carotene, vitamin C and various glucosinolates and their degraded products for possible

use as antibacterial, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and antipest agents (Makkar et al., 2007). In an ethnobotanical survey of the uses of M oleifera in Guatemala, it was demonstrated that the main medicinal uses of this plant are for the treatment of infectious diseases of the skin and mucosa (boils, spots, and ringworm rash), digestive system (stomach pains, diarrhea) and respiratory tracts (fever, influenza, cold). Similar uses have been reported in India (Pushpangadan and Atal, 1986; Ramachandran et al., 1980) Pakistan (Dastur, 1977) and Sudan (John, 1986).

3.8 CLASSIFICATION OF PHOENIX DACTYLIFERA

Kingdom Division Class Order Family Genus Species Binomial name

\

: Plantae Magnoliophyta Liliopsida Arecales Arecaceae Phoenix P. dactylifera Phoenix dactylifera

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The sugar content of ripe date is about 80% the remainder consists of protein, fat and mineral products including copper, sulphur, iron, magnesium and fluoric acid. Dates are high in fiber and an excellent source of potassium. Medical anthropologist Dr. John Heinerman states that ten dates yield 47 mg of calcium, 50 mg of phosphorous, 2.4 mg of iron, 1 mg sodium, 518 mg niacin and very little vitamin C. Heinerman states that carbohydrate rich food, such as the date, can induce sleep when consumed just prior to bedtime. The author also mentioned that a possible benefit of using a puree of potted dates externally on skin eruptions since dates have high sugar content and sugar has

successfully been used as a folk remedy to treat open wounds and sores in many parts of the world (Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003).

Thirty four date (Phoenix dactylifera) varieties, from start of tame stage of maturity were analysed for moisture, protein, lipid and ash. The mean percent of moisture, protein, lipid and ash were 29.35, 3.3, 042 and 2.25 g/100g (Fresh weight basis), respectively. Predominant sugars were fructose (12.62 - 43.31 g/1 00g) and glucose (16.41 - 54.23 g/100g fresh weight basis) sucrose was not practically detected in most varieties. Mineral elements such as Na, Mg, K, and Ca were determined by ICP atomic

spectroscopy and their amounts were in the range of 4.46 47.74, 18.44 - 79.35, 203.61 - 982.97 and 23.24 - 73.85 mg/100g (dry weight basis) respectively (Sahari et al., 2007).

In terms of dry weight, the chemical composition of date pots has been reported as

containing 5-10% moisture. 5-7% protein, 7-10% oil, 10-20% crude fiber, 55-65%

carbohydrates and 1-2% ash (Barreveld, 2007; Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003). The carbohydrates, as the largest component of the dry weight, are typically comprised of

neutral detergent fiber 75%, acid detergent fiber 57.5%, hemicelluloses 17.5%, lignin 11%, cellulose 42.5% and ash 4% (Barreveld, 2007; Hamada et al., 2002).

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The seed powder is also used in some traditional medicines and has been

investigated for human potential health benefits (Hamada et al., 2002) and for addition to animal feed to enhance growth (Afifi et al., 1966; Jumah et al., 1973; Kamal et al., 1981; Hussein and Alhadram, 2003), the latter an action that has been ascribed to an increase in the plasma level of estrogen (Elgasim et al., 1995) or testosterone (Ali et al., 1999). Date pots have been studied as potential sources of edible oils and pharmaceutical (Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003). In addition, date pot extract shows an ability to restore the normal functional status of the poisoned liver and also to protect against subsequent carbon

tetrachloride hepatotoxicity on the liver in rats (Al-Qarawi et al., 2004). Jassim et al., (1995) evaluated that the antiviral efficacy of an acetone extract of the pots of the date palm Phoenix dactyl ifera against Pseudomonas phage ATCC 14209-B1.

It was also found that the 100 and 1000 gg m1'1 concentrations of date pot extract

was showed a strong ability to inhibit the infectivity of Pseudomonas phage ATCC

14209-B1 as evidence by the presence of higher members of P. aeruginosa cells surviving

(Stewart etal., 1998).

3.9 CLASSIFICATION OF TAMARIND US INDICA

Kingdom : Plantae Division : Magnoliophyta

Class : Magnoliopsida Order : Fabales Family : Fabaceae Subfamily : Caesalpinioideae Tribe : Detarieae Genus : Tamarindus Species : T indica Binomial name Tamarindus indica

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In Thai traditional medicine, the fruit of Tamarindus indica is considered to be as a

digestive, carminative, laxative, expectorant and a blood tonic. A crude Tamarindus

indica seed extract inhibited the PLA2, protease, hyaluronidase, L-aminoacid oxidase and

5' nucleotidase enzyme activities of Vipera russelle venom in a dose dependent manner.

Mice that received the extract 10 min after the injection of venom were protected from venom induced toxicity. The seed coat extract of Tamarindus indica has antioxidant

activity. The extract is composed of flavonoids including tannins, polyphenols,

anthocycnidine, and lolgomeric proanthocyanidins. These flavonoids may produce

vasorelaxant activity, increase capillary permeability and protection from oxidative stress.

Excess nitric oxide production is associated with diseases such as autoimmunity,

rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and septic shock. In vitro studies

demonstrated that the crude seed coated extract of Tamarindus indica suppressed nitric

oxide production while producing no adverse effects.

In Indian traditional medicine, various plants have been used widely as a remedy

for treating snakebites. The effect of Tamarindus indica seed extract on the

pharmacological as well as the enzymatic effects induced by V. russelli venom. Tamarind

seed extract inhibited the PLA (2), protease, hyaluronidase, L-amino acid oxidase and 5' nucleotidase enzyme activities of venom in a dose dependent manner. These are the major hydrolytic enzymes responsible for the early effects of envenomation, such as local tissue

damage, inflammation and hypotension. Furthermore the extract neutralized the

degradation of the B beta chain of human fibrinogen and indirect hemolysis caused by

venom (Ushanandini et al., 2006).

Methanol leaf extracts of Tamarindus indica exhibited anti-B Pseudomallei

activity starting from disc concentrations of 1501.tg by the disc diffusion method (Shankar et al., 2005) leaves of T. indica have already been reported to have anti pseudomonal activity (Khare, 2004).

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