"Man is born free but everywhere is in chains." Cogito, ergo sum Deism Progress Tolerance “If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him” “Dare.

"Man is born free but everywhere is in chains."

Cogito, ergo sum

Deism

Progress

Tolerance

“If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him”

““Dare to Know”Dare to Know”

The Eighteenth The Eighteenth Century: Century: An Age of An Age of

EnlightenmentEnlightenment

The Eighteenth The Eighteenth Century: Century: An Age of An Age of

EnlightenmentEnlightenment

The EnlightenmentThe EnlightenmentThe EnlightenmentThe EnlightenmentNew ideas New ideas

about the about the human human potential for potential for progressprogress..

Grew in Grew in part out of part out of the the Scientific Scientific RevolutionRevolution

Sir Isaac Newton 1702

Became one Became one of the of the foundations of foundations of the American the American and French and French RevolutionsRevolutions..

Appealed Appealed primarily to primarily to middlemiddle and and upperupper classes, classes, particularly in particularly in urban areasurban areas..

Key Ideas of the EnlightenmentKey Ideas of the EnlightenmentKey Ideas of the EnlightenmentKey Ideas of the Enlightenment

Scientific lawsScientific laws should be should be used to understand the world.used to understand the world.

Laws of Laws of human societyhuman society and and the physical world could bethe physical world could bediscerned through the discerned through the scientific methodscientific method

Humanity could Humanity could progressprogress..

Immanuel KantImmanuel KantImmanuel KantImmanuel Kant

The German philosopher The German philosopher Immanuel Immanuel KantKant proclaimed proclaimed the motto of the the motto of the Enlightenment to be: Enlightenment to be:

“Dare to Know!” “Dare to Know!”

The The Popularization of Popularization of

ScienceScience

The The Popularization of Popularization of

ScienceScience

Bernard de FontenelleBernard de FontenelleBernard de FontenelleBernard de Fontenelle The scientist-philosopher The scientist-philosopher

Bernard de Fontenelle Bernard de Fontenelle provides a link between provides a link between the scientists of the 17th the scientists of the 17th century and the century and the philosophes of the philosophes of the Eighteenth century.Eighteenth century.

The works of Fontenelle The works of Fontenelle announced the Enlightenment announced the Enlightenment by encouraging by encouraging amateuramateur conversations about scientific conversations about scientific matters.matters.

He He popularizedpopularized the growing the growing skepticismskepticism toward the claims of toward the claims of religion and portrayed churches religion and portrayed churches as clear enemies of scientific as clear enemies of scientific progress.progress.

Fontenelle was best known for Fontenelle was best known for his his Plurality of WorldsPlurality of Worlds, which , which popularized the new ideas of a popularized the new ideas of a mechanistic universe and mechanistic universe and clearly showed a woman’s clearly showed a woman’s interest in scientific discourse.interest in scientific discourse.

The Rise of SkepticismThe Rise of SkepticismThe Rise of SkepticismThe Rise of Skepticism

Questioning the Church’s Questioning the Church’s dogma concerning the dogma concerning the physical world led to physical world led to skepticism regarding all skepticism regarding all aspects of Church authority.aspects of Church authority.

Pierre BaylePierre BaylePierre BaylePierre Bayle

Pierre Bayle exemplified Pierre Bayle exemplified the new skepticism about the new skepticism about religious explanations of religious explanations of anything.anything.

Bayle's Bayle's Historical and Critical Historical and Critical DictionaryDictionary is a work demonstrating is a work demonstrating the author's conviction that new the author's conviction that new rational principles of textual rational principles of textual criticism should be applied to all criticism should be applied to all types of writing including types of writing including the Bible.the Bible.

The Impact of Travel LiteratureThe Impact of Travel LiteratureThe Impact of Travel LiteratureThe Impact of Travel Literature

A key new type of enlightened A key new type of enlightened writing fueling skepticism about writing fueling skepticism about the "truths" of Christianity and the "truths" of Christianity and European society were European society were travel travel reportsreports and comparative studies of and comparative studies of old and new world old and new world culturescultures..

What had been seen as practices What had been seen as practices grounded in reason were seen to be grounded in reason were seen to be matters of matters of customcustom and and traditionstraditions..

Cultural Relativism was Cultural Relativism was accompanied by religious accompanied by religious skepticism.skepticism.

The Legacy of The Legacy of Newton and LockeNewton and Locke

The Legacy of The Legacy of Newton and LockeNewton and Locke

Isaac Newton and John Locke Isaac Newton and John Locke provided inspiration for the provided inspiration for the Enlightenment by arguing that Enlightenment by arguing that through rational reasoning and the through rational reasoning and the acquisition of knowledge natural acquisition of knowledge natural laws governing human society laws governing human society could be discovered.could be discovered.

John Locke John Locke (1632-1704)(1632-1704)John Locke John Locke (1632-1704)(1632-1704)

English philosopher, who English philosopher, who founded the school of founded the school of empiricismempiricism..

Locke gave Bacon’s Locke gave Bacon’s empiricism systematic empiricism systematic expression in his expression in his Essay Essay Concerning Human Concerning Human UnderstandingUnderstanding (1690). (1690).

Locke's empiricism Locke's empiricism emphasizes the emphasizes the importance of the importance of the experienceexperience of the of the sensessenses in pursuit of knowledge in pursuit of knowledge rather than intuitive rather than intuitive speculation or deduction.speculation or deduction.

"No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience.""No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience."(Locke.)(Locke.)

"No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience.""No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience."(Locke.)(Locke.)

He regarded the mind of He regarded the mind of a person at birth as a a person at birth as a tabula rasatabula rasa, a blank slate , a blank slate upon which experience upon which experience imprinted knowledge, imprinted knowledge, and did not believe in and did not believe in intuition or theories of intuition or theories of innate conceptions.innate conceptions.

Locke also held Locke also held that all persons that all persons are born are born goodgood, , independent, independent, and and equalequal..

Locke’s Political TheoriesLocke’s Political TheoriesLocke’s Political TheoriesLocke’s Political Theories

He argued that He argued that government government should be based should be based on the consent of on the consent of the governed.the governed.

There was a There was a contractcontract between between governments and governments and the governed.the governed.

The PhilosophesThe PhilosophesThe PhilosophesThe Philosophes

Philosophers Philosophers who who questioned the questioned the human human condition.condition.

They saw They saw themselves as the themselves as the heir to the heir to the philosophers of philosophers of antiquity and the antiquity and the Renaissance Renaissance HumanistsHumanists..

They advocated They advocated reform through reform through the acquisition of the acquisition of knowledge by knowledge by scientific scientific methods.methods.

They believed They believed in the in the perfectionperfection of human of human institutions institutions through reason. through reason.

The French The French philosophes philosophes included people included people mainly from the mainly from the nobilitynobility and the and the middle classmiddle class..

Jean HuberLa Sainte Cène du Patriarche

(c.1772)

ParisParisParisParis The recognized capital of the The recognized capital of the

Enlightenment was Enlightenment was ParisParis, but , but the movement was the movement was international.international.

Baron de Montesquieu Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)(1689-1755)Baron de Montesquieu Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)(1689-1755)

Charles Louis de Charles Louis de Secondat was Secondat was born in Bordeaux, born in Bordeaux, France, in 1689 to France, in 1689 to a wealthy family. a wealthy family.

He was a member of the He was a member of the Bordeaux and French Bordeaux and French Academies of Science and Academies of Science and studied the laws and customs studied the laws and customs and governments of the and governments of the countries of Europe. countries of Europe.

He gained fame in He gained fame in 1721 with his 1721 with his Persian LettersPersian Letters,, which criticized the which criticized the lifestyle and liberties lifestyle and liberties of the wealthy French of the wealthy French as well as the church.as well as the church.

L’Esprit des LoixL’Esprit des LoixL’Esprit des LoixL’Esprit des Loix Montesquieu's book Montesquieu's book

On the On the Spirit of Spirit of LawsLaws,, published in published in 1748, was his most 1748, was his most famous work. famous work.

It outlined his ideas It outlined his ideas on how government on how government would work bestwould work best. .

Montesquieu believed that a Montesquieu believed that a government that was government that was electedelected by by the people was the best form of the people was the best form of government, but that government, but that geographygeography and and environmentenvironment determine the form.determine the form.

Montesquieu Montesquieu

argued that the argued that the best government best government would be one in would be one in which power was which power was balancedbalanced among among three groupsthree groups of of officials. officials.

He thought He thought EnglandEngland - - which divided power which divided power between the king (who between the king (who enforced laws), enforced laws), Parliament (which made Parliament (which made laws), and the judges of laws), and the judges of the English courts (who the English courts (who interpreted laws) - was interpreted laws) - was a good model of this.a good model of this.

Montesquieu called Montesquieu called the idea of dividing the idea of dividing government power government power into three branches into three branches the "the "separation of separation of powerspowers." ."

He thought it most He thought it most important to create important to create separate branches separate branches of government of government with equal but with equal but different powers. different powers.

Charles de Secondat, Baron de MontesquieuCharles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu Charles de Secondat, Baron de MontesquieuCharles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu

"When the [law "When the [law making] and [law making] and [law enforcement] powers enforcement] powers are united in the are united in the same person... there same person... there can be no liberty." can be no liberty."

His ideas about His ideas about separation of separation of powers became powers became the basis for the the basis for the United States United States ConstitutionConstitution. .

Voltaire (1694-1778)Voltaire (1694-1778)Voltaire (1694-1778)Voltaire (1694-1778)

Voltaire was born Voltaire was born François Marie Arouet in François Marie Arouet in Paris, November 21, Paris, November 21, 1694, the son of a notary. 1694, the son of a notary.

He was educated by the He was educated by the Jesuits at the College Jesuits at the College Louis-le-Grand.Louis-le-Grand.

Voltaire chose literature as a Voltaire chose literature as a career. career.

He began moving in He began moving in aristocratic circles and soon aristocratic circles and soon became known in Paris salons became known in Paris salons as a brilliant and as a brilliant and sarcasticsarcastic wit. wit.

A number of his writings A number of his writings resulted in his imprisonment resulted in his imprisonment in the Bastille.in the Bastille.

While in prison he began While in prison he began writing plays, which were writing plays, which were widely acclaimed. widely acclaimed.

A quarrel with a member of an A quarrel with a member of an illustrious French family, the illustrious French family, the chevalier de Rohan, resulted in chevalier de Rohan, resulted in Voltaire's promise to quit France and Voltaire's promise to quit France and proceed to England. proceed to England.

Accordingly he spent about two Accordingly he spent about two years in London.years in London.

In Voltaire's In Voltaire's Philosophic Philosophic Letters to the EnglishLetters to the English he he expressed deep admiration for expressed deep admiration for the English love of freedom, the English love of freedom, tolerance, and commercial tolerance, and commercial excellence.excellence.

He spent time at the the court of He spent time at the the court of Louis XV and became a member of Louis XV and became a member of the French Academy.the French Academy.

After a brief sojourn at the Prussian After a brief sojourn at the Prussian court he settled at Ferney near the court he settled at Ferney near the Swiss border and devoted the rest of Swiss border and devoted the rest of his life to writing.his life to writing.

His morality was founded on a His morality was founded on a belief in belief in freedom of thoughtfreedom of thought and respect for all individuals, and respect for all individuals, and he maintained that literature and he maintained that literature should be useful and concerned should be useful and concerned with the problems of the day.with the problems of the day.

During his later life, During his later life, Voltaire became Voltaire became increasingly critical of increasingly critical of religious intolerancereligious intolerance

““écrasons l'infâme”écrasons l'infâme”““écrasons l'infâme”écrasons l'infâme”The flavor of Voltaire's The flavor of Voltaire's

activities could be activities could be summarized in the phrase summarized in the phrase he often used: he often used: écrasons écrasons l'infâmel'infâme ("let us crush the ("let us crush the infamous one").infamous one").

he referred to any form of he referred to any form of religion that persecutes religion that persecutes non-adherents or that non-adherents or that constitutes fanaticism.constitutes fanaticism.

For Christianity he would For Christianity he would substitute substitute deismdeism, a purely , a purely rational religion.rational religion.

DeismDeism DeismDeism

Deism was based on Deism was based on the Newtonian the Newtonian world-machine with world-machine with God as its benevolent God as its benevolent mechanic, designing mechanic, designing the universe in the universe in accord with rational accord with rational laws.laws.

His most famous work is His most famous work is perhaps perhaps CandideCandide,, in which in which Voltaire analyzes the problem Voltaire analyzes the problem of evil in the world, depicts the of evil in the world, depicts the woes heaped upon the world in woes heaped upon the world in the name of religion. the name of religion.

Diderot, Denis (1713-1784),Diderot, Denis (1713-1784), Diderot, Denis (1713-1784),Diderot, Denis (1713-1784),

French French Encyclopedist Encyclopedist and philosopher, and philosopher, who also wrote who also wrote novels, essays, novels, essays, plays, and art and plays, and art and literary criticism.literary criticism.

Diderot was born Diderot was born in Langres on in Langres on October 5, 1713, October 5, 1713, and educated by and educated by Jesuits. Jesuits.

Portrait by Fragonard

His first serious His first serious work was work was Pensées Pensées philosophiquesphilosophiques (1746), which (1746), which stated his deist stated his deist philosophy.philosophy.

He was the most He was the most versatile of all the versatile of all the philosophes, as philosophes, as exemplified by the exemplified by the various types of various types of provocative provocative literature he wrote.literature he wrote.

In 1747 he was invited to In 1747 he was invited to edit a French translation edit a French translation of the English of the English CyclopaediaCyclopaedia by Ephraim by Ephraim Chambers.Chambers.

EncyclopediaEncyclopedia EncyclopediaEncyclopedia

Diderot converted Diderot converted the project into a the project into a vast, new, and vast, new, and controversial 28-controversial 28-volume volume EncyclopediaEncyclopedia compiling articles by compiling articles by many influential many influential philosophesphilosophes..

The The skepticalskeptical, rationalist , rationalist Diderot used the Diderot used the EncyclopediaEncyclopedia as a powerful propaganda as a powerful propaganda weapon against Ecclesiastical weapon against Ecclesiastical authority and the superstition, authority and the superstition, conservatism, and semi-feudal conservatism, and semi-feudal social forms of the time. social forms of the time.

He renounced He renounced chastity and the chastity and the narrow Christian narrow Christian definitions of definitions of acceptable sexual acceptable sexual relations and relations and expressions of expressions of love.love.

Consequently, Consequently, Diderot and his Diderot and his associates became associates became the objects of the objects of clerical and royal clerical and royal antagonism.antagonism.

The New “Science of Man”The New “Science of Man”The New “Science of Man”The New “Science of Man”

The belief in natural laws The belief in natural laws underlying all areas of underlying all areas of human life led to the human life led to the emergence of the emergence of the social social sciences. sciences.

David HumeDavid HumeDavid HumeDavid Hume David HumeDavid Hume (1711-1776), (1711-1776),

a Scottish historian and a Scottish historian and philosopher, who philosopher, who influenced the influenced the development of development of skepticism and skepticism and empiricism, two schools empiricism, two schools of philosophy.of philosophy.

Born in Edinburgh Born in Edinburgh on May 7, 1711, on May 7, 1711, Hume was educated Hume was educated at home and at the at home and at the University of University of Edinburgh, at which Edinburgh, at which he matriculated at he matriculated at the age of 12. the age of 12.

His most important His most important philosophical work, philosophical work, A A Treatise of Human NatureTreatise of Human Nature,, published in 1739, embodies published in 1739, embodies the essence of his thinking.the essence of his thinking.

His work encouraged the His work encouraged the belief in the possibility of a belief in the possibility of a sciencescience of of manman..

In a revolutionary step in In a revolutionary step in philosophy, Hume rejected the philosophy, Hume rejected the basic idea of basic idea of causationcausation, , maintaining that “reason can never maintaining that “reason can never show us the connection of one show us the connection of one object with another.”object with another.”

Hume denied the existence of the Hume denied the existence of the individual selfindividual self, maintaining that , maintaining that because people do not have a because people do not have a constant perception of themselves as constant perception of themselves as distinct entities, they “are nothing distinct entities, they “are nothing but a bundle or collection of but a bundle or collection of different perceptions.”different perceptions.”

As a historian Hume broke As a historian Hume broke away from the traditional away from the traditional chronological account and chronological account and attempted to describe the attempted to describe the economiceconomic and and intellectualintellectual forces forces that played a part in history.that played a part in history.

His His History of EnglandHistory of England was was regarded as a classic for many regarded as a classic for many years.years.

Hume's contributions to economic Hume's contributions to economic theory included his belief that theory included his belief that wealth depends not on wealth depends not on moneymoney but but on commodities and his on commodities and his recognition of the effect of social recognition of the effect of social conditions on economics.conditions on economics.

These ideas influenced the These ideas influenced the Scottish philosopher and Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith and economist Adam Smith and later economists. later economists.

The PhysiocratsThe PhysiocratsThe PhysiocratsThe Physiocrats A school of French thinkers A school of French thinkers

who sought to create the first who sought to create the first complete system of complete system of economicseconomics. .

They were also referred to They were also referred to simply as “the economists” or simply as “the economists” or “the sect.”“the sect.”

The founder The founder and leader of and leader of physiocracy physiocracy was François was François QuesnayQuesnay..

First AxiomFirst AxiomFirst AxiomFirst Axiom all wealth originated with the all wealth originated with the landland

and that agriculture alone could and that agriculture alone could increase and multiply wealth. increase and multiply wealth.

Industry and commerce were Industry and commerce were basically sterile and could not add basically sterile and could not add to the wealth created by the land. to the wealth created by the land.

Second AxiomSecond AxiomSecond AxiomSecond Axiom only abundance combined with high only abundance combined with high

prices could create prosperity.prices could create prosperity. This could be obtained only if the This could be obtained only if the

““economic laweconomic law,” which the ,” which the physiocrats envisaged as being as physiocrats envisaged as being as immutable as the law of gravity, was immutable as the law of gravity, was allowed to act untrammeled. allowed to act untrammeled.

Laissez-faireLaissez-faireLaissez-faireLaissez-faire Absolute freedom of trade was Absolute freedom of trade was

necessary to stabilize prices at a necessary to stabilize prices at a fair level, and laissez faire was fair level, and laissez faire was to restore the economic process to restore the economic process to its natural course, from which to its natural course, from which all further benefits would flow. all further benefits would flow.

Adam Smith Adam Smith (1723-1790)(1723-1790)Adam Smith Adam Smith (1723-1790)(1723-1790)

British economist, whose British economist, whose treatise treatise AnAn Inquiry into the Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of theNature and Causes of the Wealth of NationsWealth of Nations was the was the first serious attempt to first serious attempt to study the nature of capital study the nature of capital and the historical and the historical development of industry development of industry and commerce.and commerce.

He espoused three He espoused three basic principals of basic principals of economics in his economics in his attack on the attack on the economic system economic system of of MercantilismMercantilism..

First PrincipalFirst PrincipalFirst PrincipalFirst Principal Nations should not Nations should not

rely on rely on protective protective tariffstariffs - each nation - each nation should produce what should produce what it does best without it does best without artificial barriers.artificial barriers.

Second PrincipalSecond PrincipalSecond PrincipalSecond Principal

The The labor theorylabor theory of of valuevalue - he claimed - he claimed that gold and silver that gold and silver were not the source were not the source of a nation’s wealth of a nation’s wealth - labor was.- labor was.

Third PrincipalThird PrincipalThird PrincipalThird Principal Capital is best Capital is best

employed under employed under conditions of conditions of governmental governmental noninterference, noninterference, or or laissez-fairelaissez-faire, , and free trade.and free trade.

laissez-fairelaissez-fairelaissez-fairelaissez-faire the production and the production and

exchange of goods can be exchange of goods can be stimulated only through stimulated only through the efficient operations of the efficient operations of private industrial and private industrial and commercial commercial entrepreneursentrepreneurs acting with a minimum of acting with a minimum of regulation and control by regulation and control by governments.governments.

The Invisible HandThe Invisible HandThe Invisible HandThe Invisible Hand To explain this concept To explain this concept

of government of government maintaining a laissez-maintaining a laissez-faire attitude toward faire attitude toward commercial endeavors, commercial endeavors, Smith proclaimed the Smith proclaimed the principle of the principle of the ““invisible handinvisible hand.”.”

The Invisible HandThe Invisible HandThe Invisible HandThe Invisible Hand

Every individual in Every individual in pursuing his or her pursuing his or her own goodown good is led, as if is led, as if by an invisible hand, by an invisible hand, to achieve the best to achieve the best good for all. good for all.

Therefore any Therefore any interference with interference with free competition free competition by government is by government is almost certain to almost certain to be injurious.be injurious.

The Function of GovernmentThe Function of Government The Function of GovernmentThe Function of Government

According to Smith, government According to Smith, government only has three functions:only has three functions:

1. 1. Protect societyProtect society from invasion from invasion (Army)(Army)

2. 2. Defend individualsDefend individuals (Police) (Police)

3. Provide certain 3. Provide certain public workspublic works. .

The Later The Later EnlightenmentEnlightenment

The Later The Later EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Baron Paul d’HolbachBaron Paul d’HolbachBaron Paul d’HolbachBaron Paul d’Holbach

Reached an extreme degree Reached an extreme degree of of atheismatheism in his work in his work System of NatureSystem of Nature (1770) in which he (1770) in which he said that men were machines and God, said that men were machines and God, as a mere product of the human mind, as a mere product of the human mind, was unnecessary for leading a moral was unnecessary for leading a moral life.life.

Marie-Jean de CondorcetMarie-Jean de CondorcetMarie-Jean de CondorcetMarie-Jean de Condorcet

In his work In his work The The progress of the progress of the Human MindHuman Mind he he expressed the idea expressed the idea that human that human perfectibility is perfectibility is limitlesslimitless..

Jean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), French (1712-1778), French philosopher, social and philosopher, social and political theorist, political theorist, musician, botanist, and musician, botanist, and one of the most eloquent one of the most eloquent writers of the Age of writers of the Age of Enlightenment.Enlightenment.

Jean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques Rousseau

“man is born free, but he is everywhere in chains”

In his In his Discourse on the Discourse on the Origins of Inequality of Origins of Inequality of MankindMankind he says that he says that private propertyprivate property was was the source of inequality the source of inequality and the chief cause of and the chief cause of crimes.crimes.

In In The Social ContractThe Social Contract, , he expressed his belief he expressed his belief that government was a that government was a necessary evilnecessary evil and that and that freedom is achieved by freedom is achieved by being forced to follow being forced to follow the "general will.”the "general will.”

Rousseau's Rousseau's influential novel, influential novel, EmileEmile, deals with , deals with the key the key Enlightenment Enlightenment themes of proper themes of proper child rearing and child rearing and human education.human education.

He believed that He believed that young children young children should be allowed should be allowed to encounter nature to encounter nature directly and learn directly and learn by experience - thus by experience - thus fostering a child’s fostering a child’s natural instinctsnatural instincts..

This emphasis on the This emphasis on the heart and sentiment heart and sentiment over reason had a over reason had a direct impact on the direct impact on the intellectual intellectual movement called movement called RomanticismRomanticism..

Women in the Women in the EnlightenmentEnlightenmentWomen in the Women in the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Mary AstellMary Astell Mary AstellMary Astell

The first self-The first self-avowed avowed feministfeminist writer in writer in English.English.

Author of 2 great Author of 2 great feminist works, feminist works, A A Serious Proposal Serious Proposal to the Ladiesto the Ladies (1697) and (1697) and Some Some Reflections Upon Reflections Upon MarriageMarriage (1700). (1700).

Daughter of a Daughter of a Newcastle coal Newcastle coal merchant, Astell never merchant, Astell never married and was married and was supported throughout supported throughout her life by a series of her life by a series of wealthy female friends. wealthy female friends.

If all Men are born free, how is it that all If all Men are born free, how is it that all Women are born Slaves?— Mary Astell, Women are born Slaves?— Mary Astell,

Some Reflections on MarriageSome Reflections on Marriage

If all Men are born free, how is it that all If all Men are born free, how is it that all Women are born Slaves?— Mary Astell, Women are born Slaves?— Mary Astell,

Some Reflections on MarriageSome Reflections on Marriage

Although she wrote Although she wrote anonymously, her authorship anonymously, her authorship was widely known.was widely known.

Mary WollstonecraftMary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)(1759-1797)Mary WollstonecraftMary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)(1759-1797)

English English author and author and feminist, feminist, probably born probably born in London.in London.

She became a member of She became a member of an intellectual group that an intellectual group that included the English poet included the English poet and artist William and artist William BlakeBlake, , the Anglo-American the Anglo-American political philosopher political philosopher Thomas Thomas PainePaine, and the , and the English chemist Joseph English chemist Joseph Priestly.Priestly.

Her best-known work, Her best-known work, A A VindicationVindication of the Rights of of the Rights of WomanWoman (1792), asserts that (1792), asserts that intellectual companionship intellectual companionship is the ideal of marriage and is the ideal of marriage and pleads for equality of pleads for equality of education and opportunity education and opportunity between the sexes.between the sexes.

Her daughter, Mary Her daughter, Mary Wollstonecraft, Wollstonecraft, became the wife of became the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley Percy Bysshe Shelley and a writer on her and a writer on her own (Frankenstein).own (Frankenstein).

The Salons of ParisThe Salons of ParisThe Salons of ParisThe Salons of Paris

Women played an important role in the Women played an important role in the Enlightenment as hosts of gatherings of thinkers and Enlightenment as hosts of gatherings of thinkers and artists called Salons.artists called Salons.

The salons The salons were usually were usually run run by womenby women but but for malefor male guests .guests .

Madame de PompadourMadame de PompadourMadame de PompadourMadame de Pompadour

They gave They gave social mobilitysocial mobility to to both men and women and both men and women and provided a forum for the serious provided a forum for the serious discussion of the ideas of the discussion of the ideas of the philosophes.philosophes.

Et in Arcadia Ego Et in Arcadia Ego