Magneto-Inertial Fusion & Magnetized HED Physics Bruno S. Bauer, UNR & Magneto-Inertial Fusion Community Workshop on Scientific Opportunities in High Energy Density Plasma Physics Washington, DC August 25-27, 2008
Magneto-Inertial Fusion& Magnetized HED Physics
Bruno S. Bauer, UNR& Magneto-Inertial Fusion Community
Workshop on Scientific Opportunitiesin High Energy Density Plasma Physics
Washington, DCAugust 25-27, 2008
The mainline path to fusion energy is basedon the established fact that magnetic fieldssignificantly improve the insulation ofthermonuclear fuel from its surroundings.Can the same insulation improve theperformance of inertially confined systems?A body of theoretical literature suggeststhat it can. Magnetized high energy densityphysics experiments are now helping to testand develop this idea, while significantlyadvancing a vital fundamental frontier ofHED science.
Abstract
BSB 8/24/08
Magneto-Inertial Fusion (MIF)& Magnetized HED Physics
1. Can magnetic field benefit inertial fusion?
2. Does MIF research advance fundamental HED science? Is it important to other fields? Are the ingredients for significant progress available?
BSB 8/24/08
Fermi recognized intense pulsed Bcould reduce thermal conduction
Enrico Fermi, "Super Lecture No. 5--Thermal Conduction as Affectedby a Magnetic Field," Los Alamos Report 344, Sept. 17, 1945.
"A possible method of cutting down the conduction to the walls wouldbe the application of a strong magnetic field, H. This tends to makethe electrons go in circles between collisions, so impedes theirmobility. Actually, it makes them go in spirals, and does not reducethe conductivity parallel to H but only to the other two dimensions,so one would probably want to design the container elongated in thedirection of H, or even toroidal... with the lines of force never leavingthe deuterium... rather large fields will be required... thus a field inexcess of 20,000 gausses would help reduce conduction loss. Whileit would not be possible to produce such fields in a large volume in asteady state,the technical problem of making the field is much aidedby the fact that the time during which the field is needed is muchshorter than the usual relaxation time of magnetic fields, so it needbe applied only instantaneously."
FSC
A strong magnetic field can relax the conditions for hot-spot ignition …
Bhsrhs
Bhs~ 10 MG: Bhs~100 MG:
β≈4•104 κ⊥≈0.2κ|| for ωceτe≈1.2
β≈4•102 κ⊥≈0.01κ|| for ωceτe≈12
rα=270 µm rα/rhs > 5 rα=27 µm α-particles trapped: rα/rhs ≈ 0.5, ωcατα≈0.1
*P. W. McKenty, et al., Phys. Plasmas 8, 2315 (2001)
Considering NIF 1.5 MJ, direct-drive point design* ρhs ≈ 30g/cc, Ths ≈ 7keV (before ignition), rhs ≈ 50µm.
Tens of MG magnetic field is needed for effective reduction of thehot-spot thermal losses through magnetic insulation.
Effective confinement of the alpha particles (relaxation of the hot-spot ρR requirement), requires Bhs~100 MG.
α
O.V. Gotchev, N.W. Jang, J.P. Knauer, M.D. Barbero, D.D. Meyerhofer & R. Betti, UR-LLER.D. Petrasso & C.K. Li, MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center BSB 8/24/08
FSC
A laser-driven implosion of magnetized cylindrical plasma examines magnetic insulation in ICF
Current driven in coilInitial B ~ 0.1 MG
Implode with40 OMEGA beams 1-ns 14-kJ pulse
Preliminary results B ~ 60 MG10× more neutrons than with B=0
CH shell target20-µm thick
8-atm D2 fill gas
RES, BSB 8/24/08
FSC
Magnetic fields are measured via deflection of the D3He backlighter protons traversing the target area
Cylindrical implosion target860 μm diam.,1.5 mm long
Target stalkBacklighter target stalk
MIFEDS coil4 mm diam. 1200 μm wide
Cylindrical implosion target860 μm diam. and 1.5 mm long
Target stalk Backlighter target stalk
MIFEDS coil4 mm diam. 1200 μm wide
Proton maps at T0+2.9 ns(shot 51069)
Data analysis combined with GEANT4 particle transport code simulations suggest B up to about 60 MG has been observed
RES 8/24/08
FSC
Modeling shows magnetic field gives higher T-- still to be confirmed experimentally
Stagnation phase
LILAC MHD simulations show shock heating ionizes and preheats plasma; then adiabatic compression gives keV ion temperature
Plasma β ~ 50% on axis; about β ~ 12 at 10 µm RES , BSB 8/24/08
One concept for MIF
RES, BSB 4/22/07
• E.g., Al can driven by I > 1 MA, Bθ ~ 100 T
Magneto-inertial fusion:Dense fuel + magnetic insulation
Particle EnergyConfinement Confinement
ICF Inertial InertialMIF Inertial MagneticMFE Magnetic Magnetic
DT fuel:100 gm/cm3
e- thermalconduction:τE ~ 10 ps
j x B = ∇p10-9 gm/cm3
τE ~ 1 s
Eg, 0.1 gm/cm3
τE ~ 100 ns
RES, BSB 4/22/07
Cylindrical compact-torus plasma
Initial FRC~ 20-30 kG~ 200 eV~ 1017 cm-3
Cylindrical liner implosion
LANL-AFRL liner-on-plasma compression seeks to examine MIF physics in fusion regime
Final FRC~ 1019 cm-3
~ 2-4 MG~ 1-5 keV
Shiva Star: 16MA, 9MJ
FRX-L: The Field Reversed Configuration (FRC) Plasma Injector for MTF
Field Reversed Configurationhigh-β self-organized plasma
• <β> ~ 1
• compact torus like spheromak
• Can translate into liner
The LANL FRC has parameters orders of magnitude different than previous FRCs.How will FRC behave under compression? How will liner interact with FRC?
Large current compresses liner=> large kinetic energy (MJ) => Mbar pressure
107 amps< 10 μs
Bθ ~ 100 tesla (40,000 atm)
“Liner” = thin-walled aluminumcylinder the size of a beer can
RES, BSB 8/24/08
AFRL radiographs of liner implosiondemonstrate good liner performance
Stationary 6-mm probe jacket
Elastic-plastic deformed 7-mm thick liner at 12:1 radial compression
Flash x-rayradiographs
Side-on viewof liner moving4 mm/μs
Initial 1-mm thickAluminum liner
RES, BSB 4/22/07
Courtesy of J. Degnan, AFRL
Glide planes interfere with FRC injection
AFRL success with shaped linerRadiograph plus simulation Radiograph alone
Glide planes eliminated
Enhanced magnetic mirror centers FRC
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Operated by the Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the DOE/NNSA
The liner-FRC compression experiment will enable the study of many MIF physics issues
Can multi-keV temperatures be obtained by compression of a magnetically confined plasma to megabar pressures using a solid metal liner?
What limits liner compression and dwell time? How do nearby boundaries (walls) driven by intense magnetic and radiation fields turn into plasmas? How are hydrodynamic instabilities at boundaries changed in the presence of a thermonuclear (fusing) plasma? How can we minimize impurity influx?
Do we have the right material conductivity and transport models (for both walls and plasma)? What effects do velocity shear, initial density profile, finite Larmor radius, and other conditions have on particle and energy transport at MHEDLP conditions?
Visit http://fusionenergy.lanl.gov/mhedlp-wp.pdf for community white paper on Magnetized HEDLP (April 20, 2007) for many more questions!
The liner-FRC compression experiment will enable the study of many MIF physics issues
Idealized imploded liner
Idealized compressed FRC(interferogram)
Rayleigh-Taylor growth;Wall plasma interactions
High-β, collisional MHD;rotational instability
Impurities; energy losses;fusion reaction rate
MIF could have advantagesLow ρ → bigger, cheaper targets High To → reduced radial convergence (e.g., 10)Low v → less power, intensity → more & cheaper energy possibleLow v, Bo → adiabatic compression → no pulse shaping, no shocksBig targets, low v → massive pushers → long dwell, burn timesB → rB, not ρr, for alpha deposition
MIF could be profitableCost-effective capacitor bank driverEfficiently heated G~10 hot spotOverall fusion gain could reach G~50 with edge fueling (by cool fuel at wall or jets)Non-cryogenic, macroscopic, simple targetDriver stand off via recyclable transmission lines or plasma jets10 GJ output ~ $50 of heat per shot
•Recycled tin flibe-insulatedtransmission lines
•Flibe primarycoolant at 550 oC(Tmelt = 459 oC)
• Tin Tmelt = 232 oC inserted short time
•Studied by P. Peterson, UC Berkeley
MoltenFlibe
SolidFlibe
Steel
FusionBurst
Tin
IM-1 01-0659 (4/01)
Structural insulator
MIF might use Flibe working fluid
Note – no line of sight needed; electricity goes around corners
Miniature plasma jets from capillary discharges merge to form a plasma ring (Witherspoon, 2007)
Imploding plasma liners can be an inexpensive path to forming cm & µs-scale HED plasmas
Forming a plasma liner with an array of dense plasma jets using pulsed power technology: Plasma gun development at HyperV:
Many potential applicationsFundamental studies of HEDLP, including laser-plasma interactions* and diagnostic development
Laboratory astrophysics and materials science* studies
Experimental validation of rad-hydro simulations
High flux pulsed neutron sources & ultimately MIF
For MIF only
Significant development of high-Mach-number Plasma Jets by HyperV Technologies
x
y
0 0.05 0.1 0.150
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
ro2.3E-042.1E-041.8E-041.6E-041.4E-041.1E-049.1E-056.9E-054.6E-052.3E-050.0E+00
t = 7.20013E-06
Density
ro_max=2.29E-004
DW, YCFT, BSB 8/24/08
Plasma liners could be advantageous
Standoff delivery of imploding momentumInexpensive liner fabricationRepetitive operationFast compressionPossible remote current drive by lasersor particle beamsDiagnostics could view both the liner andthe target plasmaAdditional fuel for fusion
YCFT, BSB 4/22/07
Magneto-Inertial Fusion& Magnetized HED Physics
1. A) Magnetic thermal insulation coulddecrease the cost of a G~10 hot spot
B) Alpha trapping can heat fuel with small ρrC) Simple driver & target could yield enough
energy per shot to be profitable
2. Does MIF research advance fundamental HED science? Is it important to other fields? Are the ingredients for significant progress available?
BSB 8/24/08
MIF science priorities have much incommon with ICF, but with B≠0
Explore, illuminate, and understand Stability and transport in dense plasmas with high magnetic fields, especially for collisional, beta>1 plasma
Interaction of magnetized HED plasma with cold, dense matter
Pressure amplification & instability growth in convergent flows
Radiation-MHD phenomena (e.g., radiative collapse, ablation)
Energy deposition of energetic particles & radiation in magnetized material, from solid state to warm dense matter to HED plasma
Continuously apply this developing knowledge to the exploration & illumination of MIF configuration space, with attention to characteristics such as gain-efficiency product, and to the influences on such characteristics in various domains
BSB 8/24/08
A vast scientific wildernesslies beyond B = 0
BB=0
B=0
75% of Maxwell’s equations involve B
Marshakwave
Rayleigh-Taylor
instability
Shockwave
Uncertainty jumps 100xwhen B ≠ 0
BSB 8/24/08
Liner compression of MIF plasma involves many processes at metal-plasma interface
Plasma
O2 impurities
H impurities
radiation
Skin depth
vapors
melts
gas
Hyper-velocity
metallic wall compresses
interior magnetized
plasma
Convectivetransfer
Thermal conduction
Alpha particles
Ohmicheating
X
X B
X
X
Zebra experiment: 1 MA in 100 ns through mm-diameter Al rod, designed to increase the likelihood of success of radiation-MHD modeling
How does radiation-MHD modeling compare with experimental data?
Experiment & modeling: Effect of MG field on aluminum surface (1 MA on 1-mm rod)
Compressed partially ionized metal
Heated surface metal plasma
MHD instability
Anode
Cathode
RES, BSB 8/18/08
I
Experiment on 1-MA Zebra (UNR) studies plasma formed by multi-MG field on aluminum
BSB, NLG 4/22/08
The ‘hourglass’ load is designed to avoid spurious plasma formation
1-mm-diameter central wire is shielded from AK contactsSF, BSB 6/21/07
Results of different MHD codes & tables are being compared with experiment
MHRDR -- UNR: MHD, Eulerian, single materialRAVEN -- LANL, UNR: MHD + strength, Lagrangian, multi-material w/ strengthMACH2 -- NumerEx: ALE, multi-materialUP -- VNIIEF(Russia) : Lagrangian, multi-materialMHD code, IPR (India), Chaturvedi: Lagrangian, multi-material*ALEGRA -- SNL: ALE*LASNEX – LANL: Lagrangian*
* Results not included in this presentation
VM, BSB 8/19/08
Electron temperature profiles calculated at 140 ns
MHRDR
ALE, Mach2
UP, Garanin
EUL, Mach2
Raven, UNR
Raven, LANL
Garanin’s TEmax=35 eV
VM, BSB 6/21/07
Many diagnostics examine transformation of rod into plasma
V-dot and B-dot probesOptical, VUV, EUV, x-ray photodiodes; PMTsTime-resolved optical & EUV spectroscopyStreak camera & time-gated imagingLaser diagnostics (Shadowgraphy, Schlieren, Interferometry, Faraday rotation)
A comprehensive set of fundamental data is being collected & compared with rad-MHD modeling;
Vital data for engineering MIF, MITL, & other systemsdr/dt ~ 2-4 mm/μs for dB/dt = 2000-8000 T/μs; Bthr ~ 200-300 T
TA, BSB 8/24/08
Plasma formation from conductors driven by intense current is of broad interest
Fundamental radiation-MHD (and beyond):Challenging interplay of magnetic diffusion, hydrodynamics, and radiative energy transfer
• Wire-array z-pinches• Magnetically accelerated flier plates• Liner acceleration by magnetic field• Ultrahigh magnetic field generators• Magneto-inertial fusion• High-current fuses• Magnetically insulated transmission lines• Astrophysics
TA, BSB 8/18/08
Galactic and extragalactic jets are among most spectacular astrophysical phenomena
DDR, BSB 8/24/08
J. Wiseman, J. Biretta. “What can we learn about extragalactic jets from galactic jets?” New Astronomy Reviews, 46, 411, 2002
Jet from quasar: length 160 kiloparsecs (5.2x105 light-years)
Protostellar jet: length 0.5 parsecs (1.6 light-years)
Differentially rotating accretion disc is thought to be a key player in the formation
of both galactic and extragalactic jets
Differential rotation creates a strong toroidal magnetic field which pushes the material in the vicinity of the “central engine” up and down with respect to the plane of the disc.
A current pattern is formed, in which the current flows along the axis and returns over a much larger surface (a “cocoon” structure).
DDR, BSB 8/24/08
Illustration from http://www.aoc.nrao.edu/pr/m87.collimation.html
An array of plasma jets could form a differentially rotating disc that amplifies
and transforms magnetic field
Side view, with weak cusp B to see creation of
toroidal B
DDR, BSB 8/24/08
Derived parameters for 12 Witherspoon-gun jets forming a 20-cm diameter disc:
Plasma kinematic viscosity ν~2⋅105 cm2/sReynolds number Re≡rvrot/ν~250Magnetic Reynolds number Rem≡rvrot/Dmagn~500
Top view
D.D. Ryutov, “Using plasma jets to simulate galactic outflows,” presented at Plasma Jet Workshop, Los Alamos, January 24-25, 2008
Magneto-Inertial Fusion (MIF)& Magnetized HED Physics
1. A) Magnetic thermal insulation coulddecrease the cost of a G~10 hot spot
B) Alpha trapping can heat fuel with small ρrC) Simple driver & target could yield enough
energy per shot to be profitable
2. MIF magnetized HEDP is a vital fundamental frontier of HED science, important to many fields, that can be significantly advanced with existing facilities
BSB 8/24/08
Thank you!
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Operated by the Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the DOE/NNSA
Slide 44
• Recently I led/wrote (with ~30 contributors) a community white paper on Magnetized HEDLP. (April 20, 2007)
• Copies are available at
http://fusionenergy.lanl.gov/mhedlp-wp.pdf
• Merging OFES panel recommendations with Davidson reports
• Basically, adding a new research thrust: dense plasmas in ultrahigh magnetic fields, or MHEDLP
Overarching Question: Can fusion-relevant thermonuclear temperatures be obtained when plasma is compressed with megagauss fields?
Dense Plasmas in Ultrahigh Magnetic Fields
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Operated by the Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the DOE/NNSA
Liner-FRC compression physics (continued)
What happens when the liner stagnates on the plasma target pressure? What is the realistic energy partition between liner ablation consequent generated plasma, radiation and ion flux? How does the sheath at the liner- plasma boundary behave? To what extent do the liner and plasma mix?
Do the FRC scaling laws hold as expected for strong boundary compression? Can strong elongation increase MTF fusion yield? Can an elongated liner remain stable as it is compressed?
Can we take advantage of ultra high magnetic fields and high density to enable plasma diagnostics that are not possible in more conventional regimes?
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Operated by the Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the DOE/NNSA
Slide 46
MIF/MTF approach has many common features with IFE
• Pulsed, rep-rated systems, storage and switching of driver energy
• Achieving driver stand-off under rep-rated conditions (but the problem typically takes a different form)
• Designing a chamber to take the intense energy and particle loads
• Chamber clearing
• Isotope and chemical separations at the back end for DT and blanket materials
There are also some significant differences:•Target physics/gain•Target manufacture/formation•Electrical connections•Symmetry needs•Driver power levels
The input energy & power required for hot spot gain G are set by the fuel pressure & β
T = 10 keV; p, β n = p/(2kT)τE = G[nτE]L / n (Lawson)B = (2nkT/β)½
Thermal diffusivity χ = f(n,T,B)e.g., χBohm = kT/(16eB) ~ 1 m2/s
R = (χτE)½ & e.g., Volume ∝ R3 ∝ τE1½ ∝ p-1½
Energy = 3nkT*Volume ∝ p-½
Power = Energy/τE ∝ p½
RS, BSB 4/22/07
Thermal diffusion determines DT hot spot mass & energy
103
Density (gram/cm3)
1
10-3
10-6
10-9 10-6 10-3 1
Fuel
Mas
s (g
ram
s)
Diffusion-limitZero magneticfield
NIF
ApproximateUpper-limit “Bohm”βpoloidal = 1
Advanced concepts
ITER
Diffusion-limit“classical” magnetic confinementβpoloidal = 1
IM-1/0476 03/01
MTF
Fuel
Ene
rgy
(joul
es)
106
109
103
106103 109Pressure (atm.)RS, BSB 4/22/07
LANL has demonstrated high-density FRC formation
•Integrated liner-on-plasma experiments in next two years
•Goal to determine if liner flux compression can generate thermonuclear temperatures
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Operated by the Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the DOE/NNSA
High pressure FRC plasmas are produced in FRX-L
FRC parameters in FRX-L, following installation of improved high-current crowbar system. The plasma pressure is 2-3 MegaPascals, (20-30 bars); higher than even the highest field tokamak plasmas. An n=2 rotational instability develops by t=20 µsec, terminating the plasma.
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Operated by the Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the DOE/NNSA
An FRC compression experiment is being developed at Shiva Star (AFRL)
Shiva Star Capacitor Bank, up to 9 MJ of stored energy
• 80 to 90 kV, 1300 uF, 25 to 45 nH
• 11 to 16 MA, J x B force implodes 10 cm diameter, 1 mm thick, 4 to 30 cm long Al liner in 15 to 24 μsec
• e.g., 4.4 MJ energy storage gives 1.5 MJ in liner kinetic energy
GW, BSB 8/24/08
Implosions of high Mach number plasma jets has additional potential for fusion applications
• An approximately spherical distribution of jets are launched towards a common center
• The jets merge to form a spheroidal shell (liner), imploding towards the center
Plasma jet
Arrows indicate flow direction
Plasma gun
Magnetized target plasma
Plasma liner
Supersonic Plasma Jets and Precursor Flows in Wire-Array Z-Pinch
J. P. Chittenden, et. al., “Indirect-Drive ICF using Supersonic, Radiatively Cooled, Plasma Slugs,” PRL, 88 (23), 2002
Cylindrically converging precursor plasma flow in wire-array Z-pinch Experiments.S. C. Bott, et. al, Phys Rev E, 74, 2006.
Low-cost electric pulsed power can apply plenty of pressure, energy, & power
Superconducting magnets (constant)B < 15 Teslap < βB2/2μ0 ~ 100 atm
Liner technology (pulsed 107J / 10-5s ~ 1012 W)B ~ 103 Teslap ~ βB2/2μ0 ~ 106 atm
Laser compression (pulsed)p ~ 1011 atm
RS, BSB 4/22/07
MIF seeks minimum-cost trade-off between input energy & power
Generic MIFQ ~ 1 cost$1*E(J)
+ $10*P(MW)
RS, BSB 4/22/07
MTF power plant concept
Confinement chamber
Cassette loader
Person
The “kopeck” problem• Jim Tuck was one of the fusion energy
pioneers at Los Alamos• When first informed of laser fusion he
scoffed• He noted that the likely value of the
energy pulse generated would best bereckoned in kopecks (= 0.01 Soviet Rubles)rather than dollars
• Not only must energy be produced, but thevalue of that energy must be more than thecost to produce it
MIF typically seeks B > 1 MG
• An established method of generating MG fields is with metal liner implosions, often aluminum.
• Seed field is introduced into a cylindrical enclosure, which is then imploded by z pinch or theta pinch compression.
• Megagauss conferences have documented this possibility for more than 30 years
Theory of FRC behavior is incomplete
Hoffman and Slough, Nuc. Fus. 33, 27(1993)
Experiments show slow decay MHD theory predicts fast decay
Recent theory suggests elongated shape can be stable (D. C. Barnes, Phys. Plasmas, 2002)
Magnetic confinement: j x B = ∇p
In each case one investigates thermal diffusivity χ because τE = (size)2/ χ
Tokamaks
RFP FRC
Stellarator
Externally controlled
Spheromak
Self organized
RS, BSB 9/20/03
Possible MTF plasma targets
Russian MAGO
Field-Reversed Configuration
RS, BSB 9/20/03
Zebra pulses MG field on mm-diam rods
Vacuum chamber
LoadSpark gaps Water switches
Gas switch
Marx bank Intermediate storage Pulse forming line
Typical operation:Marx charged to 85 kV Load current 0.9 – 1 MAStored energy 150 kJ Rise-time 70 ns (10%-90%)PFL voltage 2.2 MV Current rise 1013 A/s (10 kA/ns)
TA, BSB 6/2107
Density profiles at 140 ns calculated by different codes for Zebra expt
MHRDR
ALE, Mach2
UP, Garanin
EUL, Mach2
Raven, LANL
Raven, UNR
VM, BSB 6/21/07
Electrical conductivity varies by tableSesame Format Material Viewer V.1
VM, BSB 1/01/08
Plasma formation is still uncertain in computer simulations, but is clear in experiment
Plasma forms for ≤1.25-mm diameter rods:Optical photodiodes indicate T > 10 eVVUV photodiodes show plenty of 16-73 eV photonsEUV photodiodes observe many >70 eV photonsEUV spectra display emission lines from multiply ionized aluminum, mainly Al3+ and Al4+
Laser shadowgrams show z-pinch instability growth
Vapor cloud forms for 2.0-mm diameter rods:Optical photodiodes indicate T < 0.5 eVNo signal observed on VUV & EUV photodiodesLaser shadowgrams show stable expansion
BSB 6/22/08
IFE power plant with stand-off driver
Shiva Star at AFRL (Alb.)
Atlas can implode liners @ NTS
RS, BSB 9/20/03
Liner radius vs time
“Magnetic tower jets” were studied using the MAGPIE Z-pinch (Imperial College, London, UK)
S.V. Lebedev, A. Ciardi, D.J. Ampleford, et al. “Magnetic tower outflows from a radial wire array Z-pinch.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 361, 97, 2005.
DDR, BSB 8/24/08
Streaked self-emission & laser shadowgrams show consistent plasma expansion
Tim e [ns]250 300 350 400 450 500Ze
rba
Cur
rent
[MA
], R
adiu
s [m
m],
Stre
ak &
PD
Sig
nals
[a.u
.]
0 .0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.01s-r(t) 2s-r(t) 3f-r(t) 3i-r(t) 3s-r(t) 1ds-r(t) 2ds-r(t) Zebra Current [M A]Integrated Streak [a.u.]Photo D iode [a.u.]Photom ultip lier [a.u.]
SF, BSB 2/09/07
Future possibility: Proton radiography of a liner implosion on Zebra
Laser Target
Shield
Liner
Cathode
Anode
SF, BSB 7/22/07
BB=0
B=0
A vast scientific wildernesslies beyond B=0
75% of Maxwell’s equations involve B
Marshakwave
Rayleigh-Taylor
instability
Shockwave
Uncertainty jumps 100xwhen B ≠ 0
BSB 8/24/08