Maglev

Maglev

This article is about transportation using magnetic levita-tion. For other uses, see Maglev (disambiguation).Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation) is a trans-

SCMaglev test track in the Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan

Transrapid 09 at the Emsland test facility in Germany

port method that uses magnetic levitation to move vehi-cles without touching the ground. With maglev, a vehi-cle travels along a guideway using magnets to create bothlift and propulsion, thereby reducing friction and allowinghigher speeds.The Shanghai Maglev Train, also known as theTransrapid, is the fastest commercial train currently in op-eration and has a top speed of 430km/h. The line was de-signed to connect Shanghai Pudong International Airportand the outskirts of central Pudong, Shanghai. It coversa distance of 30.5 kilometres in 8 minutes.*[1]Maglev trains move more smoothly and more quietly thanwheeled mass transit systems. They are relatively unaf-fected by weather. The power needed for levitation istypically not a large percentage of its overall energy con-sumption;*[2] most goes to overcome drag, as with otherhigh-speed transport. Maglev trains hold the speed record

for rail transport. Vacuum tube train systems might allowmaglev trains to attain still higher speeds, though no suchvacuum tubes have been built commercially yet.*[3]Compared to conventional (normal) trains, differences inconstruction affect the economics of maglev trains, mak-ing them much more efficient. For high-speed trains withwheels, wear and tear from friction along with the“ham-mer effect”from wheels on rails accelerates equipmentwear and prevents high speeds.*[4] Conversely, maglevsystems have beenmuchmore expensive to construct, off-setting lower maintenance costs.Despite decades of research and development, only twocommercial maglev transport systems are in operation,with two others under construction.*[note 1] In April2004, Shanghai's Transrapid system began commercialoperations. In March 2005, Japan began operation ofits relatively low-speed HSST "Linimo" line in time forthe 2005 World Expo. In its first three months, the Lin-imo line carried over 10 million passengers. South Koreaand the People's Republic of China are both building low-speed maglev routes of their own designs, one in Beijingand the other at Seoul's Incheon Airport. Many maglevprojects are controversial, and the technological potential,adoption prospects and economics of maglev systems areoften debated. The Shanghai system was labeled a whiteelephant by rivals.*[5]

1 History

1.1 First maglev patent

High-speed transportation patents were granted to var-ious inventors throughout the world.*[6] Early UnitedStates patents for a linear motor propelled train wereawarded to German inventor Alfred Zehden. The inven-tor was awarded U.S. Patent 782,312 (14 February 1905)and U.S. Patent RE12,700 (21 August 1907).*[note 2] In1907, another early electromagnetic transportation sys-tem was developed by F. S. Smith.*[7] A series of Ger-man patents for magnetic levitation trains propelled bylinear motors were awarded to Hermann Kemper be-tween 1937 and 1941.*[note 3] An early maglev train wasdescribed in U.S. Patent 3,158,765, “Magnetic systemof transportation”, by G. R. Polgreen (25 August 1959).The first use of“maglev”in a United States patent was in“Magnetic levitation guidance system”*[8] by CanadianPatents and Development Limited.

1

2 1 HISTORY

1.2 Development

In the late 1940s, the British electrical engineer EricLaithwaite, a professor at Imperial College London, de-veloped the first full-size working model of the linear in-duction motor. He became professor of heavy electri-cal engineering at Imperial College in 1964, where hecontinued his successful development of the linear mo-tor.*[9] Since linear motors do not require physical con-tact between the vehicle and guideway, they became acommon fixture on advanced transportation systems inthe 1960s and 70s. Laithwaite joined one such project,the tracked hovercraft, although the project was cancelledin 1973.*[10]The linear motor was naturally suited to use with maglevsystems as well. In the early 1970s, Laithwaite discov-ered a new arrangement of magnets, the magnetic river,that allowed a single linear motor to produce both lift andforward thrust, allowing a maglev system to be built witha single set of magnets. Working at the British Rail Re-search Division in Derby, along with teams at several civilengineering firms, the“transverse-flux”system was de-veloped into a working system.The first commercial maglev people mover was sim-ply called "MAGLEV" and officially opened in 1984near Birmingham, England. It operated on an elevated600-metre (2,000 ft) section of monorail track betweenBirmingham International Airport and Birmingham In-ternational railway station, running at speeds up to 42km/h (26 mph). The system was closed in 1995 due toreliability problems.*[11]

1.3 New York, United States, 1913

Emile Bachelet, of Mount Vernon, N. Y., demonstrateda prototype of a magnetic levitating railway car.*[12]

1.4 New York, United States, 1968

In 1968, while delayed in traffic on the Throgs NeckBridge, James Powell, a researcher at Brookhaven Na-tional Laboratory (BNL), thought of using magneticallylevitated transportation.*[13] Powell and BNL colleagueGordon Danby worked out a MagLev concept using staticmagnets mounted on a moving vehicle to induce electro-dynamic lifting and stabilizing forces in specially shapedloops on a guideway.*[14]*[15]

1.5 Hamburg, Germany, 1979

Transrapid 05 was the first maglev train with longsta-tor propulsion licenced for passenger transportation. In1979, a 908 m track was opened in Hamburg for the firstInternational Transportation Exhibition (IVA 79). In-terest was sufficient that operations were extended three

months after the exhibition finished, having carried morethan 50,000 passengers. It was reassembled in Kassel in1980.

1.6 Birmingham, United Kingdom, 1984–95

The Birmingham International Maglev shuttle

The world's first commercial maglev system was a low-speed maglev shuttle that ran between the airport termi-nal of Birmingham International Airport and the nearbyBirmingham International railway station between 1984and 1995.*[16] Its track length was 600metres (2,000 ft),and trains“flew”at an altitude of 15millimetres (0.59 in),levitated by electromagnets, and propelled with linear in-duction motors.*[17] It operated for nearly eleven years,but obsolescence problems with the electronic systemsmade it progressively unreliable as years passed. One ofthe original cars is now on display at Railworld in Peter-borough, together with the RTV31 hover train vehicle.Another is on display at the National Railway Museum inYork.Several favourable conditions existed when the link wasbuilt:

• The British Rail Research vehicle was 3 tonnes andextension to the 8 tonne vehicle was easy.

• Electrical power was available.• The airport and rail buildings were suitable for ter-minal platforms.

• Only one crossing over a public road was requiredand no steep gradients were involved.

• Land was owned by the railway or airport.• Local industries and councils were supportive.• Some government finance was provided and becauseof sharing work, the cost per organization was low.

After the system closed in 1995, the original guidewaylay dormant.*[18] It was reused in 2003 when the re-placement cable-hauled AirRail Link Cable Liner peoplemover was opened.*[19]*[20]

1.9 Vancouver, Canada, and Hamburg, Germany, 1986–88 3

1.7 Emsland, Germany, 1984–2012

Transrapid at the Emsland test facility

Main article: Emsland test facility

Transrapid, a German maglev company, had a test trackin Emsland with a total length of 31.5 kilometres (19.6mi). The single-track line ran between Dörpen andLathen with turning loops at each end. The trains reg-ularly ran at up to 420 kilometres per hour (260 mph).Paying passengers were carried as part of the testing pro-cess. The construction of the test facility began in 1980and finished in 1984. In 2006, the Lathen maglev trainaccident occurred killing 23 people, found to have beencaused by human error in implementing safety checks.From 2006 no passengers were carried. At the end of2011 the operation licence expired and was not renewed,and in early 2012 demolition permission was given for itsfacilities, including the track and factory.*[21]

1.8 Japan, 1969–

JNR ML500 at a test track in Miyazaki, Japan, on 21 December1979 travelled at 517 km/h (321 mph), authorized by GuinnessWorld Records.

Japan operates two independently developed maglevtrains. One is HSST by Japan Airlines and the other,which is more well-known, is SCMaglev by the CentralJapan Railway Company.

The development of the latter started in 1969. Miyazakitest track regularly hit 517 km/h (321 mph) by 1979. Af-ter an accident that destroyed the train, a new design wasselected. In Okazaki, Japan (1987), the SCMaglev tooka test ride at the Okazaki exhibition. Tests through the1980s continued in Miyazaki before transferring to a farlarger test track, 20 km (12 mi) long, in Yamanashi in1997.Development of HSST started in 1974, based on tech-nologies introduced from Germany. In Tsukuba, Japan(1985), the HSST−03 (Linimo) became popular in spiteof its 300 km/h (190 mph) at the Tsukuba World Expo-sition. In Saitama, Japan (1988), the HSST-04-1 was re-vealed at the Saitama exhibition performed in Kumagaya.Its fastest recorded speed was 300 km/h (190 mph).*[22]

1.9 Vancouver, Canada, and Hamburg,Germany, 1986–88

In Vancouver, Canada, the SCMaglev HSST-03 byHSST Development Corporation (Japan Airlines andSumitomo Corporation) was exhibited at Expo 86*[23]and ran on a 400-metre (0.25 mi) test track*[24] that pro-vided guests with a ride in a single car along a short sec-tion of track at the fairgrounds. It was removed after thefair and debut at the Aoi Expo in 1987 and now on staticdisplay at Okazaki Minami Park.In Hamburg, Germany, the TR-07 was exhibited at theinternational traffic exhibition (IVA88) in 1988.

1.10 Berlin, Germany, 1989–91

Main article: M-Bahn

In West Berlin, the M-Bahn was built in the late 1980s.It was a driverless maglev system with a 1.6 km (0.99mi) track connecting three stations. Testing with passen-ger traffic started in August 1989, and regular operationstarted in July 1991. Although the line largely followed anew elevated alignment, it terminated at Gleisdreieck U-Bahn station, where it took over an unused platform fora line that formerly ran to East Berlin. After the fall ofthe BerlinWall, plans were set in motion to reconnect thisline (today's U2). Deconstruction of the M-Bahn line be-gan only two months after regular service began. It wascalled the Pundai project and was completed in February1992.

2 Technology

In the public imagination,“maglev”often evokes the con-cept of an elevated monorail track with a linear motor.Maglev systems may be monorail or dual rail*[25] and

4 2 TECHNOLOGY

not all monorail trains are maglevs. Some railway trans-port systems incorporate linear motors but use electro-magnetism only for propulsion, without levitating the ve-hicle. Such trains have wheels and are not maglevs.*[note4]Maglev tracks, monorail or not, can also be constructedat grade (i.e. not elevated). Conversely, non-maglevtracks, monorail or not, can be elevated too. Some ma-glev trains do incorporate wheels and function like linearmotor-propelled wheeled vehicles at slower speeds but“take off”and levitate at higher speeds.*[note 5]

2.1 Overview

See also: SCMaglev § Technology, Transrapid § Tech-nology and Magnetic levitationThe two notable types of maglev technology are:

MLX01 Maglev train Superconducting magnet Bogie

• Electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electronicallycontrolled electromagnets in the train attract it to amagnetically conductive (usually steel) track.

• Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) uses supercon-ducting electromagnets or strong permanent mag-nets that create a magnetic field which induces cur-rents in nearbymetallic conductors when there is rel-ative movement which pushes and pulls the train to-wards the designed levitation position on the guideway.

Another technology, which was designed, proven mathe-matically, peer-reviewed, and patented, but is, as of May2015, unbuilt, is magnetodynamic suspension (MDS). Ituses the attractive magnetic force of a permanent magnetarray near a steel track to lift the train and hold it in place.Other technologies such as repulsive permanent magnetsand superconducting magnets have seen some research.

2.1.1 Electromagnetic suspension

Main article: Electromagnetic suspensionIn electromagnetic suspension (EMS) systems, the train

Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) is used to levitate theTransrapid on the track, so that the train can be faster thanwheeled mass transit systems*[26]*[27]

levitates above a steel rail while electromagnets, attachedto the train, are oriented toward the rail from below. Thesystem is typically arranged on a series of C-shaped arms,with the upper portion of the arm attached to the vehicle,and the lower inside edge containing the magnets. Therail is situated inside the C, between the upper and loweredges.Magnetic attraction varies inversely with the cube of dis-tance, so minor changes in distance between the mag-nets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. Thesechanges in force are dynamically unstable – a slight diver-gence from the optimum position tends to grow, requir-ing sophisticated feedback systems to maintain a constantdistance from the track, (approximately 15 millimetres(0.59 in)).*[28]*[29]The major advantage to suspended maglev systems isthat they work at all speeds, unlike electrodynamic sys-tems which only work at a minimum speed of about 30km/h (19 mph). This eliminates the need for a separatelow-speed suspension system, and can simplify track lay-out. On the downside, the dynamic instability demandsfine track tolerances, which can offset this advantage.Eric Laithwaite was concerned that in order to meet therequired tolerances, the gap between magnets and railwould have to be increased to the point where themagnetswould be unreasonably large.*[30] In practice, this prob-lem was addressed through improved feedback systems,which support the required tolerances.

2.1.2 Electrodynamic suspension (EDS)

Main article: electrodynamic suspensionIn electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both the guide-way and the train exert a magnetic field, and the trainis levitated by the repulsive and attractive force betweenthese magnetic fields.*[31] In some configurations, thetrain can be levitated only by repulsive force. In the earlystages of maglev development at the Miyazaki test track,

2.2 Evaluation 5

The Japanese SCMaglev's EDS suspension is powered by themagnetic fields induced either side of the vehicle by the passageof the vehicle's superconducting magnets.

SNSNS N

NSNSN S

NS

SN

EDS Maglev propulsion via propulsion coils

a purely repulsive system was used instead of the laterrepulsive and attractive EDS system.*[32] The magneticfield is produced either by superconducting magnets (asin JR–Maglev) or by an array of permanent magnets (asin Inductrack). The repulsive and attractive force in thetrack is created by an induced magnetic field in wires orother conducting strips in the track. A major advantageof EDSmaglev systems is that they are dynamically stable– changes in distance between the track and the magnetscreates strong forces to return the system to its originalposition.*[30] In addition, the attractive force varies inthe opposite manner, providing the same adjustment ef-fects. No active feedback control is needed.However, at slow speeds, the current induced in thesecoils and the resultant magnetic flux is not large enoughto levitate the train. For this reason, the train must havewheels or some other form of landing gear to support thetrain until it reaches take-off speed. Since a train maystop at any location, due to equipment problems for in-stance, the entire track must be able to support both low-and high-speed operation.Another downside is that the EDS system naturally cre-ates a field in the track in front and to the rear of the liftmagnets, which acts against the magnets and creates mag-netic drag. This is generally only a concern at low speeds(This is one of the reasons why JR abandoned a purelyrepulsive system and adopted the sidewall levitation sys-tem.)*[32] At higher speeds other modes of drag domi-nate.*[30]The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic sys-tem's advantage, however, as it creates a varying force

in the rails that can be used as a reactionary system todrive the train, without the need for a separate reactionplate, as in most linear motor systems. Laithwaite leddevelopment of such“traverse-flux”systems at his Im-perial College laboratory.*[30] Alternatively, propulsioncoils on the guideway are used to exert a force on themagnets in the train and make the train move forward.The propulsion coils that exert a force on the train areeffectively a linear motor: an alternating current throughthe coils generates a continuously varying magnetic fieldthat moves forward along the track. The frequency of thealternating current is synchronized to match the speed ofthe train. The offset between the field exerted by magnetson the train and the applied field creates a force movingthe train forward.

2.1.3 Tracks

The term“maglev”refers not only to the vehicles, butto the railway system as well, specifically designed formagnetic levitation and propulsion. All operational im-plementations of maglev technology make minimal useof wheeled train technology and are not compatible withconventional rail tracks. Because they cannot share ex-isting infrastructure, maglev systems must be designed asstandalone systems. The SPM maglev system is inter-operable with steel rail tracks and would permit maglevvehicles and conventional trains to operate on the sametracks. MAN in Germany also designed a maglev systemthat worked with conventional rails, but it was never fullydeveloped.*[30]

2.2 Evaluation

Each implementation of the magnetic levitation princi-ple for train-type travel involves advantages and disad-vantages.Neither Inductrack nor the Superconducting EDS are ableto levitate vehicles at a standstill, although Inductrackprovides levitation at much lower speed; wheels are re-quired for these systems. EMS systems are wheel-free.The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST (Linimo), andKorean Rotem EMS maglevs levitate at a standstill, withelectricity extracted from guideway using power rails forthe latter two, and wirelessly for Transrapid. If guidewaypower is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able togenerate levitation down to 10 km/h (6.2 mph) speed, us-ing the power from onboard batteries. This is not the casewith the HSST and Rotem systems.

2.2.1 Propulsion

EMS systems such as HSST/Linimo can provide both lev-itation and propulsion using an onboard linear motor. ButEDS systems and some EMS systems such as Transrapid

6 2 TECHNOLOGY

levitate but do not propel. Such systems need some othertechnology for propulsion. A linear motor (propulsioncoils) mounted in the track is one solution. Over longdistances coil costs could be prohibitive.

2.2.2 Stability

Earnshaw's theorem shows that no combination of staticmagnets can be in a stable equilibrium.*[39] Thereforea dynamic (time varying) magnetic field is required toachieve stabilization. EMS systems rely on active elec-tronic stabilization that constantly measures the bearingdistance and adjusts the electromagnet current accord-ingly. EDS systems rely on changing magnetic fields tocreate currents, which can give passive stability.Because maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilisation ofpitch, roll and yaw is required. In addition to rotation,surge (forward and backward motions), sway (sidewaysmotion) or heave (up and down motions) can be prob-lematic.Superconducting magnets on a train above a track madeout of a permanent magnet lock the train into its lateralposition. It can move linearly along the track, but notoff the track. This is due to the Meissner effect and fluxpinning.

2.2.3 Guidance system

Some systems use Null Current systems (also sometimescalled Null Flux systems).*[31]*[40] These use a coil thatis wound so that it enters two opposing, alternating fields,so that the average flux in the loop is zero. When thevehicle is in the straight ahead position, no current flows,but any moves off-line create flux that generates a fieldthat naturally pushes/pulls it back into line.

2.3 Evacuated tubes

Main article: Vactrain

Some systems (notably the Swissmetro system) proposethe use of vactrains̶maglev train technology used inevacuated (airless) tubes, which removes air drag. Thishas the potential to increase speed and efficiency greatly,as most of the energy for conventional maglev trains islost to aerodynamic drag.*[41]One potential risk for passengers of trains operating inevacuated tubes is that they could be exposed to the riskof cabin depressurization unless tunnel safety monitor-ing systems can repressurize the tube in the event ofa train malfunction or accident though since trains arelikely to operated at or near the Earth's surface, emer-gency restoration of ambient pressure should be straight-forward. The RAND Corporation has depicted a vacuum

tube train that could, in theory, cross the Atlantic or theUSA in ~21 minutes.*[42]

2.4 Energy use

Energy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train.Energy may be regained when the train slows down viaregenerative braking. It also levitates and stabilises thetrain's movement. Most of the energy is needed to over-come "air drag". Some energy is used for air condition-ing, heating, lighting and other miscellany.At low speeds the percentage of power used for levitationcan be significant, consuming up to 15%more power thana subway or light rail service.*[43] For short distances theenergy used for acceleration might be considerable.The power used to overcome air drag increases with thecube of the velocity and hence dominates at high speed.The energy needed per unit distance increases by thesquare of the velocity and the time decreases linearly. Forexample, 2.5 times as much power is needed to travel at400 km/h than 300 km/h.*[44]

2.5 Comparison with conventional trains

Maglev transport is non-contact and electric powered. Itrelies less or not at all on the wheels, bearings and axlescommon to wheeled rail systems.*[45]

• Speed: Maglev allows higher top speeds than con-ventional rail, but experimental wheel-based high-speed trains have demonstrated similar speeds.

• Maintenance: Maglev trains currently in operationhave demonstrated the need for minimal guidewaymaintenance. Vehicle maintenance is also minimal(based on hours of operation, rather than on speed ordistance traveled). Traditional rail is subject to me-chanical wear and tear that increases exponentiallywith speed, also increasing maintenance.*[45]

• Weather: Maglev trains are little affected by snow,ice, severe cold, rain or high winds. However, theyhave not operated in the wide range of conditionsthat traditional friction-based rail systems have op-erated. Maglev vehicles accelerate and deceleratefaster than mechanical systems regardless of theslickness of the guideway or the slope of the gradebecause they are non-contact systems.*[45]

• Track: Maglev trains are not compatible with con-ventional track, and therefore require custom infras-tructure for their entire route. By contrast conven-tional high-speed trains such as the TGV are able torun, albeit at reduced speeds, on existing rail infras-tructure, thus reducing expenditure where new in-frastructure would be particularly expensive (such as

2.6 Comparison with aircraft 7

the final approaches to city terminals), or on exten-sions where traffic does not justify new infrastruc-ture. John Harding, former chief maglev scientistat the Federal Railroad Administration claimed thatseparate maglev infrastructure more than pays foritself with higher levels of all-weather operationalavailability and nominal maintenance costs. Theseclaims have yet to be proven in an intense opera-tional setting and does not consider the increasedmaglev construction costs.

• Efficiency: Conventional rail is probably more effi-cient at lower speeds. But due to the lack of phys-ical contact between the track and the vehicle, ma-glev trains experience no rolling resistance, leavingonly air resistance and electromagnetic drag, poten-tially improving power efficiency.*[46] Some sys-tems however such as the Central Japan RailwayCompany SCMaglev use rubber tires at low speeds,reducing efficiency gains.

• Weight: The electromagnets in many EMS andEDS designs require between 1 and 2 kilowatts perton.*[47] The use of superconductor magnets canreduce the electromagnets' energy consumption. A50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle can lift an addi-tional 20 tons, for a total of 70 tons, which con-sumes 70-140 kW. Most energy use for the TRIis for propulsion and overcoming air resistance atspeeds over 100 mph.

• Weight loading: High speed rail requires moresupport and construction for its concentrated wheelloading. Maglev cars are lighter and distributeweight more evenly.*[48]

• Noise: Because the major source of noise of a ma-glev train comes from displaced air rather than fromwheels touching rails, maglev trains produce lessnoise than a conventional train at equivalent speeds.However, the psychoacoustic profile of the maglevmay reduce this benefit: a study concluded that ma-glev noise should be rated like road traffic, whileconventional trains experience a 5–10 dB“bonus”,as they are found less annoying at the same loudnesslevel.*[49]*[50]*[51]

• Braking: Braking and overhead wire wearhave caused problems for the Fastech 360 railShinkansen. Maglev would eliminate these issues.

• Magnet reliability: At higher temperatures mag-nets may fail. New alloys and manufacturing tech-niques have addressed this issue.

• Control systems: No signalling systems are neededfor high-speed rail, because such systems are com-puter controlled. Human operators cannot react fast

enough to manage high-speed trains. High speedsystems require dedicated rights of way and are usu-ally elevated. Two maglev systemmicrowave towersare in constant contact with trains. There is no needfor train whistles or horns, either.

• Terrain: Maglevs are able to ascend higher grades,offering more routing flexibility and reduced tunnel-ing.*[48]

2.6 Comparison with aircraft

Differences between airplane and maglev travel:

• Efficiency: For maglev systems the lift-to-drag ratiocan exceed that of aircraft (for example Inductrackcan approach 200:1 at high speed, far higher thanany aircraft). This can make maglev more efficientper kilometer. However, at high cruising speeds,aerodynamic drag is much larger than lift-induceddrag. Jets take advantage of low air density at highaltitudes to significantly reduce air drag. Hence de-spite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage, they cantravel more efficiently at high speeds than maglevtrains that operate at sea level.

• Routing: While aircraft can theoretically take anyroute between points, commercial air routes arerigidly defined. Maglevs offer competitive journeytimes over distances of 800 kilometres (500 miles)or less. Additionally, maglevs can easily serve inter-mediate destinations.

• Availability: Maglevs are little affected by weather.

• Safety: Maglevs offer a significant safety marginsince maglevs do not crash into other maglevs orleave their guideways.*[52]*[53]*[54]

• Travel time: Maglevs do not face the extended se-curity protocols faced by air travelers nor is timeconsumed for taxiing, or for queuing for take-off andlanding.

3 Economics

The Shanghai maglev demonstration line cost US$1.2 bil-lion to build.*[55] This total includes capital costs suchas right-of-way clearing, extensive pile driving, on-siteguideway manufacturing, in-situ pier construction at 25metre intervals, a maintenance facility and vehicle yard,several switches, two stations, operations and control sys-tems, power feed system, cables and inverters, and op-erational training. Ridership is not a primary focus ofthis demonstration line, since the Longyang Road station

8 5 SYSTEMS

is on the eastern outskirts of Shanghai. Once the line isextended to South Shanghai Train station and HongqiaoAirport station, which may not happen because of eco-nomic reasons, ridership was expected to cover operationand maintenance costs and generate significant net rev-enue.The South Shanghai extension was expected to cost ap-proximately US$18 million per kilometre. In 2006 theGerman government invested $125 million in guidewaycost reduction development that produced an all-concretemodular design that is faster to build and is 30% lesscostly. Other new construction techniques were also de-veloped that put maglev at or below price parity with newhigh-speed rail construction.*[56]The United States Federal Railroad Administration, in a2005 report to Congress, estimated cost per mile of be-tween $50m and $100m.*[57] The Maryland Transit Ad-ministration (MTA) Environmental Impact Statement es-timated a pricetag at US$4.9 billion for construction, and$53 million a year for operations of its project.*[58]The proposed Chuo Shinkansen maglev in Japan was es-timated to cost approximately US$82 billion to build,with a route requiring long tunnels. A Tokaido maglevroute replacing the current Shinkansen would cost 1/10the cost, as no new tunnel would be needed, but noisepollution issues made this infeasible.The only low-speed maglev (100 km/h or 62 mph) cur-rently operational, the Japanese Linimo HSST, cost ap-proximately US$100 million/km to build.*[59] Besidesoffering improved operation and maintenance costs overother transit systems, these low-speed maglevs provideultra-high levels of operational reliability and introducelittle noiseand generate zero air pollution into dense ur-ban settings.As more maglev systems are deployed, experts expectedconstruction costs to drop by employing new constructionmethods and from economies of scale.*[60]

4 Records

The highest recorded maglev speed is 603 km/h (375mph), achieved in Japan by JR Central's L0 supercon-ducting Maglev on 21 April 2015,*[61] 28 km/h (17mph) faster than the conventional TGV wheel-rail speedrecord. However, the operational and performance dif-ferences between these two very different technologies isfar greater. The TGV record was achieved acceleratingdown a 72.4 km (45.0 mi) slight decline, requiring 13minutes. It then took another 77.25 km (48.00 mi) forthe TGV to stop, requiring a total distance of 149.65 km(92.99 mi) for the test.*[62] The MLX01 record, how-ever, was achieved on the 18.4 km (11.4 mi) Yamanashitest track – 1/8 the distance.*[63] No maglev or wheel-rail commercial operation has actually been attempted atspeeds over 500 km/h.

4.1 History of maglev speed records

5 Systems

5.1 Test tracks

5.1.1 San Diego, USA

General Atomics has a 120-metre test facility in SanDiego, that is used to test Union Pacific's 8 km (5.0 mi)freight shuttle in Los Angeles. The technology is“pas-sive”(or“permanent”), using permanent magnets in ahalbach array for lift and requiring no electromagnets foreither levitation or propulsion. General Atomics receivedUS$90 million in research funding from the federal gov-ernment. They are also considering their technology forhigh-speed passenger services.*[66]

5.1.2 SCMaglev, Japan

Main article: SCMaglev

Japan has a demonstration line in Yamanashi prefecturewhere test train SCMaglev L0 Series Shinkansen reached603 km/h (375mph), faster than any wheeled trains.*[61]These trains use superconducting magnets which allowfor a larger gap, and repulsive/attractive-type electrody-namic suspension (EDS).*[31]*[67] In comparison Tran-srapid uses conventional electromagnets and attractive-type electromagnetic suspension (EMS). *[68]*[69]On 15 November 2014, The Central Japan Railway Com-pany ran eight days of testing for the experimental maglevShinkansen train on its test track in Yamanashi Prefec-ture. One hundred passengers covered a 42.8 km (27-mile) route between the cities of Uenohara and Fuefuki,reaching speeds of up to 500 km/h (311 mph).*[70]

5.1.3 FTA's UMTD program

In the US, the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Ur-ban Maglev Technology Demonstration program fundedthe design of several low-speed urban maglev demonstra-tion projects. It assessed HSST for the Maryland De-partment of Transportation and maglev technology forthe Colorado Department of Transportation. The FTAalso funded work by General Atomics at California Uni-versity of Pennsylvania to evaluate the MagneMotionM3 and of the Maglev2000 of Florida superconduct-ing EDS system. Other US urban maglev demonstrationprojects of note are the LEVX in Washington State andthe Massachusetts-based Magplane.

5.2 Operational systems 9

5.1.4 Southwest Jiaotong University, China

On 31 December 2000, the first crewed high-temperaturesuperconducting maglev was tested successfully atSouthwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China. Thissystem is based on the principle that bulk high-temperature superconductors can be levitated stablyabove or below a permanent magnet. The load was over530 kg (1,170 lb) and the levitation gap over 20 mm(0.79 in). The system uses liquid nitrogen to cool thesuperconductor.*[71]*[72]

5.2 Operational systems

5.2.1 Shanghai Maglev

A maglev train coming out of the Pudong International Airport

Main article: Shanghai Maglev Train

In January 2001, the Chinese signed an agreement withTransrapid to build an EMS high-speed maglev line tolink Pudong International Airport with Longyang RoadMetro station on the eastern edge of Shanghai. ThisShanghai Maglev Train demonstration line, or Initial Op-erating Segment (IOS), has been in commercial opera-tions since April 2004*[73] and now operates 115 (upfrom 110 daily trips in 2010) daily trips that traverse the30 km (19 mi) between the two stations in 7 minutes,achieving a top speed of 431 km/h (268mph) and averag-ing 266 km/h (165 mph).*[74] On a 12 November 2003system commissioning test run, it achieved 501 km/h(311mph), its designed top cruising speed. The Shanghaimaglev is faster than Birmingham technology and comeswith on-time – to the second – reliability greater than99.97%.*[75]Plans to extend the line to Shanghai South Railway Sta-tion and Hongqiao Airport on the western edge of Shang-hai are on hold. After the Shanghai–Hangzhou Passen-ger Railway became operational in late 2010, the maglevextension became somewhat redundant and may be can-celed.

Linimo train approaching Banpaku Kinen Koen, towards Fuji-gaoka Station in March 2005

5.2.2 Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line, Japan)

Main article: Linimo

The commercial automated“UrbanMaglev”system com-menced operation in March 2005 in Aichi, Japan. TheTobu-kyuryo Line, otherwise known as the Linimo line,covers 9 km (5.6 mi). It has a minimum operating radiusof 75 m (246 ft) and a maximum gradient of 6%. Thelinear-motor magnetically levitated train has a top speedof 100 km/h (62 mph). More than 10 million passengersused this“urban maglev”line in its first three months ofoperation. At 100 km/h (62 mph), it is sufficiently fast forfrequent stops, has little or no noise impact on surround-ing communities, can navigate short radius rights of way,and operates during inclement weather. The trains weredesigned by the Chubu HSST Development Corporation,which also operates a test track in Nagoya.*[76]

5.2.3 Incheon Airport Maglev

A maglev train in Daejeon

Main article: Incheon Airport Maglev

South Korea unveiled its first commercial maglev in May2014. It was developed and built domestically. Thecountry was the third to develop a maglev system (after

10 6 MAGLEVS UNDER CONSTRUCTION

Germany and Japan). It connects Incheon InternationalAirport with Yongyu, cutting journey time.*[77]*[78]The first maglev test trials using electromagnetic suspen-sion opened to public was HML-03, made by HyundaiHeavy Industries for the Daejeon Expo in 1993, afterfive years of research and manufacturing two prototypes,HML-01 and HML-02.*[79]*[80]*[81] Government re-search on urban maglev using electromagnetic suspensionbegan in 1994.*[81] The first operating urban maglev wasUTM-02 in Daejeon beginning on 21 April 2008 after14 years of development and one prototype; UTM-01.The train runs on a 1 km (0.62 mi) track between ExpoPark and National Science Museum.*[82]*[83] Mean-while UTM-02 conducted the world's first ever maglevsimulation.*[84]*[85] However UTM-02 is still the sec-ond prototype of a final model. The final UTM model ofRotem's urban maglev, UTM-03, was scheduled to debutat the end of 2014 in Incheon's Yeongjong island whereIncheon International Airport is located.*[86]

6 Maglevs under construction

6.1 AMT test track – Powder Springs,Georgia

A second prototype system in Powder Springs, Georgia,USA, was built by American Maglev Technology, Inc.The test track is 2,000' long with a 550' curve. Vehi-cles are operated up to 37 mph, below the proposed op-erational maximum of 60 mph. A June 2013 review ofthe technology called for an extensive testing program tobe carried out to ensure the system complies with vari-ous regulatory requirements including the American So-ciety of Civil Engineers (ASCE) People Mover Standard.The review noted that the test track is too short to as-sess the vehicles' dynamics at the maximum proposedspeeds.*[87]

6.2 Beijing S1 line

Main article: Line S1, BCR

The Beijing municipal government is building China'sfirst low-speedmaglev line, the Line S1, BCR, using tech-nology developed by Defense Technology University. Itis a 10.2 km (6.3 mi) long S1-West commuter rail line,which, together with seven other conventional lines, be-gan construction on 28 February 2011. The top speedwill be 105 km/h (65 mph). This project was scheduledto be completed in 2015.*[88]

6.3 Changsha Maglev

Main article: Changsha Maglev

The Hunan provincial government launched the construc-tion of a maglev line between Changsha Huanghua In-ternational Airport and Changsha South Railway Station.Construction started inMay 2014, to be completed by theend of 2015.*[89]*[90]

6.4 Tokyo – Nagoya – Osaka

Main article: Chūō ShinkansenConstruction of Chuo Shinkansen began in 2014. It

The Chūō Shinkansen route (bold yellow and red line) and exist-ing Tōkaidō Shinkansen route (thin blue line)

was expected to begin operations by 2027.*[91] The planfor the Chuo Shinkansen bullet train system was final-ized based on the Law for Construction of CountrywideShinkansen. The Linear Chuo Shinkansen Project aimedto operate the Superconductive Magnetically LevitatedTrain to connect Tokyo and Osaka by way of Nagoya, thecapital city of Aichi, in approximately one hour at a speedof 500 km/h (310 mph).*[92] The full track betweenTokyo andOsakawas to be completed in 2045.*[93]*[94]L0 Series train type undergoing testing by the CentralJapan Railway Company (JR Central) for eventual useon the Chūō Shinkansen line set a world speed record of603 km/h (375 mph) on 21 April 2015.*[61] The trainsare planned to run at a maximum speed of 505 km/h(314 mph),*[95] offering journey times of 40 minutesbetween Tokyo (Shinagawa Station) and Nagoya, and 1hour 7 minutes between Tokyo and Osaka.*[96]

6.5 SkyTran - Tel Aviv (Israel)

Skytran announced it would build an elevated networkof sky cars in Tel Aviv, Israel. The technology was de-veloped by NASA with the support of Israel AerospaceIndustries.*[97] The system was meant to be suspendedfrom an elevated track. The vehicles would travel at70km/h (43mph) although the commercial rollout wasexpected to offer much faster vehicles. A trial of the sys-tem was to be built with a test track on the campus ofIsrael Aerospace Industries. Once successful, a full com-mercial version of SkyTran was expected to be rolled outfirst in Tel Aviv.*[98] The trial was scheduled to be up

7.2 Italy 11

and running by the end of 2015.*[99]*[100] The com-pany stated that speeds of up to 240km/h (150mph) areachievable.*[101]

7 Proposed maglev systems

Main article: List of maglev train proposals

Many maglev systems have been proposed in NorthAmerica, Asia and Europe.*[102] Many are in the earlyplanning stages or were explicitly rejected.

7.1 Australia

Sydney-Canberra

A High Speed Rail link between Sydney and Canberrawas proposed by Federal Member for Eden-MonaroPeter Hendy. *[103] in early 2015. Hendy argued thatthe project would have major implications for developingregional Australia - particularly the south east corner ofNew South Wales. *[104]

Sydney-Illawarra

A maglev route was proposed between Sydney andWollongong.*[105] The proposal came to prominence inthe mid-1990s. The Sydney–Wollongong commuter cor-ridor is the largest in Australia, with upwards of 20,000people commuting each day. Current trains use theIllawarra line, between the cliff face of the Illawarra es-carpment and the Pacific Ocean, with travel times abouttwo hours. The proposal would cut travel times to 20min-utes.

Melbourne

In late 2008, a proposal was put forward to theGovernment of Victoria to build a privately funded andoperated maglev line to service the Greater Melbournemetropolitan area in response to the Eddington TransportReport that did not investigate above-ground transportoptions.*[106]*[107] The maglev would service a pop-ulation of over 4 million and the proposal was costed atA$8 billion.However despite road congestion and Australia's highestroadspace per capita, the government dismissed the pro-posal in favour of road expansion including an A$8.5 bil-lion road tunnel, $6 billion extension of the Eastlink totheWestern Ring Road and a $700million Frankston By-pass.

The proposed Melbourne maglev connecting the city of Geelongthrough Metropolitan Melbourne's outer suburban growth corri-dors, Tullamarine and Avalon domestic in and international ter-minals in under 20 mins and on to Frankston, Victoria, in under30 minutes

7.2 Italy

Afirst proposal was formalized on April 2008, in Brescia,by journalist Andrew Spannaus who recommended a highspeed connection between Malpensa airport to the citiesof Milan, Bergamo and Brescia.*[108]On March 2011 Nicola Oliva proposed a maglev con-nection between Pisa airport and the cities of Prato andFlorence (Santa Maria Novella train station and FlorenceAirport).*[109]*[110] The travelling time would be re-duced from the typical hour and a quarter to aroundtwenty minutes.*[111] The second part of the line wouldbe a connection to Livorno, to integrate maritime, aerialand terrestrial transport systems.*[112]*[113]

7.3 United Kingdom

Main article: UK Ultraspeed

London – Glasgow: A line*[114] was proposed in theUnited Kingdom from London to Glasgow with sev-eral route options through the Midlands, Northwest andNortheast of England. It was reported to be underfavourable consideration by the government.*[115] Theapproach was rejected in the Government White PaperDelivering a Sustainable Railway published on 24 July2007.*[116] Another high-speed link was planned be-tween Glasgow and Edinburgh but the technology re-mained unsettled.*[117]*[118]*[119]

12 7 PROPOSED MAGLEV SYSTEMS

7.4 United States

Union Pacific freight conveyor: Plans are under way byAmerican rail road operator Union Pacific to build a 7.9km (4.9 mi) container shuttle between the ports of LosAngeles and Long Beach, with UP's intermodal containertransfer facility. The systemwould be based on“passive”technology, especially well suited to freight transfer as nopower is needed on board. The vehicle is a chassis thatglides to its destination. The system is being designed byGeneral Atomics.*[66]California-Nevada InterstateMaglev: High-speedma-glev lines between major cities of southern California andLas Vegas are under study via the California-Nevada In-terstate Maglev Project.*[120] This plan was originallyproposed as part of an I-5 or I-15 expansion plan, but thefederal government ruled that it must be separated frominterstate public work projects.After the decision, private groups from Nevada proposeda line running from Las Vegas to Los Angeles with stopsin Primm, Nevada; Baker, California; and other pointsthroughout San Bernardino County into Los Angeles.Politicians expressed concern that a high-speed rail lineout of state would carry spending out of state along withtravelers.Baltimore – Washington D.C. Maglev: A 64 km(40 mi) project has been proposed linking CamdenYards in Baltimore and Baltimore-Washington Interna-tional (BWI) Airport to Union Station in Washington,D.C.*[121]The Pennsylvania Project: The Pennsylvania High-Speed Maglev Project corridor extends from thePittsburgh International Airport to Greensburg, withintermediate stops in Downtown Pittsburgh andMonroeville. This initial project was claimed to serveapproximately 2.4 million people in the Pittsburghmetropolitan area. The Baltimore proposal competedwith the Pittsburgh proposal for a US$90 million federalgrant.*[122]San Diego-Imperial County airport: In 2006 SanDiego commissioned a study for a maglev line to a pro-posed airport located in Imperial County. SANDAGclaimed that the concept would be an“airports [sic] with-out terminals”, allowing passengers to check in at a termi-nal in San Diego (“satellite terminals”), take the trainto the airport and directly board the airplane. In addi-tion, the train would have the potential to carry freight.Further studies were requested although no funding wasagreed.*[123]Orlando International Airport to Orange CountyConvention Center: In December 2012 the Florida De-partment of Transportation gave conditional approval toa proposal by American Maglev to build a privately run14.9-mile (24.0 km), 5-station line from Orlando Inter-national Airport to Orange County Convention Center.The Department requested a technical assessment and

said there would be a request for proposals issued to re-veal any competing plans. The route requires the use ofa public right of way.*[124] If the first phase succeededAmerican Maglev would propose two further phases (of4.9 and 19.4 miles (7.9 and 31.2 km)) to carry the line toWalt Disney World.*[125]

7.5 Puerto Rico

San Juan – Caguas: A 16.7-mile (26.8 km) maglevproject was proposed linking Tren Urbano's Cupey Sta-tion in San Juan with two proposed stations in the cityof Caguas, south of San Juan. The maglev line would runalong Highway PR-52, connecting both cities. Accordingto American Maglev project cost would be approximatelyUS$380 million.*[126]*[127]*[128]

7.6 Germany

On 25 September 2007, Bavaria announced a high-speed maglev-rail service from Munich to its airport.The Bavarian government signed contracts with DeutscheBahn and Transrapid with Siemens and ThyssenKrupp forthe €1.85 billion project.*[129]On 27 March 2008, the German Transport minister an-nounced the project had been cancelled due to rising costsassociated with constructing the track. A new estimateput the project between €3.2–3.4 billion.*[130]

7.7 Switzerland

SwissRapide: The SwissRapide AG together with theSwissRapide Consortium was planning and developingthe first maglev monorail system for intercity traffic thecountry's between major cities. SwissRapide was to befinanced by private investors. In the long-term, the Swis-sRapide Express was to connect the major cities northof the Alps between Geneva and St. Gallen, includingLucerne and Basel. The first projects were Bern – Zurich,Lausanne – Geneva as well as Zurich – Winterthur. Thefirst line (Lausanne – Geneva or Zurich – Winterthur)could go into service as early as 2020.*[131]*[132]Swissmetro: An earlier project, Swissmetro AG en-visioned a partially evacuated underground maglev (avactrain). As with SwissRapide, Swissmetro envisionedconnecting the major cities in Switzerland with one an-other. In 2011, Swissmetro AG was dissolved and theIPRs from the organisation were passed onto the EPFLin Lausanne.*[133]

7.8 China

Shanghai – HangzhouChina planned to extend the existing Shanghai Maglev

7.11 Iran 13

Train,*[134] initially by some 35 kilometres to ShanghaiHongqiao Airport and then 200 kilometres to the city ofHangzhou (Shanghai-Hangzhou Maglev Train). If built,this would be the first inter-city maglev rail line in com-mercial service.The project was controversial and repeatedly delayed. InMay 2007 the project was suspended by officials, report-edly due to public concerns about radiation from the sys-tem.*[135] In January and February 2008 hundreds ofresidents demonstrated in downtown Shanghai that theline route came too close to their homes, citing concernsabout sickness due to exposure to the strong magneticfield, noise, pollution and devaluation of property near tothe lines.*[136]*[137] Final approval to build the line wasgranted on 18 August 2008. Originally scheduled to beready by Expo 2010,*[138] plans called for completionby 2014. The Shanghai municipal government consid-ered multiple options, including undergrounding the lineto allay public fears. This same report stated that the finaldecision had to be approved by the National Developmentand Reform Commission.*[139]In 2007 the Shanghai municipal government was consid-ering build a factory in Nanhui district to produce low-speed maglev trains for urban use.*[140]Shanghai - BeijingA proposed line would have connected Shanghai to Bei-jing, over a distance of 1,300 kilometres (800 mi), at anestimated cost of £15.5bn.*[141] No projects had beenrevealed as of 2014.*[142]

7.9 India

Mumbai – DelhiA project was presented to Indian railway minister(Mamta Banerjee) by an American company to connectMumbai and Delhi. Then Prime Minister ManmohanSingh said that if the line project was successful the In-dian government would build lines between other citiesand also between Mumbai Central and Chhatrapati Shiv-aji International Airport.*[143]Mumbai – NagpurThe State of Maharashtra approved a feasibility study fora maglev train betweenMumbai and Nagpur, some 1,000km (620 mi) apart.*[144]Chennai – Bangalore – MysoreA detailed report was to be prepared and submitted byDecember 2012 for a line to connect Chennai to Mysorevia Bangalore at a cost $26 million per kilometre, reach-ing speeds of 350 km/h.*[145]

7.10 Malaysia

A Consortium led by UEM Group Bhd and ARA Group,proposed Maglev technology to link Malaysian cities toSingapore. The idea was first mooted by YTL Group. Its

technology partner then was said to be Siemens. Highcosts sank the proposal. The concept of a high-speed raillink from Kuala Lumpur to Singapore resurfaced. It wascited as a proposed“high impact”project in the EconomicTransformation Programme (ETP) that was unveiled in2010. *[146]

7.11 Iran

In May 2009, Iran and a German company signed anagreement to use maglev to link Tehran and Mashhad.The agreement was signed at the Mashhad InternationalFair site between Iranian Ministry of Roads and Trans-portation and the German company. The 900 km (560mi) line allegedly could reduce travel time betweenTehran and Mashhad to about 2.5 hours.*[147] Munich-based Schlegel Consulting Engineers said they had signedthe contract with the Iranian ministry of transport and thegovernor of Mashad. “We have been mandated to leada German consortium in this project,”a spokesman said.“We are in a preparatory phase.”The next step will beassemble a consortium, a process that is expected to takeplace“in the coming months,”the spokesman said. Theproject could be worth between 10 billion and 12 billioneuros, the Schlegel spokesman said.Transrapid developers Siemens and ThyssenKrupp bothsaid they were unaware of the proposal. The Schlegelspokesman said Siemens and ThyssenKrupp were cur-rently“not involved.”in the consortium*[148]

7.12 Taiwan

Low speed maglev (urban maglev) is proposed for Yang-MingShan MRT Line for Taipei, a circular line connect-ing Taipei City to New Taipei City, & almost all otherTaipei transport routes, but especially the access starvednorthern suburbs of TienMou and YangMingShan. Fromthese suburbs to the city, transit times would be reducedby 70% or more compared to peak hours, and betweenTien Mou and YangMingShan, from approx 20 minutes,to 3 minutes. Key to the line is YangMingShan Station, atʻTaipei levelʼin the mountain, 200M below YangMing-Shan (YangMingMountain) Village, with 40 second highspeed elevators to the Village.Linimo or a similar system would be preferred, as beingthe core of Taipeis p̓ublic transport system, it should run24 hours/day. Also, in certain areas it would run withinmetres of apartments, so the near silent operation, andminimal maintenance requirements of maglev would bemajor features.An extension of the line could run to Chiang Kai ShekAirport, and possibly on down the island, passing throughthe major population centres which the High Speed Railmust avoid. The minimal vibration of maglev wouldalso be suitable to provide access Hsinchu Science Park,

14 11 REFERENCES

where sensitive silicon foundries are located. In the otherdirection, connection to the Tansui Line and to HighSpeed ferries at Tansui would provide overnight travel toShangHai and Nagasaki, and to Busan orMokpo in SouthKorea, thus interconnecting the public transport systemsof four countries, with great savings in fossil fuel con-sumption compared to flight.YangMingShan MRT Line won the 'Engineering Excel-lence' Award, at the 2013WorldMetro Summit in Shang-hai. More at vimeo.com/11785326.

7.13 Hong Kong

Main article: Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Ex-press Rail Link

The Express Rail Link, previously known as the RegionalExpress, which will connect Kowloon with the territory'sborder with China, explored different technologies anddesigns in its planning stage, between Maglev and con-ventional highspeed railway, and if the latter was chosen,between a dedicated new route and sharing the tracks withthe existing West Rail. Finally conventional highspeedwith dedicated new route was chosen. It is expected tobe operational in 2017.

8 Incidents

Two incidents involved fires. A Japanese test train inMiyazaki, MLU002, was completely consumed in a firein 1991.*[149]On 11 August 2006, a fire broke out on the commer-cial Shanghai Transrapid shortly after arriving at theLongyang terminal. People were evacuated without in-cident before the vehicle was moved about 1 kilometreto keep smoke from filling the station. NAMTI officialstoured the SMT maintenance facility in November 2010and learned that the cause of the fire was "thermal run-away" in a battery tray. As a result, SMT secured a newbattery vendor, installed new temperature sensors and in-sulators and redesigned the trays.On 22 September 2006, a Transrapid train collided witha maintenance vehicle on a test/publicity run in Lathen(Lower Saxony / north-western Germany).*[150]*[151]Twenty-three people were killed and ten were injured;these were the first maglev crash fatalities. The acci-dent was caused by human error. Charges were broughtagainst three Transrapid employees after a year-long in-vestigation.*[152]

9 See also

• Bombardier Advanced Rapid Transit – Transit sys-

tems using Linear induction motors

• Ground effect train

• Hyperloop

• Land speed record for rail vehicles

• Launch loopwould be amaglev system for launchingto orbit or escape velocity

• Mass driver

• Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line

• Oleg Tozoni worked on a published non-linearly sta-bilised maglev design

• StarTram – a maglev launch system

• Transfer table

10 Notes[1] This does not include the Yamanashi Test Track, on which

a paid public service is to commence in 2013, and whichis planned to be extended into the Chūō Shinkansen.

[2] Zehden describes a geometry in which the linear mo-tor is used below a steel beam, giving partial levitationof the vehicle. These patents were later cited by Elec-tromagnetic apparatus generating a gliding magnetic fieldby Jean Candelas (U.S. Patent 4,131,813), Air cushionsupported, omnidirectionally steerable, traveling magneticfield propulsion device by Harry A. Mackie (U.S. Patent3,357,511) and Two-sided linear induction motor espe-cially for suspended vehicles by Schwarzler et al. (U.S.Patent 3,820,472)

[3] These German patents would be GR643316 (1937),GR44302 (1938), GR707032 (1941).

[4] This is the case with the MoscowMonorail – currently theonly non-maglev linear motor-propelled monorail train inactive service.

[5] This is typically the case with electrodynamic suspensionmaglev trains. Aerodynamic factors may also play a rolein the levitation of such trains. Where that is the case,it might be argued that they are technically hybrid sys-tems insofar as their levitation isn't purely magnetic – buttheir linear motors are electromagnetic systems, and theseachieve the higher speeds at which the aerodynamic fac-tors come into play.

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[68] “Japan's maglev train sets speed record”. CTVglobe-media Publishing Inc. 2 December 2003. Archived fromthe original on 6 December 2003. Retrieved 16 February2009.

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[70] “BBC - Homepage”. bbc.com.

[71]“IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity, VOL.19, NO. 3, page 2142 JUNE 2009”. Ieeexplore.ieee.org.17 July 2009. doi:10.1109/TASC.2009.2018110. Re-trieved 29 September 2011.

[72] [20] Wang Jiasu, Wang Suyu, Zeng Youwen, HuangHaiyu, Luo Fang, Xu Zhipei, Tang Qixue, Lin Guobin,Zhang Cuifang, Ren Zhongyou, Zhao Guomin, ZhuDegui, Wang Shaohua, Jiang He, Zhu Min, DengChangyan, Hu Pengfei, Li Chaoyong, Liu Fang, LianJisan, Wang Xiaorong, Wang Lianghui, Shen Xuming,Dong Xiaogang. The first man-loading high temperaturesuperconducting maglev test vehicle in the world. PhysicaC, 2002, 378-381: 809-814

[73]

[74] “Shanghai Maglev Train (431 km/h) - High DefinitionVideo”. shanghaichina.ca.

[75] (7-minute real time video of the maglev reaching 432km/h in only 3 minutes)

[76] “Nagoya builds Maglev Metro”. International RailwayJournal. May 2004.

[77] “S. Korea unveils first domestically-developed urban ma-glev train”. Global Times. Xinhua. 16 May 2014. Re-trieved 9 January 2015.

[78] “Incheon Airport maglev unveiled”. Railway Gazette.20 May 2014. Retrieved 9 January 2015.

[79] “Musharraf's Relative Lands Another Super DuperProject of the Future”. The South Asia Tribune. 12 May2005. Archived from the original on 16 January 2008.Retrieved 27 October 2008.

[80] “Urban maglev opportunity”. Railway Gazette Interna-tional. 5 September 2008. Retrieved 27 October 2008.

[81] “Rotem Business Activities, Maglev”. Rotem-Hyundai.27 October 2008. Retrieved 27 October 2008.

17

[82] “Korea launches maglev train”. Korea.net. 21 April2008. Retrieved 27 October 2008.

[83] “First run of the Maglev”. Hankyoreh. 21 April 2008.Retrieved 27 October 2008.

[84]“Maglev train simulation hits the tracks”. Scientific Com-puting World. 20 August 2008. Retrieved 27 October2008.

[85] “Simulation speeds maglev to early launch”. Engineer-ingtalk. 7 August 2008. Retrieved 27 October 2008.

[86] “Exports surge ahead”. International Railway Journal.1 July 2008. Retrieved 27 October 2008.

[87] “American Maglev Technology (AMT) Assessment”(PDF). 5 June 2013.

[88] " 国防科⼤⾃研磁浮列 _ 事 _ 球⽹".Mil.huanqiu.com. 2 March 2011. Retrieved 2012-11-04.

[89] “Changsha Maglev Line Completes Investment over 490Million Yuan”. Retrieved 29 December 2014.

[90] Changsha to Construct Maglev Train, 2014-01-09

[91] “JR Tokai begins building maglev stations”. The JapanTimes. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

[92] “JR Tokai gives maglev estimates to LDP; in favor ofshortest route”. The Japan Times. 19 June 2009. Re-trieved 8 July 2009.

[93] “25 Tokyo-Nagoya maglev debut eyed”. The JapanTimes. 27 April 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2007.

[94]“GoAhead for JapaneseMaglev”. Maglev.net. Retrieved28 June 2011.

[95] ＪＲ東海：リニア時速 500 キロ、試験再開－通勤圏拡⼤で激変も[JR Central: Maglev testing at 500km/h resumes - Expanded commuter area to create majorupheavals]. Bloomberg (in Japanese). Japan: BloombergLP. 29 August 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2015.

[96]“JR Tokai unveils a model for the new high-speed maglevtrain̒ L0′". Daily Onigiri. DailyOnigiri.com. 4November2010. Retrieved 17 January 2013.

[97] Wakefield, Jane (24 June 2014).“Sky cars to be built inTel Aviv”. BBC News. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[98] “NASA s̓ SkyTran personal maglev transport to trial inIsrael”. Stuff. 3 July 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[99] Baker, James. “They are building the first personal ma-glev transport system in Israel”. Spoid. Retrieved 8 Jan-uary 2015.

[100] “SkyTran to Build Futuristic Maglev 'Hover Monorail' inIsrael”. Inhabitat. 27 June 2014. Retrieved 8 January2015.

[101]“Hover cars have arrived! Self-driving sky pods set to soarabove traffic on high-speedmagnetic tracks”. MailOnline.27 June 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[102] Vantuono, William (1 July 1994).“Maglev is ready. Arewe?". Railway Age.

[103] Hendy, Peter (6 March 2013). “Canberra-Sydney veryfast train key to regional development”. Sydney MorningHerald.

[104] Hendy, Peter (6 March 2013). “Canberra-Sydney veryfast train key to regional development”. Sydney MorningHerald.

[105] Christodoulou, Mario (2 August 2008). “Maglev trainreappears on agenda”. Illawara Mercury.

[106] Watters, Martin (30 July 2008).“Plans to build Geelong-Melbourne-Frankstonmonorail”. Herald Sun (Australia).

[107] “Melbourne Concepts – Maglev's relevance”. WindanaResearch. Retrieved 7 September 2009.

[108]“L'EIR propone un“Maglev lombardo”perMilano Expo”. movisol.org.

[109] UnMaglev toscano per avvicinare Pisa – Cronaca – il Tir-reno

[110] Un Maglev toscano per avvicinare Pisa

[111] Per Peretola spunta una soluzione: il trena a levitazionemagnetica

[112] Prato chiede il Maglev per la Toscana

[113] Regione Toscana: Aeroporti: Firenze; Oliva(Pd), MaglevPer Superare Stallo

[114] “Factbook” (PDF). 500kmh. October 2007. Retrieved2012-12-13.

[115] “Shanghai-style Maglev train may fly on London line”.China View. 7 June 2005.

[116]“Government's five-year plan”. Railway Magazine 153(1277): 6–7. September 2007.

[117] “UK Ultraspeed”. Retrieved 23 May 2008.

[118] Wainwright, Martin (9 August 2005). “Hovertrain tocut London-Glasgow time to two hours”. The Guardian(UK). Retrieved 23 May 2008.

[119] Blitz, James (31 August 2006). “Japan inspires Tories'land of rising green tax”. Financial Times. Retrieved 23May 2008.

[120] Persch, Jasmin Aline (25 June 2008).“America's fastesttrain moves ahead”. msnbc. Retrieved 31 July 2008.

[121] “Maglev Route”. Retrieved 1 July 2006.

[122] “The Pennsylvania Project”. Retrieved 25 September2007.

[123] “SANDAG: San Diego Maglev project”. Retrieved 23May 2008.

[124] “Orlando MagLev Plan Gets Tentative Approval”.WYNC. 17 December 2012.

[125] “American Maglev Technology (AMT) AssessmentPhase I: Data Collection, Data Development, Meetingsand Recommendations” (PDF). December 2011.

18 13 EXTERNAL LINKS

[126] “Marietta Company Ready to Send Maglev TechnologyAbroad”. Globalatlanta.com. Retrieved 29 September2011.

[127] “William Miranda Torres pide apoyo para financiar trenen Caguas”. Primerahora.com. Retrieved 29 September2011.

[128] casiano communications (19May 2011).“Inteco looks at'maglev' train system”. caribbeanbusiness.pr. Retrieved29 September 2011.

[129] “Germany to build maglev railway”. BBC News. 25September 2007.

[130] Heller, Gernot (27 March 2008).“Germany scraps Mu-nich Transrapid as cost spirals”. Reuters.

[131] “Lausanne en 10 minutes” (PDF) (in French). GHI. 3March 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2011.

[132] “In 20 Minuten von Zürich nach Bern” (PDF) (in Ger-man). Neue Zürcher Zeitung. 20 June 2009. Retrieved20 May 2011.

[133]“Swissmetro.ch”. Swissmetro.ch. Retrieved 29 Septem-ber 2011.

[134] McGrath, Dermot (20 January 2003). “China AwaitsHigh-Speed 'Maglev'". Wired.

[135] “China maglev project suspended amid radiation con-cerns”. Xinhua. 26 May 2007.

[136] “Hundreds protest Shanghai maglev rail extension”.Reuters. 12 January 2008.

[137] Kurtenbach, Elaine (14 January 2008). “Shanghai Res-idents Protest Maglev Train”. Fox News.

[138] “Maglev railway to link Hangzhou, Shanghai”. Xinhua.6 April 2006.

[139] “Maglev finally given approval”. Shanghai Daily. 18August 2008.

[140] “Green light for maglev factory”. Shanghai Daily. 22November 2007.

[141]“China claims train blue riband”. Retrieved 27December2014.

[142] “Shanghai welcomes high speed train”. Cnn business.Retrieved 27 December 2014.

[143] “Mumbai to Delhi: 3 hours by train”. Express India. 14June 2005.

[144]“6 routes identified for MagLev”. Times of India (India).22 June 2007.

[145] “Bullet train may connect Mysore-Bangalore in 1hr 30mins Photos”. Yahoo! India Finance. 20 April 2012.Retrieved 2012-11-04.

[146] “At what cost high-speed rail”. thesundaily.my.

[147] “No Operation”. Presstv.ir. Retrieved 29 September2011.

[148] “UPDATE 2-ThyssenKrupp, Siemens unaware of Irantrain deal”. News.alibaba.com. 30 May 2009. Retrieved29 September 2011.

[149] Vranich, Joseph (1 May 1992).“High speed hopes soar”. Railway Age.

[150] “Several Dead in Transrapid Accident”. Speigel Online.22 September 2006.

[151] “23 dead in German maglev train accident”. M&C Eu-rope. 22 September 2006.

[152]“German prosecutor charges three Transrapid employeesover year-old disaster”. AFXNews. 30 September 2007.Archived from the original on 4 June 2011.

12 Further reading

• Heller, Arnie (June 1998). “A New Approachfor Magnetically Levitating Trains̶and Rockets”. Science & Technology Review.

• Hood, Christopher P. (2006). Shinkansen – FromBullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan. Routledge.ISBN 0-415-32052-6.

• Moon, Francis C. (1994). Superconducting Levita-tion Applications to Bearings and Magnetic Trans-portation. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-55925-3.

• Rossberg, Ralf Roman (1983). Radlos in dieZukunft? Die Entwicklung neuer Bahnsysteme. OrellFüssli Verlag. ASIN B002ROWD5M.

• Rossberg, Ralf Roman (1993). Radlos in dieZukunft? Die Entwicklung neuer Bahnsysteme. OrellFuessli Verlag. ISBN 978-3-280-01503-2.

• Simmons, Jack; Biddle, Gordon (1997). The OxfordCompanion to British Railway History: From 1603to the 1990s. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.303. ISBN 0-19-211697-5.

13 External links

• Maglev2000

• North American Maglev Transport Institute

• International Maglev Charter & Petition

• Urban Maglev

• Windana Research

• United States Federal Railroad Administration

• US MagneticGlide

• Information note on US maglev

19

• Longer information note on US maglev

• America Needs a National Magnetic Levitated Net-work James Jordan

• The International Maglev Board Maglev profes-sional's info plattform for all maglev transport sys-tems and related technologies.

• Applied Levitation

• Fastransit

• Maglev Net – Maglev News & Information

• Transrapid

• The UK Ultraspeed Project

• Japanese Railway Technical Research Institute(RTRI)

• Magnetic Levitation at DMOZ

• AMLEV MDS System

• Magnetic Levitation for Transportation

• News of Brazil's Maglev project (in Portuguese)

• Maglev Trains Audio slideshow from the NationalHigh Magnetic Field Laboratory discusses magneticlevitation, the Meissner Effect, magnetic flux trap-ping and superconductivity

20 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text• Maglev Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maglev?oldid=664446491 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Maury Markowitz, JDG, Rick-yrab, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Modster, Mahjongg, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Jpatokal, Reddi, Johnh123, Tpbradbury,Pacific1982, Rei, Omegatron, Mackensen, Marc omorain, Bloodshedder, Finlay McWalter, Slawojarek, Shantavira, Robbot, Sdedeo,Pigsonthewing, Chrism, Altenmann, Lowellian, KSweeley, Polonius, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, Blainster, Mattflaschen, Giftlite,DavidCary, Wolfkeeper, BenFrantzDale, Tom harrison, Marcika, Nelso, Chinasaur, Falcon Kirtaran, Python eggs, Bobblewik, Golbez,Alex Libman, Gugganij, Comatose51, SoWhy, Pgan002, Antandrus, Beland, Kusunose, Gunnar Larsson, Kiteinthewind, Maximaxi-max, Houshuang, Englishdude, Mathilda~enwiki, Hellisp, Willhsmit, ArthurDenture, Naus, Calwatch, Trevor MacInnis, Chrisbolt, Snuf-fkin~enwiki, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Miborovsky, Indosauros, NathanHurst, Chris j wood, Discospinster, Avriette, Sladen, Clawed, Vsmith,Pmaccabe, Aris Katsaris, Eric Shalov, Michael Zimmermann, Sarrica, Deelkar, Aperculum, MarkS, Kaisershatner, FriedBunny, Kon-stantin~enwiki, Tompw, Huntster, Bletch, Hayabusa future, Shanes, RoyBoy, Yanzi, Bobo192, AmosWolfe, Smalljim, Cmdrjameson,.:Ajvol:., Cwolfsheep, Cavrdg, Slambo, Pearle, Hooperbloob, Foxandpotatoes, Dygituljunky, Yalbik, Merope, Beyondthislife, Danski14,Mrzaius, Alansohn, Vslashg, 119, Arthena, Slof, Andrewpmk, Ahruman, SlimVirgin, Ynhockey, Jaardon, JePe, BRW, QuixoticKate,ProhibitOnions, Stephan Leeds, Jobe6, Amorymeltzer, LFaraone, Aaron Bruce, Bsadowski1, Pauli133, DV8 2XL, LordAmeth, Gene Ny-gaard, Nightstallion, Dismas, Falcorian, Brookie, Bobrayner, Distantbody, Reinoutr, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Camw, Nugget-boy, Ae-a, Armando, Joeyconnick, Admrboltz, Beacharn, Tckma, Plaws, Linkspro, Tabletop, Uris, CharlesC, Wayward, とある⽩い猫, Doco, Wiki-vr, Btyner, Gimboid13, Christopher Thomas, Mandarax, Hideyuki, Yosemite~enwiki, Kbdank71, ALepik, Ethan Palmer,Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Zbxgscqf, SoAxVampyre, Lordkinbote, Zyclop, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Pashdown, W3bbo, Pogoman, Dua-gloth, Ian Pitchford, SchuminWeb, Ysangkok, MichaelLipik, Dechetes, Pixel23, Revolving Bugbear, Fresheneesz, TeaDrinker, Pevernagie,Alphachimp, LeCire~enwiki, Silivrenion,Windharp, Valentinian, Bedford,WhyBeNormal, Visor, Benlisquare, JesseGarrett, Martin Hinks,Vmenkov, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, Angus Lepper, Jimp, JJLatWiki, RussBot, Jeffhoy, Arado, Robert Will,Ytrottier, Netscott, D0li0, Okedem, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Rsrikanth05, Salsb, Herbertxu, NawlinWiki, Thepinterpause, Complainer,Deskana, ONEder Boy, RazorICE, AndrewC, R'son-W, Djm1279, Irishguy, Pyrotec, Bobbo, Dppowell, Ravedave, DAJF, RFBailey,Ergbert, Snagglepuss, Danlaycock, Energon, MySchizoBuddy, Nick C, Tony1, Alex43223, Ewanduffy, Syrthiss, Aaron Schulz, David-steinberg, TastyCakes, CLW, Poisonotter, Queezbo, Urger48400, Knotnic, Closedmouth, E Wing, Abune, Lynbarn, Cobblet, JuJube, NK,Kevin, SigmaEpsilon, Jonathan.s.kt, Neilgravir, John Broughton, Patiwat, CrniBombarder!!!, DVD R W, Wai Hong, Crystallina, Neier, Abit iffy, SmackBot, MattieTK, Twerges, Sprocket, Mangoe, KnowledgeOfSelf, TestPilot, Blue520, Jab843, KelleyCook, PJM, Canderra,ZS, Nil Einne, HeartofaDog, HalfShadow, Xaosflux, Gilliam, Skizzik, IanDavies, Kmarinas86, GreenGrass, Chris the speller, Nativeborn-cal, Yankees76, Biatch, Skookum1, Thumperward, Nobloodyname, SchfiftyThree, Dlohcierekim's sock, Richard.c, DHN-bot~enwiki,Colonies Chris, Seifip, Zsinj, Nick Levine, Chulk90, Frap, Ruw1090, Stepho-wrs, Squigish, GVnayR, BIL, Ian01, J450NH3, Dread-star, [email protected], Salt Yeung, Ryan Roos, Only, SpiderJon, Henning Makholm, Renesisevo, Daniel.Cardenas, Ligulembot, Neo-VampTrunks, BlackTerror, Ohconfucius, Esrever, CPHOOD, Kuru, John, Euchiasmus, Ninjagecko, DavidBailey, Strainu, Pat Payne, Timbates, JorisvS, Linnormlord, Tlesher, Yasirniazkhan, Wheeltapper, PseudoSudo, ATren, NcSchu, Jon186, Waggers, Mr. Shoeless, There-alhazel, Peter Horn, Contorebel, Bruce Jensen, Xionbox, Autonova, Dl2000, Lee Carre, TJohnson, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, Bmaganti,Vegassteven, JoeBot, Jrbbopp, Igoldste, Shultz III, Aeons, Courcelles, JLCA, Ebrighton, TheUltimateBackpacker, Tawkerbot2, Matt S.,Dlohcierekim, FatalError, Duduong, Friendly Neighbour, Altales Teriadem, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, JohnCD, Baiji, Drakeguy, WATP,DeLarge, Ramon1928, Kiti, KnightLago, Green caterpillar, Simply south, Old Guard, Shultz IV, MrFish, Phósphoros, A. Exeunt, Cyde-bot, Ryan, Grammaticus Repairo, Enoch the red, Odie5533, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, YorkBW, Monster eagle, Tornados28, FrancoGG,Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Sonderbro, Diogo Almeida, Kablammo, Gralo, WilliamH, John254, Uv411, Ufwuct, Dark Enigma, Tellyaddict, CoolBlue, Davidhorman, Cooljuno411, Stannered, Niduzzi, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Chaleyer61, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Hensu75, XOXOLIZ,Bigtimepeace, Prolog, Qasdfdsaq, Zylorian, Darklilac, A.M.962, Gdo01, Kzaral, Lfstevens, Carewolf, Srihariramadas, Myanw, Cpzilliacus,Gökhan, Ingolfson, Deadbeef, JAnDbot, MER-C,Mrspaceman, RiseOfTheRev01ution, Plm209, Andonic, Hut 8.5, Zack2007, Acroterion,SteveSims, Gert7, Animaly2k2, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Nyq, Wikidudeman, Salinecjr, Jetstreamer, Kuyabribri, JNW, Pixel;-), Shablog, Catgut, Theroadislong, Steevm, Elentirmo, IkonicDeath, Acornwithwings, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Greg Grahame, A3nm,Monalisaoverdrive, Tailsfan2, Glen, Edward321, Filik, Robin S, Lost tourist, Hintswen, Otvaltak, Stephenchou0722, S3000, Atarr, AVRS,Cliff smith, MartinBot, Ghorbanalibeik, The Lord Of The Dance, Halpaugh, Xantolus, Rettetast, Sm8900, FI-psych3, Nickpunt, R'n'B,CommonsDelinker, Qrex123, Cicero UK, Lilac Soul, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Timtjervis, Uncle Dick, All Is One, Dbiel, MrBell,PhoenixBlitzkrieg, Tdadamemd, Hisagi, LordAnubisBOT,McSly, Grayoshi, Sebwite, Bailo26, Ephebi, Pyrospirit, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf),Plasticup, Talkboy11, Gregfitzy, Cobi, Shoessss, Hanacy, KylieTastic, Korranus, SirJibby, Launchpoint, Tiggerjay, Jamesontai, Tellerman,DMCer, Gtg204y, Czarbender, Andy Marchbanks, Mlivesey, Geeked, Izno, KGV, Soccerman11a, Spellcast, Lights, X!, Deor, Netmonger,Kyle kyle is 50, Raphaelmak, VolkovBot, The Wild Falcon, Christophenstein, Jeff G., Alexandria, AlnoktaBOT, SergeyKurdakov, Kyle thebot, Ryan032, Philip Trueman, PNG crusade bot, Matttster37, Malinaccier, Technopat, Kritikos99, Devoxo, Qxz, Someguy1221, Denny-Colt, Leafyplant, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Ephix, Sushiya, Wikiisawesome, InfinityAndBeyond, Donald.s.armstrong, Evan575, Andy Ding-ley, Falcon8765, Iapain wiki, Burntsauce, Typ932, Quevvy, Frksforjesus, Thric3, JMT~enwiki, Tumadoireacht, Finnrind, Lieutenantmudd,SieBot, Moebiusuibeom-en, Jauerback, Noveltyghost, MaltaGC, Jacotto, Theup3985, Swaq, Yintan, Bentogoa, Flyer22, WheelieBinner,Number1schumacherfan, Oxymoron83, XxXXMULLIGANXXxx, KoshVorlon, Lightmouse, RW Marloe, Francisco Tevez, Timbitalish,AMackenzie, Nancy, Anchor Link Bot, Latics, Wuhwuzdat, Mtaylor848, Florentino floro, Dolphin51, Struway2, POVpushee, Nil3899,Explicit, Gejikeiji~enwiki, Purnendup, RegentsPark, DarkCatalyst, Daniel.capizzi, ClueBot, Kyoww, The Thing That Should Not Be,Matdrodes, Dmurashchik, Ndenison, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Addams71, Chum-in-a-box, Jozsefs, Fenwayguy, CounterVandalismBot,DaronDierkes, Gumgl, LizardJr8, Auntof6, Masonm95, Kitchen Knife, Excirial, Jusdafax, LeJonJames, Eeekster, Bignchunky, Hood-man93, Maximilian Wolf, Freefall333, MickMacNee, Terrawatt, 842U, Iohannes Animosus, Razorflame, Phantom25, XInvictusX, Daveseer, Saebjorn, Aleksd, 13782tj, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, Iaineight, PCHS-NJROTC, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Antti29, XLinkBot, Flum-stead, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, HexaChord, Olyus, Benjaminqiu, Addbot, Paul Davidson, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Televi-sions frank, Fyrael, Medich1985, Hot200245, PaterMcFly, Totakeke423, Jncraton, LetThereBeLove, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter,Cransona, Mookie345, Favonian, K Eliza Coyne, Medicationation, Amarantus, ContinentalAve, Numbo3-bot, Ocean moberg, Lightbot,Faunas, MaBoehm, Koshoes, MuZemike, Ettrig, Leovizza, Luckas-bot, ZX81, AadaamS, Yobot, Themfromspace, Fraggle81, CinchBug,Tempodivalse, Starbois, AnomieBOT, HairyPerry, Archon 2488, Vijit kumar, Kristen Eriksen, 1exec1, AloysiusLiliusBot, Piano nontroppo, Langcliffe, Materialscientist, ArdWar, Citation bot, Lkt1126, TIMMAY2013, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Xqbot, TomB123, Sionus,Hochung4, SLIMHANNYA, Addihockey10, Iyralinux, NEpatriots3, Tomdo08, Sitchmhenk, Chaoslaw, Glptech, Heimuk, Geometeoman,Nasa-verve, Mathonius, Rickproser, SongRenKai, Jacobcc95, Viqas12, Erik9, Dan6hell66, Constructive editor, Captain-n00dle, Glider-

14.2 Images 21

Maven, Pierre gill, FrescoBot, Matthewldunbar, Oldlaptop321, Kyteto, Ohiolight, Papa1199, Vishnu2011, Strongbadmanofme, 出し⽅,Bambuway, Louperibot, Moidutt, Redrose64, Witt23, I dream of horses, Fat&Happy, Brücke-Osteuropa, Serols, RichardWayneSmith,Kon michael, Ouyuecheng, Orenburg1, TobeBot, Thezygs1, ItsZippy, Lotje, GeeZ, Lprucha, MrX, AvengerX, Shortfatlad, Reaper Eternal,Seahorseruler, Diannaa, Jamietw, Tbhotch, Newwwwut, Reach Out to the Truth, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, G2sean, Mean as custard, Rjwilm-siBot, Vincentcloudvalentine, SebastienPoncet, JVSerra, Hamid yaghoubi, Skamecrazy123, Deagle AP, EmausBot, Mmm333k, Helmigo,Mikola Tsekhan, Jeshep222, Joseftirol89, GoingBatty, RA0808, Illdz, Solarra, Xbox finatic, Chaza5678, Wikipelli, K6ka, John Cline,HighSpeed-X, Jjqburch, Sf5xeplus, Ὁ οἶστρος, H3llBot, Wikfr, Bitebullets2, Stuart215, Rickinasia, Rcsprinter123, Rucar, L Kensington,Donner60, Quite vivid blur, 1l2, Hoeksas, Orange Suede Sofa, Ewaladel, Gene's innovations, 28bot, Whoop whoop pull up, Rechercheuse,Sonicyouth86, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Rich Smith, Incompetence, MoondyneAWB, H. Yaghoubi, MelbourneStar, Tim PF, ChesterMarkel, R.Mathana Muhilan, Chitransh Gaurav, Kcmagnetman, Frietjes, Manueldrama, 88capsfan, Widr, Funraiser, Omissam, HelpfulPixie Bot, Ellis678, DBigXray, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Virtualerian, Walrus068, Petrarchan47, Benefac, PhnomPencil, Ninney,FutureTrillionaire, Nicola.Manini, Drdonut2, Sunshine Warrior04, Cliff12345, Glacialfox, Klilidiplomus, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Em-brittled, Khazar2, Urhelper, Siuenti, Dodobird1982, Dexbot, Wiki-c4m3lo, Cerabot~enwiki, Lugia2453, Frosty, Angufan, Sriharsh1234,BurritoBazooka, Tjej, Epicgenius, Lemnaminor, Tennis137, GorgoloxTheDestroyer, Inglok, Panpro, Locky Bathis, Babitaarora, Ugog Niz-dast, Hidden macy, Roonie.02, Wisdomthatiswoe, Ginsuloft, Pdovak, Liz, NovaPark, Utklohia, JaconaFrere, Woto12, Ms060760, St170e,Monkbot, Ground your Canarm, Right Aid Pharmacy Blockbusters, Drakegreene, QueenFan, Amortias, Aaditya S Natarajan, Joshuad-nelson, Paoidle, FourViolas, Elliofino, Paul0054, TestaChiara, The rock fan 158, Cwoodman24, Fleker, Krastama, Pedroportelareis, Hap-pysquirrel, Rocketscientist932, Ivanandfourtybeasts, Youallstink, Yoloswagmoney247, Writer freak, KasparBot, Zgamer12, Wiki R2D2and Anonymous: 1407

14.2 Images• File:A_maglev_train_coming_out,_Pudong_International_Airport,_Shanghai.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/A_maglev_train_coming_out%2C_Pudong_International_Airport%2C_Shanghai.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist: User Alex Needham (own photography) on en.wikipedia

• File:Ambox_current_red.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg License: CC0Contributors: self-made, inspired by Gnome globe current event.svg, using Information icon3.svg and Earth clip art.svg Original artist:Vipersnake151, penubag, Tkgd2007 (clock)

• File:Birmingham_International_Maglev.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Birmingham_International_Maglev.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MaltaGC

• File:Chūō_Shinkansen_map.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Ch%C5%AB%C5%8D_Shinkansen_map.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hisagi (氷鷺)

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Crystal_energy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg License: LGPL Contributors:Own work conversion of Image:Crystal_128_energy.png Original artist: Dhatfield

• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: TheTango! Desktop Project. Original artist:The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically:“Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (althoughminimally).”

• File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:JNR_ML500_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/JNR_ML500_1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Transferred from ja.wikipedia to Commons. by Zeugma fr (talk) using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploaderwas Bakkai at Japanese Wikipedia

• File:JR_Maglev-Lev.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/JR_Maglev-Lev.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:JR_Maglev-Model-truck.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/JR_Maglev-Model-truck.JPG Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Linimo_approaching_Banpaku_Kinen_Koen,_towards_Fujigaoka_Station.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Linimo_approaching_Banpaku_Kinen_Koen%2C_towards_Fujigaoka_Station.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Photo taken by Chris 73 Original artist: Chris 73

• File:Maglev_Propulsion.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Maglev_Propulsion.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: en:Image:Maglev Propulsion.png Original artist: en:User:Cool Cat, User:Stannered

• File:Maglev_in_Daejeon_01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Maglev_in_Daejeon_01.jpg License:CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brücke-Osteuropa

• File:Magnetschwebebahn.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Magnetschwebebahn.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Moralapostel (vektorisiert von Stefan 024)

22 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Melbourne_maglev.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Melbourne_maglev.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:

• Greater_Melbourne_Map_3_-_May_2008.png Original artist: Greater_Melbourne_Map_3_-_May_2008.png: Diliff• File:P_train.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e3/P_train.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist:?

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

• File:Series_L0.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Series_L0.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:Own work Original artist: Saruno Hirobano

• File:Symbol_list_class.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Transrapid-emsland.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Transrapid-emsland.jpg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Állatka

• File:Transrapid.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Transrapid.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: Transderred from dewiki Original artist: Stahlkocher

• File:Unbalanced_scales.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), basedon original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

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