1 Machu PicchuM. Anderson, 2006 Location The legendary 'Lost
City of Machu Picchu, located high in the Peruvian Andes,is without
a doubt the most important tourist attraction in Peru and one of
the world's most impressive archaeological and civil engineering
sites.2 Setting The natural setting on the eastern slope of the
Andes encompasses the upper Amazon basin with its rich diversity of
species. The whole archaeological complex covers approximately 5
square km. It is situated in the high jungle. Its climate is
semi-tropical, warm and humid.Setting The Ancient City was built by
the Incas on the summit of "Machu Picchu" (Old Peak). It overlooks
the deep canyon of the Urubamba River in a semi-tropical area 120
km (75 miles) from the city of Cusco at 7,000 feet above sea
level.3 Introduction Machu Picchu was probably the most amazing
urban creation of the Incan Empire, with its giant walls, terraces
and ramps, which appear as though they have been cut naturally into
the rock escarpments. This site was so well constructed that even
after 5 centuries of neglect in the Peruvian jungle, only the
thatch and reed roofs are missing. Machu Picchu The valley below
and the zig-zag road leading up to Machu Picchu. 4 Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu was a complex of temples, palaces and observatories
and was believed to be the home of the Inca ruling classes. From
here, high priests made observations and calculations enabling them
to chart the heavens - a knowledge which gave them both religious
authority and temporal power.Discovery Machu Picchu is also one of
the Inca's best kept secrets, since they did not leave written
records and Spanish chronicles make no mention of the citadel, it
remains a mystery. The City was discovered in 1911 by the American
Yale professor, Hiram Bingham.5 Discovery The building style is
"late imperial Inca" thought to have been a sanctuary or temple
inhabited by high priests and the "Virgins of the Sun" (chosen
women). Excavations revealed that of the 135 skeletons found,109
were women. No signs of post Conquest occupation were unearthed.
Machu Picchu The original entrance to the complex is on the
southwestern side of the citadel at the end of the Inca Trail, a
short walk away from "Intipunko " (Sun Gate), the ancient final
check point to Machu Picchu. The present entrance on the
southeastern side leads to the agricultural section.6 Machu Picchu
The complex can be divided in three distinct sections:
Agricultural, Urban, and Religious. The urban section starts at the
wall that separates it from the agricultural area, this group of
buildings were constructed on the ridge that descends abruptly to
the Urubamba valley.3 Distinct Sections View of left side from
above. Urban on left, agricultural on far right. Religious upper
left. 7 Religious Intihuatana(alter) The central plaza that
separates the religious from the urban section, has a great rock in
the center.The religious section contains splendid architecture and
masonry works.One of the most important and enigmatic is probably
the Intihuatana shrine, this block of granite was presumably used
to make astronomical observations.Religious Curved outer temple of
the Sun wall. The "Temple of the Sun", is a circular tower with
some of the best stonework of Machu Picchu. Its base forms a cavern
known as the Royal Tomb. Recent studies show that the actual
purpose was for astronomical observance.8 Agricultural The
agricultural area consists of a series of terraces and channels
that serve dual purpose, as cultivation platformsand as retention
walls to avoid erosion.Residential / Agricultural Looking up
terraces to huts. Some smaller buildings next to large terraces are
part of this section and thought to have served as lookout posts.9
Urban In the southern part of this section are found a series of
niches carved on rock known as "the jail" with elements that
include man size niches, stone rings would have served to hold the
prisoner's arms, and underground dungeons.Urban The group of
refined structures next to "the jail" is known as the
"intellectuals' quarters", with tall walls, nooks, and windows
built with reddish stone. They are considered to have been
accommodations for the Amautas (high ranked teachers). 10 Urban One
of the buildings has several circular holes carved on the rock
floor named the "mortar room" believed to have been used for
preparation of dyes. Urban The largest urban section in Machu
Picchu is located on the north western part. It is reached by a 67
steps staircase and involves a group of buildings not as finely
constructed as other parts of the complex.11 Huayna Picchu Huayna
Picchu, young peak, is as much a part of the site as the buildings
of the citadel, the towering granite peak overlooks Machu Picchu to
the North with a steep well preserved original Inca path, well
worth the one hour climb for an astounding view of the citadel and
the entire valley.Discovery: MACHU PICCHU Hiram Bingham found many
objects of stone, bronze, ceramic and obsidian, but no gold or
silver. There should have been fabulous riches of these metals
comparable to those found at the 'Temple of the Sun' in Cuzco where
even the garden contained life-size gold replicas of maize and
other plants. 12 The Fall The Peruvian scholar Dr Victor Angles
Vargas thinks the city became depopulated toward the end of the
15th century before the Spaniards arrived. Perhaps the city was
ravaged by a plague so terrible it was permanently quarantined by
the authorities. What brought this about is one of the deepest
enigmas surrounding this sacred site.Only from the nearby hilltop
observatory of Intipunku, can you visualize the full extent of this
great engineering and architectural site. 13 Hydrology In 1976, Ken
Wright-the president of Wright Water Engineers, of Denver decided
to find out. After all, who better to study the Inca water supply
than a water engineer? Wright spent the next 20 years seeking
permission from the Peruvian government to study water engineering
at Machu Picchu. In 1994 he was finally granted permission by the
Peruvian government, with political coaxing from President Clinton.
Machu Picchu sits on the top of a mountain ridge so where did the
Inca get their water? The Questions Wright soon discovered that the
Incas had accumulated a practical knowledge of hydrology,
hydraulics, drainage, and foundation engineering. "They had a
perfect site," notes Wright, but its suitability would have been
apparent only to a trained engineer. The slopes were steep; how
would buildings be prevented from sliding downhill in a heavy rain?
How would drinking water be made accessible? And from what source
would the water come? 14 Urban Planning Wright discovered that the
Inca must have planned the city carefully before building it.
First, the Inca engineers had to determine the exact location of
the spring and whether it would meet the needs of the anticipated
population. Left side of ruins. The Citadel is a stupendous
achievement in urban planning, civil engineering, architecture and
stone masonry. Urban Planning. Water Source 1st
The Wright team found that the spring, on a steep mountain slope
to the north of Machu Picchu, is fed by a 16.3 ha tributary
drainage basin. After conducting an inflow-outflow evaluation, the
team also concluded that the spring draws on drainage from a much
larger hydrogeologic catchment basin. 15 Urban Planning There was
no urban sprawl in this mountain retreat of about 1,000 residents;
thoughtful consideration was made before the first stone was cut.
The placement of the residence of the Inka (the title of the ruler
is used today to name the people) was determined by the location of
the mountain spring.The Inca engineers built the canal at a slope
that allowed gravity to pull the water at just the speed they
desired for the citys use, then they used that information to place
the royal residence, as well as, the city.Natural Springs to Canal
A natural spring flows from a geological fault above the city on
the steep side of Monte Machu Picchu. The Inkas gathered drinkable
water from the spring by building a wall in a cut in the
mountainside that they had made. This stone wall was made to let
water through, unlike their watertight stone canal into which the
spring poured.16 Enhancing the Water Source The Inca enhanced the
yield of the spring by building a spring collection system set into
the hillside. The system consists of a stone wall about 14.6 m long
and up to 1.4 m high. Water from the spring seeps through the wall
into a rectangular stone trench about 0.8 m wide. Water from a
secondary spring enters the canal about 80 m west of the primary
spring. The Inca also built a 1.5 to 2 m wide terrace to allow easy
access for operating and maintaining the spring works. The spring
system still works today, after some minor repairs and cleaning
were done. The System Special consideration was given to the water
system: a stone canal brought water to the city from a mountain
spring; fountains were built throughout the city for different
purposes; drainage and irrigation systems were on integral parts of
the city. 17 Conveying the Water: The Canal Before the city could
be built, the Inca engineers had to plan how to convey the water
from the spring-at an elevation of 2,458 m-to the proposed site on
the ridge below. They decided to build a canal 749 m long with a
slope of about 3 percent. Within the city walls, the water would be
made accessible through a series of 16 fountains, the first of
which would be reserved for the emperor. Thus the canal design
determined the location of the emperor's residence and the layout
of the entire city of Machu Picchu. The Canal The Inca built the
water supply canal on a relatively steady grade, depending on
gravity flow to carry the water from the spring to the city center.
They used cut stones to construct a channel that typically ranged
from 10 to 16 cm deep and 10 to 12 cm wide at the bottom. Wright's
team concluded that the nominal design capacity of the channel was
about 300 L/min.18 Canal The canal lost little water due to its
tight fitting stones and additional clay sealant. The canal was so
well built that today, after 500 years; it would work after minor
repairs (mostly clearing old landslides that have filled the canal
way). During the cities occupation the canal was maintained by an
Inka access road. The 749 meter (2,457 foot) canalended at the
first of 16 fountains built in the city.Canal to the Fountains The
canal descends the mountain slope, enters the city walls, passes
through the agricultural sector, then crosses an inner wall into
the urban sector, where it feeds a series of 16 fountains known as
the stairway of fountains. The fountains are publicly accessible
and partially enclosed by walls that are typically about 1.2 m
high, except for the lowest fountain, which is a private fountain
for the Temple of the Condor and has higher walls. 19 The Fountains
At the head of each fountain, a cut stone conduit carries the water
to a rectangular spout, which is shaped to create a jet of water
suitable for filling an aryballo -a typical Inca clay water jug.
The water collects in a cut stone basin in the floor of the
fountain, then enters a circular drain that delivers it to the
approach channel for the next fountain. Fountains The order of the
fountains shows the social hierarchy of the city. The first
fountain is, of course, in front of the residence of the Inka. The
second and third fountains are by temples (used by the religious
class). The third fountain (by the Temple of the Sun-El Torreon)
can be bypassed with a sort of stone faucet by passing the water
though an underground stone conduit (stone plumbing). Fountains 4
to 15 are for public use and the final fountain is by the Temple of
the Condor.20 Springs Canal Fountains Fountains The fountains were
designed for convenience: the water flowed over a stone lip, making
the filling of water jugs easy. Their drainage system shows the
Inka people appreciated water sanitation.The fountains basins
drained through stone conduits past the remaining fountains. This
prevented dirty water from flowing into fountains down stream.21
Fountains to drainage The Inca understood the importance of pure
drinking water. The surface drainage system generally directed
agricultural and urban storm water runoff away from the water
supply canal. The Inca apparently did not use the fountains for
bathing. The emperor, for example, had a bathing room with a
separate drain, so that bathing water did not reenter the water
supply. Agricultural View of terraces and rain channelsfrom
thatched hut. Perhaps the most visually striking features of the
drainage system are the agricultural terraces. Machu Picchu
includes 4.9 ha of agricultural terraces, which are held in place
by stone retaining walls.In addition to maximizing the land
available for farming, the terraces also protected the agricultural
sector from erosion.22 Terraces Funerary caretakers hut sits atop
the terraces. Wright conducted soil analyses that showed that the
Inca constructed the terraces with subsurface drainage in mind.The
Inca layered each terrace for efficient drainage, with a layer of
stones at the bottom, followed by gravel, sandy material, and
topsoil. The Terraces The terrace structures also promote good
surface drainage. The slope of the terraces generally directs water
toward a system of drainage channels that are integrated with
stairways and other structures. These channels direct the drainage
water to a large, east-west main drain that runs through the center
of Machu Picchu, separating the agricultural and urban sectors.
Gravity flow carries runoff into the main drain from both sectors,
taking it safely away from the city.23 UrbanDrainage In the 15th
century, the buildings in the urban sector would have been covered
with thick thatched roofs. Because of the density of buildings with
impermeable roofs, Wright estimated that about 60% of the water
yield from the urban area would have occurred as surface flow. The
Inca constructed their plazas in the same way as the terraces, with
a deep subsurface layer of rock chips.The plazas received runoff
from other areas of Machu Picchu, and the subsurface layer of rocks
helped the water to penetrate the ground quickly. Plaza Drainage 24
Drainage in the Urban Sector To deal with the runoff problem, the
Inca incorporated about 130 drainage holes into the walls and other
structures at Machu Picchu. They also integrated numerous drainage
channels into stairways, walkways, and building interiors to carry
runoff to the main drain. One especially carefully constructed
channel drains water away from the entrance to the emperor's
residence. To direct water away from building foundations, the Inca
carved channels that would collect the water that dripped from the
roofs. Drainage Machu Picchu's well-designed drainage
infrastructure is one of its most remarkable secrets. It is also
one of the keys to its longevity, says Wright: "They built for
permanency. They didn't do anything halfway." At Machu Picchu,
drainage was a serious problem. The site rested on top of a ridge
with a roughly 50 percent slope and received almost 2,000 mm of
rainfall. For their city to endure, the Inca had to find a way to
keep it from sliding down the mountain. Flooding is controlled by
two methods: 1sta level area of the canal is designed to overflow
into a terrace field for irrigation; 2ndwas an overflow outlet by
fountain 4 and the main stairway (like slue-ways on modern civil
engineering projects).25 Sewage System This intricate system has as
least 127 drainage outlets and is a good representative of Inka
engineering. The Inkas enjoyed a system superior to their European
contemporaries who suffered from diseases caused by open sewers in
the streets.Machu Picchus sewage system was built right into the
walls of each new building. Back-up Water Supply Wright's team
discovered another, previously unknown series of fountains on the
eastern side of the ridge, downhill from Machu Picchu. These
fountains received their water not from the canal but from
intercepted groundwater drainage.The Inca had to identify the
dry-weather groundwater flow locations to concentrate the flow for
use in the fountains. Adjacent to some of the fountains, an
important trail connected Machu Picchu to the Urubamba River in the
valley below. After clearing away the dense forest undergrowth,
Wrights team restored the water flow to this second series of
fountains for probably the first time in 450 years. 26 FINI
Cultural Background Life in the Incan empire was measured by a
thousand year cosmic cycle called an Inti, which means 'Sun'. This
thousand year cycle was then divided into halves, each of which was
referred to as a Pachakuti. During the 500 years of the eighth
Pachakuti, Pachacuteq, the greatest spiritual leader of the Incas
and the builder of Machu Picchu ruled. This was a time of light
when the Inca Empire flourished and there was expansion and good
fortune.