London's religious houses

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London’s religious houses

by Susan M. Wright, London

As in other great European cities, religious life in medieval London was characterised by its scale and diversity: there were numerous fra-ternities, over a hundred parish churches, and some 50 religious houses – almost all founded before 1300 AD (Barber et al. 2013. Barron 2000, 433) (Fig. 1). Several major religious institutions were established before the Norman Conquest of 1066: St Paul’s Cathedral inside the Roman city walls; to the east of London, Barking Abbey; and west of the city, Benedictine Westminster Abbey (Schofield 2011. Thomas et al. 2006). The archae-ological evidence gained from excavation, both small and large scale, on a number of monastic sites in advance of development has provided a wealth of data that are especially strong in certain key areas of monastic research (Wright 2010). Detailed documentary research, under-taken as part of the analysis and publication pro-gramme, is included; this complements and ex-pands on the biographies of these houses in the Victoria County History (VCH) series. ‘The reli-gious houses of London and Middlesex’ (Barron/Davies 2007) reprints, with new introductions, the VCH entries for those houses. We can com-pare and contrast their chronological and spatial

development, the way of life, and what happened to these houses at the suppression of the monas-teries (‘the Dissolution’) in the mid 16th century.

This paper focuses on the medieval religious houses excavated and researched by Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA), which are di-verse and cover a range of orders: Benedictine, Augustinian, Cluniac, the Knights of the Order of St John of Jerusalem (Knights Hospitaller), Cistercian and Carthusian, as well as the later mendicants. They include religious houses for women (St Mary Clerkenwell, St Helen Bishops-gate, Holywell Priory Shoreditch) (Fig. 2) and for men; both urban and suburban houses, intramu-ral and extramural and semirural and rural, and houses which served as hospitals.

This excavated group includes monasteries which were part of the first wave of foundations by the new political and social elite following the Norman Conquest in 1066. The earliest was the Cluniac Priory (and later abbey) of St Saviour Bermondsey, founded in the 1080s on the south bank of the Thames, in a semi rural location but opposite the White Tower (the Tower of London). A Saxon minster preceded it, and this and the White Tower opposite were potentially signifi-cant factors in its foundation (Dyson et al. 2011). A large number of monastic houses and hospitals were founded in and around the city from the early 12th century. Holy Trinity Priory, Aldgate, was the first religious house to be established inside the walls of London after the Norman

Fig. 1 London. The east part of the city on Wyngaerde’s panorama of c. 1540, with St Mary Spital on the skyline top left,

the church of Holy Trinity Priory top centre with to the right of it Aldgate with criminals’ heads on poles; St Mary Graces

abbey church is far right with the Tower of London in the foreground bottom right (image: © Ashmolean Museum, University

of Oxford).

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Conquest, in 1107–8. Founded by Queen Matilda, it was one of the earliest Augustinian houses in England, and it was the first to be dissolved, in 1532 (Schofield/Lea 2005) (Fig. 2). To the north-west on the edge of the city were the two adjacent houses founded by husband and wife Jordan de Bricet and Muriel de Munteni in Clerkenwell – the priory of St John of Jerusalem (1144) and the

Augustinian nunnery of St Mary (1145) (Fig. 2); St John Clerkenwell became the military order’s only priory in England, and its headquarters here (Sloane 2012. Sloane/Malcolm 2004). To the north-east were the Augustinian nunnery known as Holywell (or ‘Haliwell’) Priory in mod-ern Shoreditch, founded in the 1150s (Fig. 2), and the priory and hospital of St Mary without Bish-

Fig. 2 London. The religious houses of medieval London, and in its environs Merton, Bermondsey and Stratford

Langthorne (scale 1:25,000; inset 1:250,000) (image: Museum of London Archaeology).

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Fig. 3 London. Simplified 12th century cruciform plans (including conjecture) of some excavated Augustinian houses in

and around London – Holy Trinity Priory, Aldgate; the nunneries of St Mary Clerkenwell and Holywell Priory (post-1190);

St Mary Merton – and the 12th century church of the priory of the Order of St John of Jerusalem, Clerkenwell (1144–85)

(scale 1:1000) (image: Museum of London Archaeology).

Fig. 4 London. (left) The east segment of the Norman round nave of St John Clerkenwell, as revealed in 1900; (right) the

excavated interior of the 12th century south transept and chapel of Holy Trinity Priory, from the west (1.0 m scale) (images:

© Museum of the Order of St John; Museum of London Archaeology).

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opsgate (later known as St Mary Spital), founded

in 1197 on the fringes of the city (Bull et al. 2011.

Connell et al. 2012. Harward et al. f. c. Thomas

et al. 1997). Important 12th century ‘rural’ foun-

dations beyond the city were Merton Priory and

the abbey of St Mary Stratford Langthorne. Au-

gustinian Merton Priory was founded south-west

of the city of London on the banks of the River

Wandle in c. 1117 by Gilbert, Sheriff of Surrey

(Miller/Saxby 2007. Miller et al. 2008) (Fig. 2).

Stratford Langthorne, east of the city, was found-

ed as a Savigniac house in 1135, and incorporat-

ed into the Cistercian Order in 1147 (Barber et

al. 2004). These rural foundations contrast with

those close to or within the city’s walls but were

less than half a day’s journey from the city.

One strength of the series of London monastic

monographs is the information on the chrono-

logical and spatial development of each religious

house, in particular the layout, of not only the

church but also the claustral ranges and subsid-

iary buildings. Some differences of plan (Fig. 3)

reflect not just the available area, local topogra-

phy and resources, but also different foundation

dates and/or affiliations. At St John Clerkenwell

(Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 left), the order’s 12th century

church consisted of a circular nave inspired by

the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem

(replaced by a rectangular nave during the late

13th century) and an oblong presbytery, the crypt

of which survives under the present 18th centu-

ry church. As to the Augustinian priories, both

Holy Trinity Aldgate in the City and rural Merton

were well endowed and important houses. The

12th century church of the royal foundation of

Holy Trinity (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 right) was large

Fig. 5 London. St John Clerkenwell: development of the inner and outer precincts (scale 1:5000) (image: Museum of

London Archaeology).

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and architecturally impressive, and the buri-al place of, for example, two of King Stephen’s children; Holy Trinity was the richest of London’s monastic houses. The sister houses of St Mary Clerkenwell and Holywell Priory were modest es-tablishments in comparison, although relatively wealthy compared to many nunneries elsewhere in the country.

complex, in stone, and subsequent development has been reconstructed at, for example, St John Clerkenwell, based on many mostly small-scale archaeological observations and much docu-mentary research (Fig. 5). Here we can see the expansion from the 12th century of the church and claustral buildings into a palatial complex inside the inner precinct, and intensive use of

Fig. 6 London. Merton Priory: (left) the north side of the church under excavation, looking east from the west front

(foreground) to the east end and Lady chapel; (right) the conjectural development of the church, chapter house, infirmary

and infirmary cloister from the 12th – to the 15th century (scale 1:1500) (images: Museum of London Archaeology).

‘Temporary’ timber buildings used in the in-itial, establishment phase of monastic houses and replaced subsequently by masonry struc-tures were discovered at Bermondsey and St Mary Clerkenwell (Dyson et al. 2011, 18ff. Sloane 2012, 17ff.). The creation of a complete cloistral

the outer precinct including tenements let to officials of the order and non-religious, lay peo-ple in the 15th and 16th centuries (see below). In the 12th century then, London saw building work on a grand scale and largely in stone, itself stimulating the capital’s economy while reflect-

80

ing London’s increasing prosperity and role as a

royal centre. This construction continued apace

into the early years of the 14th century. A theme

common to both the rural and urban houses is

rebuilding and expansion in the late 12th – and

particularly 13th century, up to the 1330s or so.

Such development is most clearly seen, howev-

er, on the originally spacious, rural sites such as

Merton. Here excavation was particularly exten-

sive (Fig. 6) and demonstrated that a massive re-

building and expansion programme took place

in the 13th – (and 14th) century; the church was

rebuilt in the 13th century, as were parts of the

main cloister, including the chapter house. King

Henry III visited Merton frequently.

In addition to the reconstruction of existing

institutions, including St Paul’s Cathedral and

Westminster Abbey, there were a large number

of new foundations, particularly hospitals, in

the 13th century (Schofield/Lea 2005, 151 ta-

ble 11). Furthermore, the number of religious

houses increased substantially with the arrival

in the city in the 13th century of the friars – the

mendicants – who, in order to live among the

urban population, accommodated themselves to

whatever sites were available, within the walls or

just outside (Röhrkasten 2004. Watson/Thomas

2010). Several sites have been excavated, notably

the Dominicans’ house at Ludgate (Blackfriars),

where piecemeal excavation during the 20th cen-

tury revealed significant elements of the church,

cloister buildings and cemetery (Watson/Thom-

as 2010). As the order’s house in the capital, we

might anticipate that the London friaries would

be on a grander scale than friaries in other

towns. The surviving remains, however, have in

general been very fragmentary, as for example in

the case of the recent excavation of the London

Fig. 7 London. Mass burials under excavation: (left) top layer of a mid 13th century mass burial pit in the hospital cemetery

of St Mary Spital; (right) large burial trench in the Black Death cemetery, East Smithfield, between concrete foundations of

the Royal Mint (images: Museum of London Archaeology).

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house of the Crutched or Crossed Friars (Lerz/Holder f. c.). Founded in the 1260s inside the city wall, just north west of Tower Hill and the Tower, this friary’s church roof and spire are visible on Wyngaerde’s panorama of c. 1540 (Fig. 1).

In contrast, one hospital site has yielded ex-ceptional remains. Developer funded analysis and publication of the more recent (1991–2007) large scale excavations on the site of the priory and hospital of St Mary Spital give us an excep-

tional understanding of this medieval hospital and its inmates, and their health. All monaster-ies had attached cemeteries for both the religious and the laity, and the very large numbers of buri-als excavated at the London monasteries provide an unrivalled opportunity to examine the treat-ment of the dead and the social and economic status of those interred (Gilchrist/Sloane 2005. Wright 2010). St Mary Spital, refounded in 1235 and thereafter considerably enlarged, became one of the largest medieval hospitals in Britain;

Fig. 8 London. The Charterhouse conduit house and main cloister, surrounded by individual cells, on the medieval water

supply plan; the church is shown on the right hand side of the cloister (north is to the left) (image: © English Heritage).

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over 10,000 medieval burials have been reported from its cemetery alone (Connell et al. 2012). Two mass burial episodes in the hospital cemetery dated to the 1250s are thought to represent the victims of a documented famine which followed a series of poor harvests (Fig. 7 left); other bur-ial pits might relate to famines of the 1150s and 1316, to undocumented famines or to outbreaks of various epidemic diseases.

In the 14th century, further epidemics – this time the Black Death – required emergency cemeteries at West Smithfield and East Smith-field (Fig. 7 right), each with a cemetery chap-el (Eleftheriou 2013. Grainger et al. 2008). Two monasteries were then newly founded on the sites of these London mass cemeteries, in part as a memorial to the dead. St Mary Graces was established at East Smithfield in 1350: this was

Fig. 9 London. (left and bottom right) Comparative plans showing some late medieval church and cloister layouts (St

John Clerkenwell, St Mary Clerkenwell, St Mary Spital, Holy Trinity Aldgate) (scale 1:1250); (above right) a conjectural re-

construction of the exterior of the 16th century church of St Mary Clerkenwell, looking south (images: Museum of London

Archaeology).

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the last Cistercian abbey founded in England, in what was, unusually for a Cistercian house, not a rural setting, but rather next to the Tower of London, and to a non-standard Cistercian plan that was, in fact, typical of many other 14th centu-ry monastic constructions. The layout of St Mary Graces was influenced by the existing cemetery chapel, which was used by the Cistercians as their first church, and by property boundaries, and evidently also by a wish to leave the two mass burial areas clear, possibly for further burials (Grainger/Phillpotts 2011). Some 20 years later at West Smithfield, the conventual buildings of the new Charterhouse also avoided the mass burial areas and here the Black Death cemetery chapel was retained as the permanent conventu-al church (Barber/Thomas 2002) (Fig. 8). Both houses needed to buy up further parcels of land to complete their precincts and struggled both financially and in recruiting monks in the later 14th century. This was a time of population crisis, when mendicant houses, by contrast, remained popular and private forms of devotion increased. St Mary Graces’ financial problems continued up to the Dissolution, but the Charterhouse’s financ-es improved and the great cloister and main con-ventual buildings were completed (some survive today), and the complex adequately enclosed.

Building programmes featured strongly at several of the older houses in the 14th century, especially Merton (Fig. 6) and Bermondsey, the latter raised from priory to abbey status in 1399. Generally more piecemeal construction and re-furbishment can be identified in the 15th – and into the 16th century at other London houses. The archaeological evidence testifies to chang-es in lifestyle over this period, in particular a decline in communal living and more separate accommodation. The ‘invasion’ of precincts by retired royal or civic officials, corrodians, the aristocracy and other laity is documented from the mid 13th century, but its physical expression – for example tenements erected or adapted for private tenants – can be harder to identify (see e. g. Merton, Bermondsey). The interaction between the religious houses and Londoners is demonstrated at, for example, St Mary Clerken-well. Here the creation of the parish of St Mary Clerkenwell in the late 12th century was followed by the expansion of the nunnery church in order

Fig. 10 London. St John Clerkenwell: (upper) reconst-

ruction of a terracotta window of the first quarter of the

16th century (scale 1:25); (lower) the inner gatehouse (ima-

ges: Museum of London Archaeology).

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Fig. 11 London. St Mary Graces church: (upper) excavated burials (scale 1:400) and (lower) the possible interior layout in

the 1530s, based on heralds’ visitations (images: Museum of London Archaeology).

85

to accommodate the parishioners in the south aisle and male brethren and chaplains in the nave; church and cloister were rebuilt in the late 15th – and early 16th century, partly funded by patrons (Fig. 9). This modernised but shared church was still modest in comparison with wealthy Holy Trinity Aldgate or St Mary Spital, where the body of the church included the for-mer infirmary (Fig. 9). The highly unusual reli-gious house, St John Clerkenwell, had evolved by this date into one of London’s premier residences

the houses and gardens leased from the English Priory by its own most important financial offi-cials and others connected with the order. One tenant – possibly Thomas Tonge, Norroy (and lat-er Clarenceux) King of Arms – may have been responsible for the construction of a stylish and courtly building facing the Great Gate; this brick structure was embellished with terracottas and employed the same craftsmen who worked on Layer Marney in Essex (Fig. 10). Interaction with wealthy lay patrons is illustrated by this recon-

struction of burials and mon-uments within the church of St Mary Graces on the eve of the Dissolution (Fig. 11). Ma-jor patrons – members of the lesser aristocracy – were bur-ied in the east end (the pres-bytery and chapels east of the rood screen); they included Sir Simon Burley, beheaded in 1388 on Tower Hill, who can be linked with the decapitat-ed adult excavated near the high altar.

The Dissolution of these monasteries in the 1530s saw the religious personnel eject-ed, but affected the buildings and precincts in varying ways. Demolition deposits where these survive can yield valu-able evidence, but wholesale demolition can make recon-structing the monastic build-ings problematic. Combining archaeological and documen-tary evidence, in particular

Fig. 12 London. Bermondsey: early 13th century copper alloy figure of Christ cru-

cified (height 157 mm) and a miniature lead hand, probably intended to be used as

a master form (length 54 mm), both from pre-Dissolution disuse deposits (images:

Museum of London Archaeology).

regression using historic maps, has proved use-

ful in establishing 16th century plans, as for ex-

ample in the case of the London friaries where

virtually nothing survives, at least above ground

(Holder 2011). Secularisation of precincts had

begun years before; and the immediate pre-Dis-

solution period was one of economic depression

and generally low numbers of religious. Only the

Carthusians resisted Henry VIII, refusing to sign

the Oath of Supremacy, and executions rapidly

followed; the Charterhouse was closed in 1537. At

Bermondsey, south of the river, where the eastern

– effectively secular – and it went through a pe-

riod of ‘great rebuilding’ after c. 1480. The order

was particularly close to the Crown, including

Henry VIII, and the prior regarded as the chief

baron in the Lords. The walled palatial inner pre-

cinct, accessed through the inner gatehouse (the

Great Gate, completed in 1504) (Fig. 10), blended

monastic elements, such as a large church and

attached cloister (Fig. 9), and two cemeteries,

with examples of a great hall, residential ranges

and service courts. Beyond this ceremonial in-

ner court lay a unique outer precinct filled with

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part of the complex was already disused, the de-struction of the relic of the Holy Rood – a focus for pilgrims for centuries – was a priority for the

Crown’s agents in 1538. The systematic demoli-tion of the monastic church followed close on surrender, and the abandonment and demolition debris was extensive (Fig. 12). Holy Trinity Priory was one of the largest complexes of buildings in the medieval City of London (Fig. 1), of which only two fragments survive above ground today. Sufficient evidence, however, was recovered from modern excavations, in the form of excavated walls, standing masonry and fallen fragments, which when brought together with a large num-ber of antiquarian drawings and a ground floor and a first floor plan of all the monastery build-ings made c. 1585, allowed a reconstruction of the superstructure in some detail (Fig. 13). The reconstruction illustrates how here the church structure was included in the adaptation of the priory buildings into a new grand house on the site; and how the precinct rapidly filled up with tenants and subtenants; later in the 16th century it attracted industry and immigrants (Schofield/Lea 2005).

Excavation and study, over the past 30 years and ongoing, has and is providing a wealth of in-formation about many other aspects of monastic life not discussed here – for example, material culture and consumption in general, particular-ly diet (large faunal assemblages were recovered, notably from Merton), together with details of the health of those buried in the monastic cem-eteries and of activities within the precinct in-cluding industry (Fig. 12) (Wright 2010). The ar-chitectural history of the monastic buildings is complemented by analysis and reconstruction of the post-Dissolution reuse of the sites. Courtiers, noblemen and Crown officials all benefited from the leasing and sale of London’s monastic hous-es, as for instance the Duke of Newcastle and the nunnery of St Mary Clerkenwell, and Robert Southwell, solicitor of the Court of Augmenta-tions, and Bermondsey Abbey, with Southwell quickly selling on to Sir Thomas Pope. Sir Ed-ward North acquired the London Charterhouse and Thomas Audley Holy Trinity Priory Aldgate. St Mary Graces was converted briefly first into a manor house for Sir Arthur Darcy, and the church may have lain derelict during this time, but in 1560 the site became the royal navy victualling yard. There were of course some survivals, no-tably Westminster Abbey, turned initially into a

Fig. 13 London. Holy Trinity Aldgate: reconstructed three

dimensional views of (upper) the priory at its fullest ex-

tent in c. 1500 (including the latrine block) and (lower) in

c. 1585, showing the post-Dissolution development of the

former monastic buildings; from the north east (images:

Museum of London Archaeology, drawn by Richard Lea).

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cathedral and subsequently a royal peculiar (St Paul’s, London;s medieval cathe-dral, was not monastic but served by a college of sec-ular canons). The nunnery church of St Mary Clerken-well survived the Dissolu-tion (renamed St James) be-cause of its other role as the local parish church; it was only (largely) demolished in 1788, when replaced. Part of the priory church and clois-ter of St Bartholomew, for example, is in use today (St Bartholomew the Great): the presbytery became the par-ish church, although most of the nave was demolished in the 1540s when much of the site was converted into a mansion. And the church of St Helen Bishopsgate, for-merly the nunnery and par-ish church was taken over by the parish at the Dis-solution. Excavation here in the cloister alley of the Benedictine nunnery, adja-cent to the north wall of the church, recently revealed burials (2012–13) (Fig. 14). Nevertheless, the destruc-tion and/or adaptation of these medieval buildings, and their precincts, within a generation or so had trans-formed the landscape – and skyline – of 16th century London. Gone, for exam-ple, were the tall towers of St Mary Spital, Holy Trinity and St Mary Graces (Fig. 1) – their churches respectively a roofless shell, the gallery, banqueting house and gar-den of a courtier’s mansion, and, the last, mostly demol-ished by c. 1560 – providing a very visible, physical man-

Fig. 14 London. Excavation (2012) in the cloister alley of the Benedictine nunnery

adjacent to the north wall of the church of St Helen Bishopsgate in the City of Lon-

don; the 180 m tall skyscraper visible at the top of the photo is ‘the Gherkin’ (image:

Museum of London Archaeology).

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ifestation of the change brought about by the Henrician Reformation.

Acknowledgements

As part of the Greater London publication pro-gramme (Hinton/Thomas 1997), English Herit-age (EH) funded Museum of London Archaeol-ogy (MOLA) to carry out the assessment, analy-sis and publication of numerous archaeological excavations undertaken mainly in the 1970s and 1980s on the sites of five of London’s mon-asteries. In addition, developer funding and fur-ther EH support has substantially increased the number of houses where MOLA has carried out fieldwork and research. MOLA thanks EH and all the developers involved. Thanks are also due to the authors and editors of MOLA’s monastic and other archaeology monograph series. Important recent studies of other religious institutions in London include archaeological investigations at the priory of St Mary Overie (Southwark Cathe-dral) (Divers et al. 2009) and St Paul’s (Schofield 2011).

Zusammenfassung

Wie in anderen großen Städten Europas war das religiöse Leben in London durch seinen Um-fang und seine Vielfalt bestimmt. Der Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über Klosteranlagen, die durch ‚Museum of London Archaeology‘ ausgegraben und erforscht wurden. Die Ergebnisse dieser jeweils vor dem Beginn von Baumaßnahmen durchgeführten Grabungen konnten mit den Un-tersuchungen schriftlicher Quellen kombiniert werden. Die Menge der erarbeiteten Informati-onen ermöglichen Aussagen zu chronologischer und räumlicher Entwicklung der Klöster und ihrer Beziehung zu London und den Londonern. Durch ihre Lage in der Hauptstadt in unmittel-barer Nähe zum Hof und zur Regierung waren diese Klöster die exklusivsten Häuser ihrer Or-den. Auch auf die Ordenshäuser auf dem Lande hatte die Nähe zu London und seinen Märkten und zum königlichen Hof großen Einfluß. Die Anlagen teilten gemeinsame Erfahrungen von der Phase des Aufbaus im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert über schwierige Zeiten im 14. bis zu bescheidener Erholung und Modernisierung im späten 15. und

frühen 16. Jahrhundert. Die Entwicklungen der einzelnen Orden weichen aber bezüglich ihrer Lage, ihres Reichtums und ihrer Unterstützer er-heblich voneinander ab. Als nach der Unterdrü-ckung der Klöster in der Mitte des 16. Jahrhun-derts die religiöse Belegschaft vertrieben war, ge-schah die Umwandlung ihrer Kirchen und Klos-teranlagen auf verschiedene Weise, wies aber in manchen Bereichen gewisse Ähnlichkeiten auf. Die Gründung dieser geistlichen Einrichtungen und ihre spätere Aufhebung und Zerstörung hat-ten großen Einfluß auf die Londoner, Londons Stadtgestalt und darüber hinaus.

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Anschrift der Autorin:

Dr. Susan M. WrightMuseum of London ArchaeologyMortimer Wheeler House46 Eagle Wharf RoadGB-London N1 7EDGroßbritannien