Lochnagar: The Natural History of a Mountain Lake · Lochnagar: The Natural History of a Mountain Lake . Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research VOLUME 12. Edited by Lochnagar

Lochnagar: The Natural History of a Mountain Lake

Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research

VOLUME 12

Edited by

Lochnagar

Neil L. RoseEnvironmental Change Research Centre, University College London,

The Natural History of a Mountain Lake

London, UK

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3900-3 (HB)ISBN-10 1-4020-3986-7 (e-book)ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3986-7 (e-book)

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ISBN-10 1-4020-3900-X (HB)

Cover painting Lochnagar from below Meikle Pap, Watercolour by Ray Rose.:

DEDICATION This book is dedicated to Jo Porter. Without the c. 270 visits (so far) he has made to

Lochnagar in support of the various sampling programmes there, this book could not have been written.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface .........................................................................................................................xiii The Editor ......................................................................................................................xv Aims and scope of Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research

Book Series ......................................................................................................... xvii Editors and Board of Advisors of Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research

Book Series .......................................................................................................... xix Published and Forthcoming Titles in the Developments in Paleoenvironmental

Research Book Series........................................................................................... xxi List of Contributors.................................................................................................... xxiii 1. An introduction to Lochnagar

Neil L. Rose ...............................................................................................................1 The importance of mountains and their lakes .................................................... 1 Location and site description ............................................................................. 4 A brief history.................................................................................................... 9 The Royal loch................................................................................................. 11 “Steep frowning glories”: The Lochnagar of artists and poets ........................ 12 The scientific ‘snowball effect’ ....................................................................... 14 Scope of this book ........................................................................................... 18 And finally…................................................................................................... 21 Acknowledgements.......................................................................................... 21 References ....................................................................................................... 22

2. Physical characteristics of Lochnagar

Michael Hughes...................................................................................................... 27 Introduction .................................................................................................... 27 Physical parameters ......................................................................................... 27 Light regime .................................................................................................... 30 References ....................................................................................................... 35

Part I: The environmental landscape of Lochnagar

3. Geology of Lochnagar and surrounding region

Sally Goodman ....................................................................................................... 39 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 39 Summary.......................................................................................................... 49 Acknowledgements.......................................................................................... 49 References ....................................................................................................... 49

4. The shaping of Lochnagar: Pre-glacial, glacial and post-glacial processes

Adrian M. Hall... .................................................................................................... 51 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 51 Ancient landforms ........................................................................................... 52 Major glacial landforms................................................................................... 53

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The northeast corrie of Lochnagar................................................................... 57 Summary.......................................................................................................... 60 References ....................................................................................................... 61

5. Lochnagar water-temperatures, climate and weather

Roy Thompson, Helen Kettle, Donald T. Monteith and Neil L. Rose ..................... 63 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 63 Present climate................................................................................................. 66 Records from the instrumental period.............................................................. 68 Reanalysis assimilation data ............................................................................ 77 Water-temperature ........................................................................................... 79 Past climate...................................................................................................... 85 Discussion........................................................................................................ 87 Summary.......................................................................................................... 88 Acknowledgements.......................................................................................... 88 References ....................................................................................................... 89

6. The development, distribution and properties of soils in the Lochnagar catchment and their influence on soil water chemistry Rachel C. Helliwell, Allan Lilly and John S. Bell................................................... 93

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 93 The soils in the Lochnagar catchment ............................................................. 93 Factors affecting soil development in the Lochnagar catchment..................... 96 Distribution of soils and their physico-chemical properties ............................ 99 Impacts of soil processes on surface water chemistry ................................... 106 The importance of soil in determining surface water

nitrate concentrations ....................................................................... 110 MAGIC modelling of soil and soil solution .................................................. 112 Potential impacts of climate change on the soils of Lochnagar ..................... 115 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 116 Summary........................................................................................................ 116 References ..................................................................................................... 117

7. Flora and vegetation of Lochnagar – past, present and future

H. John B. Birks ...................................................................................................121 Introduction ................................................................................................... 121 Present-day flora and vegetation.................................................................... 126 Past flora and vegetation................................................................................ 136 Future flora and vegetation ............................................................................ 139 Discussion and conclusions ........................................................................... 143 Summary........................................................................................................ 145 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 145 References ..................................................................................................... 146

The last ice sheet and its landforms ................................................................. 55 Periglacial landforms ....................................................................................... 57

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Part II: The contemporary physical and biological status of Lochnagar 8. The sediments of Lochnagar: Distribution, accumulation and composition Neil L. .......................................................................................................... 155

Introduction ................................................................................................... 155 Estimating the boundary of sediment accumulation ...................................... 156 Sediment distribution and movement ............................................................ 158 Sediment accumulation rates ......................................................................... 164 The influence of climate change on future sediment accumulation rates ...... 166 Sediment description ..................................................................................... 168 Sediment composition and sources................................................................ 168 Summary........................................................................................................ 173 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 173 References ..................................................................................................... 174

9. Hydrology and hydrochemistry of Lochnagar Alan Jenkins, Nick Reynard, Mike Hutchins, Muriel Bonjean

and Martin Lees .................................................................................................. 177 Introduction ................................................................................................... 177 Hydrology...................................................................................................... 177 Hydrochemistry ............................................................................................. 183 The future?..................................................................................................... 189 Summary........................................................................................................ 195 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 196 References ..................................................................................................... 196

10. The aquatic flora of Lochnagar Roger J. Flower, Donald T. Monteith, Jonathan Tyler, Ewan Shilland

and Sergi Pla ....................................................................................................... 199 Introduction ................................................................................................... 199 Aquatic plants in acidic Scottish Highland lochs........................................... 201 The aquatic plants of Lochnagar.................................................................... 202 The history of aquatic vegetation................................................................... 215 Discussion...................................................................................................... 218 Summary........................................................................................................ 224 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 225 References ..................................................................................................... 225

11. Pattern and process in the Lochnagar food web

Guy Woodward and Katrin Layer ........................................................................ 231 Introduction ................................................................................................... 231 Methods ......................................................................................................... 232 Results ........................................................................................................... 233 Discussion...................................................................................................... 239 The prospects for biological recovery............................................................ 246 Future directions ............................................................................................ 247

Rose

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Summary........................................................................................................ 248 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................... 249 References ..................................................................................................... 249

12. Brown trout in Lochnagar: Population and contamination by metals and organic

micropollutants Bjørn Olav Rosseland, Sigurd Rognerud, Peter Collen, Joan O. Grimalt,

Rudolf Hofer, Gunnar G. Raddum, Arne Fjellheim, Ron Harriman and Benjamin Piña....................................................................... 253

Introduction ................................................................................................... 254 The fish population in Lochnagar .................................................................. 255 Physiological status and osmoregulation in relation to water chemistry ....... 262 Metal concentration in fish organs ................................................................ 263 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in liver and muscle

and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in liver ..................... 274 Liver histology as an indicator of oxidative stress......................................... 278 Summary........................................................................................................ 281 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 283 References ..................................................................................................... 283

Part III: Anthropogenic impacts from atmospheric pollutant deposition

13. National, international and global sources of contamination at Lochnagar

Neil L. Rose, Sarah E. Metcalfe, Anna C. Benedictow, Martin Todd and Jim Nicholson................................................................................................ 289

Introduction ................................................................................................... 290 Modelling source attribution.......................................................................... 291 Scottish sources ............................................................................................. 292 UK sources .................................................................................................... 295 European sources ........................................................................................... 300 Intercontinental and global sources ............................................................... 306 Discussion...................................................................................................... 307 Summary........................................................................................................ 310 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 311 References ..................................................................................................... 311

14. Acidification of Lochnagar and prospects for recovery Donald T. Monteith, Chris D. Evans and Catherine Dalton .............................. 317

Introduction ................................................................................................... 317 The chemical composition of lake water and its acidification by acid

Pollutants.......................................................................................... 318 The importance of acidity for lake ecosystems.............................................. 319 Palaeolimnological reconstruction of lake acidity ......................................... 321 Evidence for recovery from acidification from environmental monitoring ... 327 Future prediction............................................................................................ 336

Ingrid Vives, Jean-Charles Massabuau, Reinhard Lackner,

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Summary........................................................................................................ 338 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 340 References ..................................................................................................... 340

15. Trace metals in the catchment, loch and sediments of Lochnagar: Measurements

and modelling Edward Tipping, Handong Yang, Alan J. Lawlor, Neil L. Rose and Laura Shotbolt .............................................................................................345

Introduction ................................................................................................... 346 Methods ......................................................................................................... 347 Trace metals in atmospheric deposition......................................................... 347 Trace metal inputs from weathering .............................................................. 348 Trace metals in soil........................................................................................ 350 Trace metals in biota...................................................................................... 350 Trace metals in loch water ............................................................................. 351 Trace metals in loch sediments...................................................................... 354 Trace metal toxicity ....................................................................................... 356 Dynamic modelling ....................................................................................... 358 Discussion...................................................................................................... 365 Summary........................................................................................................ 369 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 370 References ..................................................................................................... 370

16. Persistent organic pollutants in the sediments of Lochnagar Derek C.G. Muir and Neil L. Rose ...................................................................... 375

Introduction ................................................................................................... 375 Methodology.................................................................................................. 378 Results and discussion ................................................................................... 380 Summary........................................................................................................ 395 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 396 References ..................................................................................................... 396

17. Temporal and spatial patterns of spheroidal carbonaceous particles (SCPs)

in sediments, soils and deposition at Lochnagar Neil L. Rose and Handong Yang ......................................................................... 403

Introduction ................................................................................................... 403 Atmospheric deposition of SCPs ................................................................... 404 SCPs in sediments and sediment traps........................................................... 407 SCPs in catchment soils................................................................................. 414 A SCP number balance.................................................................................. 416 Impacts of climate change ............................................................................. 419 Summary........................................................................................................ 419 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 420 References ..................................................................................................... 421

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Part IV: Future impacts 18. Future climate predictions for Lochnagar Helen Kettle and Roy Thompson ......................................................................... 427

Our changing climate..................................................................................... 427 Projecting anthropogenic climate change ...................................................... 430 Future climate projections at Lochnagar........................................................ 434 Predicting water temperatures at Lochnagar.................................................. 437 Predicting ice cover at Lochnagar ................................................................. 439 Summary........................................................................................................ 442 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 443 References ..................................................................................................... 443

19. Past and future environmental change at Lochnagar and the impacts

of a changing climate Neil L. Rose and Richard W. Battarbee................................................................ 445

Introduction ................................................................................................... 445 Past environmental change and present status ............................................... 446 Direct effects of climate................................................................................. 450 Indirect effects of climate .............................................................................. 452 Other impacts................................................................................................. 457 Conclusions ................................................................................................... 458 Summary........................................................................................................ 459 Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 460 References ..................................................................................................... 460

Glossary, acronyms and abbreviations ........................................................................465 Index ........................................................................................................................... 493

PREFACE Previous volumes in this ‘Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research’ (DPER) series have focussed on providing in-depth descriptions of palaeoenvironmental techniques or have described the applications of these approaches on various regional bases. The former of these now provide an invaluable series of standard text books for scientists and students, while the latter show how the application of palaeo-techniques can be used across broad geographical scales. In this current volume, we have attempted something a little different. Not only are a variety of palaeo-techniques applied to a single, small lake, but we have tried to show how these methods, and the data derived from them, can be integrated synergistically with contemporary monitoring and predictive modelling.

The acidification and metals research provide two good examples of this. Along with other upland lakes across the UK, the early research work at Lochnagar was based on assessing the competing hypotheses for the causes of surface water acidification. As a result, palaeolimnological techniques were used to assess the timing and extent of pH changes over hundreds of years. The subsequent establishment of the UK Acid Waters Monitoring Network (UK AWMN) then allowed a range of biological and chemical parameters to be assessed routinely in order to determine the rate at which the lakes and streams, including Lochnagar, were recovering following emissions reductions. Furthermore, the use of the dynamic model MAGIC (Modelling of Acidification of Groundwater in Catchments) at all the UK AWMN sites provided predictions for how the sites might be expected to respond under a variety of emission reduction scenarios as well as a retrodictive comparison with the palaeolimnological data. Current research now uses all these approaches to assess how the role of nitrogen, dissolved organic carbon and a changing climate may have, and may continue to, confound recovery.

The work on trace metals at Lochnagar began as a spin-off from the acidification research as the sediment record provided a means of showing increasing metal deposition concomitant with the acidification of the loch. This has now expanded to the monitoring of trace metals in many ecological compartments in both aquatic and terrestrial environments as well as a ten year record (so far) of metals in fortnightly rain and loch water samples. Data from contemporary measurements can be compared with temporal trends derived from sediment core data and are also used within the models WHAM (Windermere Humic Aqueous Model) and CHUM (Chemistry of the Uplands Model) to consider how biogeochemical processes control metal behaviour as well as a means by which to predict future changes to soil, water and sediment metal chemistry. Furthermore, the role of climate change in the release of previously deposited metals stored in catchment soils is the subject of research ongoing at the time of writing and this process could well enhance metal availability to freshwater biota despite dramatic reductions in the release of metals to the atmosphere over recent decades. There is therefore a further need for monitoring as an empirical ‘ground truthing’ for model predictions. Conversely, the sediment record allows these contemporary data to be placed in an historical context, and provides an indication of natural variability as a base-line against which to gauge future impacts.

As a consequence of considering these various data-types (i.e., palaeolimnological, monitoring, modelling) this volume is not solely focussed on the palaeoenvironment

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PREFACE

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and I offer apologies to those who think a book in this DPER series should be so directed. However, neither should this volume be considered a ‘final report’ on scientific work at Lochnagar, but rather a ‘work in progress’. During the compilation of the volume more intriguing research has been developed at the site particularly with stable isotopes and seasonal patterns in methyl mercury which there has been neither time nor space to include. In particular though, one theme has recurred time and again during the compilation of this book and that is the unique status of datasets and research at Lochnagar, at least within the UK. While interesting data and time-series provide an insight into the contamination and biological status of the loch, it is unknown whether this is typical of upland sites across the UK. Considerable added value would be achieved if similar datasets were available for other comparable upland lakes and lochs and there is, therefore, a need for a national and international mountain lake monitoring network. Many people have aided our work at Lochnagar and contributed to the production of this volume. Ongoing research at the site would not be possible without the support of the Balmoral Estates Office and, in particular, Mr Peter Ord, the Factor. I would also like to thank Jo Porter for his many visits to Lochnagar in support of our monitoring programmes and for providing me with a wealth of background information on Lochnagar. I am also grateful to the past and present members of the Environmental Change Research Centre, University College London for their help in the field. Funding (as explained in Chapter 1) has mainly come from the EU and DEFRA but other smaller studies, including PhD research, have been funded from a number of different sources. I am sure all the Chapter authors would join me in acknowledging their funding sources and the support of their respective Institutions during the research for, and the writing of, this volume.

On a personal note, I would like to thank all the chapter authors and reviewers for their time and energies; Judith Terpos at Springer for dealing with my questions and editorial struggles; the series editors John Smol and Bill Last; and Rick Battarbee for his inspiration.

I would also like to thank my parents, Marion and Ray Rose, for their support and encouragement - for as long as I can remember - and for the watercolour on the cover! This book is for them.

Last, but by no means least, my thanks go to Cath, Ellen and Peter Rose for putting up with my frequent absences in the name of ‘science’. Neil Rose September 2006

THE EDITOR

Neil Rose is a Principal Research Fellow in the Environmental Change Research Centre at University College London. Major areas of his research include: the morphology, chemistry and source apportionment of fly-ash particles and the relationships between the components of fly-ash (spheroidal carbonaceous particles (SCPs) and inorganic ash spheres) with other atmospherically deposited pollutants such as acidifying compounds, trace metals and persistent organic pollutants; the spatial and temporal distributions of SCPs around the world using lake sediments as a natural archive; the use of SCP temporal profiles to provide lake sediment chronologies. More information is available on the CARBYNET (http://www.ecrc.ucl.ac.uk/content/view/299/17/) and Environmental Change Research Centre (http://www.ecrc.ucl.ac.uk/) websites. Recent research has been undertaken in Svalbard, China, Japan, Uganda, USA, Greenland and at mountain lakes throughout Europe including, of course, Lochnagar.

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AIMS AND SCOPE OF DEVELOPMENTS

IN PALEOENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH BOOK SERIES Paleoenvironmental research continues to enjoy tremendous interest and progress in the scientific community. The overall aims and scope of the Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research book series are to capture this excitement and document these developments. Volumes related to any aspect of paleoenvironmental research, encompassing any time period, are within the scope of the series. For example, relevant topics include studies focussed on terrestrial, peatland, lacustrine, riverine, estuarine, and marine systems, ice cores, cave deposits, palynology, isotopes, geochemistry, sedimentology, paleontology, etc. Methodological and taxonomic volumes relevant to paleoenvironmental research are also encouraged. The series will include edited volumes on a particular subject, geographic region or time period, conference and workshop proceedings, as well as monographs. Prospective authors and/or editors should consult the series editors for more details. The series editors also welcome any comments or suggestions for future volumes.

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EDITORS AND BOARD OF ADVISORS OF DEVELOPMENTS

IN PALEOENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH BOOK SERIES Series Editors: John P. Smol Paleoecological Environmental Assessment and Research Lab (PEARL) Department of Biology Queen's University Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada e-mail: [email protected] William M. Last Department of Geological Sciences University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2 Canada e-mail: [email protected] Advisory Board: Dr. Keith Alverson GOOS Project Office Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) UNESCO 1, rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15 France e-mail: [email protected] Professor H. John B. Birks Botanical Institute University of Bergen Allégaten 41 N-5007 Bergen, Norway e-mail: [email protected] Professor Raymond S. Bradley Climate System Research Center Department of Geosciences University of Massachusetts Morrill Science Center 611 North Pleasant Street Amherst, MA 01003-5820 USA e-mail: [email protected]

xix

PUBLISHED AND FORTHCOMING TITLES IN THE

DEVELOPMENTS IN PALEOENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH BOOK SERIES Series Editors: John P. Smol, [email protected] Department of Biology, Queen's University Kingston, Ontario, Canada William M. Last, [email protected] Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Volume 13: The South China Sea: Paleoceanography and Sedimentology Edited by P. Wang and Q. Li, forthcoming Volume 12: Lochnagar: The Natural History of a Mountain Lake Edited by N.L. Rose Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-3900-X, 2007 Volume 11: Dendroclimatology: Progress and Prospects Edited by M. K. Hughes, H. F. Diaz and Th. W. Swetnam Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-4010-5, forthcoming Volume 10: Isotopes in Paleoenvironmental Research Edited by M. J. Leng Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-2503-3, December 2005 Volume 9: Earth Paleoenvironments: Records Preserved in Mid-and Low-Latitude Glaciers Edited by L. D. Cecil, J. R. Green and L. G. Thompson Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-2145-3, July 2004 Volume 8: Long-term Environmental Change in Arctic and Antarctic Lakes Edited by R. Pienitz, M. S. V. Douglas and J. P. Smol Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-2125-9, April 2005 Volume 7: Image Analysis, Sediments and Paleoenvironments Edited by P. Francus Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-2061-9, January 2005 Volume 6: Past Climate Variability through Europe and Africa Edited by R. W. Battarbee, F. Gasse and C. E. Stickley Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-2120-8, December 2004 Volume 5: Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Volume 5: Data Handling and Numerical Techniques Edited by H. J. B. Birks et al. Hardbound, forthcoming Volume 4: Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Volume 4: Zoological Indicators Edited by J. P. Smol, H. J. B. Birks and W. M. Last Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-0658-6, June 2001

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Volume 3: Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Volume 3: Terrestrial, Algal, and Siliceous Indicators Edited by J. P. Smol, H. J. B. Birks and W. M. Last Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-0681-0, June 2001 Volume 2: Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Volume 2: Physical and Geochemical Methods

Edited by W. M. Last and J. P. Smol Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-0628-4, June 2001

Volume 1: Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Volume 1: Basin Analysis, Coring, and Chronological Techniques Edited by W. M. Last and J. P. Smol Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-6482-1, June 2001 For more information on this series, please visit: www.springeronline.com http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~mlast/paleolim/dper.html

xxii PUBLISHED AND FORTHCOMING TITLES

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

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Rick W. Battarbee Environmental Change Research Centre University College London Pearson Building, Gower Street London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom [email protected] John S. Bell Macaulay Land Use Research Institute Craigiebuckler Aberdeen AB15 8QH United Kingdom [email protected] Anna C. Benedictow Air Pollution Section Norwegian Meteorological Institute P.O.Box 43 Blindern 0313 Oslo Norway [email protected] H. John B. Birks Department of Biology and Environmental Change Research Centre University of Bergen University College London Allégaten 41 Pearson Building, Gower Street N-5007 Bergen London WC1E 6BT Norway United Kingdom

Muriel Bonjean Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Wallingford Oxfordshire OX10 8BB United Kingdom Peter Collen FRS Freshwater Laboratory Faskally, Pitlochry, Perthshire, PH16 5LB United Kingdom [email protected]

[email protected]

xxiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Catherine Dalton Department of Geography Mary Immaculate College University of Limerick South Circular Road Limerick Ireland [email protected] Chris D. Evans Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Orton Building, Deiniol Road BangorLL57 2UP United Kingdom [email protected] Arne Fjellheim Stavanger Museum Musegata 16 N-4010 Stavanger Norway [email protected] Roger J. Flower Environmental Change Research Centre University College London Pearson Building, Gower Street London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom [email protected] Sally Goodman Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences McGill University, 3450 University Montreal H3A 2A7 Quebec Canada [email protected] Joan O. Grimalt Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Chemical and Environmental Research (CSIC) Jordi Girona, 18 08034-Barcelona Spain [email protected]

xxv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Adrian M. Hall Fettes College Edinburgh EH4 1QX United Kingdom [email protected] Ron Harriman FRS Freshwater Laboratory Faskally, Pitlochry Perthshire, PH16 5LB United Kingdom

Rachel C. Helliwell Macaulay Land Use Research Institute Craigiebuckler Aberdeen, AB15 8QH United Kingdom [email protected] Rudolf Hofer Institute of Zoology, University of Innsbruck Technikerstr. 25 A-6020 Innsbruck Austria [email protected] Michael Hughes Environmental Change Research Centre University College London Pearson Building, Gower Street London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom [email protected] Mike Hutchins Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Wallingford Oxfordshire OX10 8BB United Kingdom [email protected] Alan Jenkins Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Wallingford Oxfordshire OX10 8BB United Kingdom [email protected]

xxvi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Helen Kettle School of GeoSciences The University of Edinburgh Crew Building, Kings Buildings, West Mains Rd, Edinburgh EH9 3JN United Kingdom [email protected] Reinhard Lackner Institute of Zoology, University of Innsbruck Technikerstr. 25 A-6020 Innsbruck Austria [email protected] Alan J. Lawlor Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (Lancaster) Bailrigg Lancaster LA1 4AP United Kingdom Katrin Layer School of Biological and Chemical Sciences Queen Mary University of London Mile End Road London E1 4NS United Kingdom. [email protected] Martin Lees Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Wallingford Oxfordshire OX10 8BB United Kingdom Allan Lilly Macaulay Land Use Research Institute Craigiebuckler Aberdeen AB15 8QH United Kingdom [email protected]

xxvii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Jean-Charles Massabuau Laboratoire d’Ecophysiologie et Ecotoxicologie des Systèmes Aquatiques UMR 5805, CNRS & Univ. Bordeaux 1 Place du Dr Peyneau 33 120 Arcachon France [email protected] Sarah E. Metcalfe School of Geography, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD United Kingdom [email protected] Donald T. Monteith Environmental Change Research Centre University College London Pearson Building, Gower Street London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom [email protected] Derek C.G. Muir Water Science and Technology DirectorateEnvironment Canada Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6 Canada

Jim Nicholson [email protected] Benjamin Piña Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Chemical and Environmental Research (CSIC) Jordi Girona, 18 08034-Barcelona Spain [email protected]

[email protected]

xxviii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sergi Pla Department of Geography Loughborough University Loughborough Leicestershire LE11 3TU United Kingdom [email protected] Gunnar Raddum Institute of Biology, University of Bergen Thormøhlensgt. 49 N-5006 Bergen Norway [email protected] Nick Reynard Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Wallingford Oxfordshire OX10 8BB United Kingdom Sigurd Rognerud Norwegian Institute of Water Research, NIVA Branch Office East Sandvikaveien 4, N-2312 Ottestad Norway [email protected] Neil L. Rose Environmental Change Research Centre University College London Pearson Building, Gower Street London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom [email protected] Bjørn Olav Rosseland Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management Norwegian University of Life Sciences P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 Aas Norway

[email protected]

xxix LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Ewan Shilland Environmental Change Research Centre University College London Pearson Building, Gower Street London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom

Laura Shotbolt Department of Geography, Queen Mary, University of London Mile End Road London E1 4NS United Kingdom [email protected] Roy Thompson School of GeoSciences The University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH9 3JW United Kingdom [email protected] Edward Tipping Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (Lancaster) Bailrigg Lancaster LA1 4AP United Kingdom [email protected] Martin Todd Department of Geography University College London Pearson Building,Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom [email protected] Jonathan Tyler Environmental Change Research Centre University College London Pearson Building, Gower Street London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom [email protected]

[email protected]

Ingrid Vives Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Chemical and Environmental Research (CSIC) Jordi Girona, 18 08034-Barcelona Spain [email protected] Guy Woodward School of Biological and Chemical Sciences Queen Mary University of London Mile End Road London E1 4NS United Kingdom. [email protected] Handong Yang Environmental Change Research Centre University College London Pearson Building, Gower Street London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom [email protected]

xxx LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

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N.L. Rose (ed.), Lochnagar: The Natural History of a Mountain Lake Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research, 1–25. © 2007 Springer.

1. AN INTRODUCTION TO LOCHNAGAR

Environmental Change Research Centre University College London Pearson Building, Gower Street

Key words: Lochnagar, lochs, monitoring, mountain lakes, Scotland

The importance of mountains and their lakes

Mountainous areas are now recognised as important regions of biodiversity and endemism. Steep gradients and high relief compress ‘latitudinal’ climatic zones into small spatial scales such that ecological zones are narrow (Pauli et al. 2003; Hofer 2005) and often isolated (Greenwood 2005). Further, mountain regions are a principal source of fresh water, giving rise to many of the world’s major rivers and thus fundamental to the provision of this resource to downstream ecosystems, agriculture and human populations. They also sustain many economic activities such as forestry, mining, and hydro-electric power generation (Beniston 2000).

Due to the range of climatic zones present within mountain regions, sensitivity to climatic change is high with the potential for loss of alpine species and considerable impact to hydrology across broad areas. However, it was only in the 1990s that mountain issues finally received international attention on the global environmental agenda with a specific chapter in ‘Agenda 21’ at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, and inclusion in Paragraph 8(g) of Article 4 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), where they were identified as requiring special consideration with regard to changes in climate.

The lakes of mountain regions often possess fragile ecosystems and this is due to a number of factors including low weathering rates of underlying geologies, thin soils and often harsh meteorological conditions. Therefore, despite their isolation, impacts from additional anthropogenic stressors such as atmospheric pollutant deposition often result in detectable chemical and/or biological changes (e.g., Jones et al. 1993; Battarbee et al. 2005; Lotter 2005). Remote mountain lakes can therefore act as ‘early warning’ indicators for less sensitive sites, and the wider environment, and they have become a

NEIL L. ROSE ([email protected])

London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom

INTRODUCTION

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useful tool in monitoring environmental change, where they have several advantages. First, they are generally less disturbed by direct human influence thereby allowing indirect impacts to be identified where these might be masked in lakes at lower altitudes and in more accessible areas. Second, via lake sediments, a natural archive of environmental change is stored. This can record both the natural development of the lake and its catchment, possibly over millennia, as well as a record of more recent anthropogenic impact and any corresponding biological response, often at a sub-decadal resolution (Lamoureux and Gilbert 2004; Battarbee et al. 2005). Recent studies in Europe have shown that deposited pollutants have been impacting remote lakes for hundreds of years (Bindler et al. 2001; Yang et al 2002) and that this deposition can result in the accumulation of both trace metals and organochlorine compounds in biota sometimes to significant levels (Rognerud et al. 2002; Vives et al. 2005). Critical load exceedance, resulting from both sulphur and nitrogen deposition, is also known to be widespread in mountain lakes throughout Europe (Curtis et al. 2002).

The UK does not possess the classic alpine ranges seen across Europe and with only nine lakes with surface areas larger than 1 ha at altitudes higher than 1000 m above sea level (a.s.l.) (UKlakes database; http://www.uklakes.net/) it is an arguable point whether it possesses any mountain lakes at all. However, the tree-line in Scotland, where the majority of the UK’s uplands lie, is only at an altitude of 700 – 800 m, and as low as 500 m in the north and west (Birks 1988) compared with 2600 m in the Alps and 1200 m in central Norway (Wightman 1996). Therefore, the Scottish montane zone, defined as being above the local tree-line, and including sub-, low- and mid-alpine zones and consisting of moss and lichen heaths, blanket bog and dwarf shrubs, covers approximately 12% of Scotland’s land surface (Wightman 1996). Allowing for this lower altitude definition, Lochnagar (Figure 1), at 788 m a.s.l. and by virtue of a quarter of a century of multi-disciplinary scientific study, has become known as the “UK’s mountain lake” 1. Indeed, as a key site in both national (e.g., Monteith and Evans 2005) and international (e.g., Straškrabová et al. 1999; MOLAR Water Chemistry Group 1999; Marchetto and Rogora 2004) research projects and monitoring networks, it has become one of the most studied freshwater bodies in Europe.

However, Lochnagar is more than just a focus of research for European freshwater scientists. Its location in an area of outstanding, although harsh, natural beauty has made it a favourite destination for hill-walkers and climbers for almost 200 years (McConnochie 1891) whilst the “gem of corrie and loch, buttress and crag, precipice and plain, towering like a proud giant over lovely Deeside” (Skakle 1934) has also made it irresistible to artists and poets for almost as long. It is also a rare UK habitat for many alpine species of birds, animals and plants attracting both domestic and migrant bird-watchers and botanists. In recognition of its importance from these various points-of-view, Lochnagar lies within the Lochnagar and Loch Muick Nature Reserve (on the Balmoral Estate) and within the boundary of the Cairngorm National Park although outwith the Cairngorms Special Area of Conservation (SAC). The Lochnagar area is also designated a UK ‘Important Bird Area’ (IBA) as a breeding site for the Eurasian

1 Aware of the consternation that the term ‘lake’ causes to Scottish friends and colleagues, the word ‘loch’ is used in its place throughout this volume where the waterbody at Lochnagar is specifically referred to. Elsewhere, where lakes are referred to more generally, the English term is retained.

NEIL ROSE

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Figure 1. Lochnagar. A “gem of corrie and loch” (Skakle 1934) in summer and winter plumage. Photographs: Neil Rose.

INTRODUCTION

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Dotterel (Eudromias morinellus) (Birdlife International 2005) and part of the Deeside and Lochnagar National Scenic Area (NSA).

The aim of this book is to bring together the knowledge gained over 25 years of multi-disciplinary scientific study to show how the loch has changed and developed both naturally and as a result of human impact. In particular there is an emphasis on the role that global climate change may play on this fragile ecosystem both directly (i.e., increasing air temperatures and changing precipitation patterns) and indirectly (e.g., loss of ice cover, biological changes, enhanced distribution and release of toxic compounds, etc.). However, while Lochnagar is well-known amongst the freshwater scientific community for this research, the name is more famous to the general public for its connections to the Royal Estate of Balmoral, to students of literature for the writings of Byron, and to whisky lovers for the Royal Lochnagar single malt. A brief introduction from some of these perspectives is therefore required. Location and site description Lochnagar (56° 57’ 29” N; 3° 13’ 5” W) lies in a small mountainous area of northeast Scotland to the southeast of the Cairngorm Mountains from which it is separated by the River Dee valley (Figure 2). The area forms part of the Grampian Mountains, a series of ranges lying north of the Highland Boundary Fault and south of Strathspey. Aberdeen, the nearest city, is 50 km to the east whilst Braemar and Ballater, the nearest small towns in the Dee valley (or ‘Deeside’) lie 12 km to the northwest and 15 km to the northeast respectively. Although the name Lochnagar is often used to refer to the mountain, it rightly only belongs to the loch below (Alexander 1928; Watson 1992) and the summits around the loch each have their own individual names (Table 1). Table 1. The summits of the Lochnagar massif, their heights (metres above sea level) and translations of the names. References refer to the source of the meaning.

Summit name Altitude Meaning of the name Reference Cac Càrn Beag 1155 Little cairn of excrement Watson 1975 Cac Càrn Mòr 1150 Big cairn of excrement Watson 1975 Càrn a’ Choire Bhoidheach 1110 Cairn of the beautiful corrie Cook et al. 1998 Cuidhe Cròm 1082 Crooked snow wreath Alexander 1946 Càrn an t-Sagairt Mòr 1047 Big cairn of the priest Alexander 1946 Càrn an t-Sagairt Beag 1044 Little cairn of the priest Alexander 1946 Meikle Pap† (Cioch mhor) 980 Large breast Alexander 1946 Creag a’ Ghlas-uillt 975 Crag of the grey burn Cook et al. 1998 Meall Coire na Saobhaidhe 973 Corrie of the foxes den Alexander 1946 Little Pap† (Cioch beag) 952 Little breast Alexander 1946

(† Translated from the Gaelic term in italics: Alexander 1968).