L&M

UNIT IV - LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES

LEADERSHIP

Nurses work with an extraordinary variety of people: physicians, respiratory therapists, physical therapists, social workers, psychologists, technicians, aides, unit managers, housekeepers, clients, and clients’ families. The reason why nurses study leadership is to learn how to work well, or effectively, with other people.

“I USED TO THINK THAT RUNNING AN ORGANIZATION WAS EQUIVALENT TO CONDUCTING A SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA. BUT I DON'T THINK THAT'S QUITE IT; IT'S MORE LIKE JAZZ. THERE IS MORE IMPROVISATION”. — WARREN BENNIS

ARE YOU READY TO BE A LEADER?

WHAT IS A LEADER?

Someone who takes charge of situations for the benefit of others. They are usually strong willed, smart, and dedicated to whatever they have to do.

A person that guides others towards a goal, or inspires them to believe in certain things. A leader possesses qualities such as confidence, persuasion, and motivation.

Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never ending process of self-study, education, training, and experience (Jago, 1982).

To inspire your workers into higher levels of teamwork, there are certain things you must be, know, and, do. These do not come naturally, but are acquired through continual work and study. Good leaders are continually working and studying to improve their leadership skills; they are NOT resting on their laurels.

What Makes a Person a Leader?

There are many different ideas about how a person becomes a good leader. Despite years of research on this subject, no one idea has emerged as the clear winner. The reason for this may be that different qualities and behaviors are most important in different situations. In nursing, for example, some situations require quick thinking and fast action. Others require time to figure out the best solution to a complicated problem.

Different leadership qualities and behaviors are needed in these two instances. The result is that there is not yet a single best answer to the question, “What makes a person a leader?”

In order to lead, one must develop three important competencies:ability to diagnose or

understand the situation you want to influence

adaptation in order to allow your behaviors and other resources to close the gap between the current situation and what you are hoping to achieve, and

communication.

No matter how much you diagnose or adapt, if you cannot communicate effectively, you will probably not meet your goal (Hersey & Campbell, 2004). Effective nurse leaders are those who engage others to work together effectively in pursuit of a shared goal. Examples of shared goals are providing excellent client care, designing a cost-saving procedure, and challenging the ethics of a new policy.

EARLY LEADERSHIP THEORIESTrait Theories

The Great Man Theory

Individual Characteristics

TRAIT THEORIES

TRAIT THEORIES

At one time or another, you have probably heard someone say, “Leaders are born, not made.” In other words, some people are natural leaders, and others are not. In reality, leadership may come more easily to some than to others, but everyone can be a leader, given the necessary knowledge and skill. Research into the traits of leaders is a continuing process.

A 5-year study of 90 outstanding leaders by Warren Bennis (1984) identified four common traits shared by all of these leaders. These traits continue to hold true:

Management of attention. These leaders were able to communicate a sense of goal or direction to attract followers.

Management of meaning. These leaders created and communicated meaning with clarity and purpose.

Management of trust. These leaders demonstrated reliability and consistency.

Management of self. These leaders were able to know self and work within their strengths and weaknesses (Bennis, 1984).

GREAT MAN THEORY

According to the “Great man” theory of leadership tremendous influence of some well known people has actually determined or changed the course of history. Some believe that these people possessed characteristics that made them great leaders. Such important historical figures, such as Caesar, Alexander the great, Hitler, and Gandhi have been studied to find the characteristics that made these men leaders of their time.

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

Many studies have focused on ascertaining which individual physical or personality traits are associated with leadership. Despite the fact that no single trait has been discovered in all leaders, some popular beliefs remain and influence selection of individuals' positions, because they seem stronger and more dominating. A tall person can be physically imposing and can literally “look down” on other people.

There are also certain traits and behaviors commonly associated with leadership abilities. For example, the most outspoken person in a group is often assumed to be a leader even when other evidence does not support this assumption. The most intelligent or skilled person in a group is often designated the leader because other group members admire this person.

OTHER LEADERSHIP STYLES

BEHAVIORAL THEORIES

The behavioral theories, sometimes called the functional theories of leadership, still focus on the leader. The primary difference between the trait and behavioral theories is that the behavioral theories are concerned with what a leader does rather than who the leader is. They are still limited primarily to the leader element in a leadership situation, but they are far more action oriented and do consider the co-actors.

The behavioral theories are concerned with what the leader does. One of the most influential theories is concerned with leadership style (White & Lippitt, 1960)

THE THREE STYLES ARE:

Autocratic leadership Democratic leadershipLaissez-faire leadership

Autocratic Leadership

Also called directive, controlling, or authoritarian

Gives orders and makes decisions for the group. For example, when a decision needs to be made, an autocratic leader says, “I’ve decided that this is the way we’re going to solve our problem.” Some will try to make decisions congruent with the group's goals. The less benevolent leaders will make decisions that are directly opposed to the group's needs or goals.

Maintains strong control over people in the group. This control may be benevolent and considerate (Paternalistic leadership) or it may be dictatorial, with the complete disregard for the needs and feelings of group members.

Directions are given as commands, not suggestions. Criticism is more common from the authoritarian leader than from the other types, although not necessarily a constant occurrence. Mostly authoritarian leaders are also quite punitive.

Dominates the group, making the status of the leader separate from, and higher than, the status of group members. This reduces the degree of trust and openness between leader and group members, particularly if the leader tends to be punitive as well.

Suitable in an emergency situation when clear directions are the highest priority. It is also appropriate when the entire focus is on getting the job done or in large group when it is difficult to share decision making for some reason. It is often referred to today as a directive or controlling style of leadership.

Although this is an efficient way to run things, it usually dampens creativity and may inhibit motivation.

DemocraticLeadership

also called participative

Democratic leaders share leadership. Important plans and decisions are made with the team (Chrispeels, 2004). Although this is often a less efficient way to run things, it is more flexible and usually increases motivation and creativity.

Democratic leadership is characterized by guidance from rather than control by the leader.

Democratic leadership is based on the following principles:1. Every group member should participate in decision-making.2. Freedom of belief and action is allowed within reasonable bounds that are set by society and by the group.3. Each individual is responsible for himself or herself and for the welfare of the group.4. There should be concern and consideration for each group member as a unique individual.

Democratic leadership is much more participative and far less controlling than authoritarian leadership. It is not passive, however. The democratic leader actively stimulates and guides the group toward fulfillment of the principles listed and toward achievement of the group's goals.

The phrase laissez-faire is French and literally means "let [them] do", but it broadly implies "let it be," "let them do as they will," or "leave it alone".

Does very little planning or decision making and fails to encourage others to do so.

It is really a lack of leadership. For example, when a decision needs to be made, a laissez-faire leader may postpone making the decision or never make the decision.

In most instances, the laissez-faire leader leaves people feeling confused and frustrated because there is no goal, no guidance, and no direction. Some very mature individuals thrive under laissez-faire leadership because they need little guidance. Most people, however, flounder under this kind of leadership.

Pavitt summed up the difference among these three styles: a democratic leader tries to move the group toward its goals; an autocratic leader tries to move the group toward the leader’s goals; and a laissez faire leader makes no attempt to move the group (1999, pp. 330ff ).

Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire

Amount of freedom

Little freedom Moderate freedom Much freedom

Amount of control High control Moderate control Little control

Decision making By the leaderLeader and group

togetherBy the group or by

no one

Leader activity level

High High Minimal

Assumption of responsibility

Leader Shared Abdicated

Output of the group

High quantity, good quality

Creative, high quality

Variable, may be poor quality

Efficiency Very efficientLess efficient than

autocratic styleInefficient

TASK VERSUS RELATIONSHIP

Another important distinction in leadership style is between a task focus and a relationship focus (Blake, Mouton, & Tapper, 1981). Some nurses emphasize the tasks (e.g., reducing medication errors, completing patient records) and fail to realize that interpersonal relationships (e.g., attitude of physicians toward nursing staff, treatment of housekeeping staff by nurses) affect the morale and productivity of employees. Other nurses focus on the interpersonal aspects and ignore the quality of the job being done as long as people get along with each other. The most effective leader is able to balance the two, attending to both the task and the relationship aspects of working together.

MOTIVATING THEORIES

The concept of motivation seems fairly simple. We do things to get what we want and avoid things that we don’t want. However, motivation is still surrounded in mystery. The study of motivation as a focus of leadership began in the 1920s with the historic Hawthorne study.

Several experiments were conducted to see if increasing light and, later, improved working conditions would improve productivity of workers in the Hawthorne, Illinois, electrical plant. Those workers who had the improved working conditions taken away continued to show improved productivity. Therefore, the answers were found not in the conditions of the experiments but in the attention given to the workers by the experimenters.

Similar to the 1954 Maslow Hierarchy of Needs theory, the 1959 Motivation-Hygiene theory developed by Frederick Herzberg looked at factors that motivated workers in the workplace. Following closely after Herzberg was David McClelland and his 1961 Theory of Needs. Clayton Alderfer responded to Maslow’s theory with his own Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (ERG) theory.

LEADING MOTIVATION THEORIESTHEORY SUMMARY OF MOTIVATION REQUIREMENTS

Maslow, 1954 Categories of Need: Lower needs (below, listed first) must be fulfilled before others are activated.

Physiological Safety Belongingness Esteem Self-actualization

Alderfer, 1972 Three categories of needs, also ordered into a hierarchy:

Existence: Physical well-beingRelatedness: Satisfactory

relations with othersGrowth: Development of

competence and realization of potential

Herzberg, 1959 Two factors that influence motivation. The absence of hygiene factors can create job dissatisfaction, but their presence does not motivate or increase satisfaction.

Hygiene factors: Company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, salary

Motivators: Achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement

McClelland, 1961 Motivation results from three dominant needs. Usually all three needs are present in each individual but vary in importance depending on the position a person has in the workplace. Needs are also shaped over time by culture and experience.

Need for achievement: Performing tasks on a challenging and high level

Need for affiliation: Good relationships with others

Need for power: Being in charge

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

The relationship aspects of leadership are a focus of the work on emotional intelligence (Goleman, Boyatzes, & McKee, 2002). Part of what distinguishes ordinary leaders from leadership “stars” is consciously addressing the effect of people’s feelings on the team’s emotional reality. How is this done?

First, learn how to recognize and understand your own emotions, and learn how to manage them, channel them, stay calm and clear-headed, and suspend judgment until all the facts are in when a crisis occurs (Baggett & Baggett, 2005). The emotionally intelligent leader welcomes constructive criticism, asks for help when needed, can juggle multiple demands without losing focus, and can turn problems into opportunities.

Second, the emotionally intelligent leader listens attentively to others, perceives unspoken concerns, acknowledges others’ perspectives, and brings people together in an atmosphere of respect, cooperation, collegiality, and helpfulness so they can direct their energies toward achieving the team’s goals. “The enthusiastic, caring, and supportive leader team,” wrote Porter-O’Grady of the emotionally intelligent leader (2003, p. 109).

MORAL LEADERSHIP

The corporate scandals of recent years have redirected attention to the values and ethics that underlie the practice of leadership as well as that of client care (Dantley, 2005). Caring about the people who work for you as people as well as employees (Spears & Lawrence, 2004) is part of moral leadership. This can be a great challenge in times of limited financial resources.

Molly Benedict was a team leader on the acute geriatric unit (AGU) when a question of moral leadership arose. Faced with large budget cuts in the middle of the year and feeling a little desperate to figure out how to run the AGU with fewer staff, her nurse manager suggested that reducing the time that unlicensed assistive personnel (UAP) spent ambulating the clients would enable him to increase UAP workload from 10 to 15 clients. “George,” responded Molly, “you know that inactivity has many harmful effects, from emboli to disorientation in our very elderly population. Instead, let’s try to figure out how to encourage more self-care or even family involvement in care so the UAP can still walk clients and prevent their becoming nonambulatory.” Molly based her response on important values, particularly those of prevention.

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE LEADER

IntegrityCourage InitiativeEnergyOptimismPerseveranceBalanceAbility to

handle stress

Self-awareness

WINNER OR WHINER—WHICH ARE YOU?

A Winner says: A Whiner says:

“We have a real challenge here.”

“This is really a problem.”

“I’ll give it my best.” “Do I have to?”

“That’s great!”“That’s nice, I

guess.”

“We can do it!”“That will never

succeed.”

“Yes!” “Maybe....”

BEHAVIORS OF AN EFFECTIVE LEADER

Think criticallySolve problemsSet goals, share visionDevelop self and othersCommunicate skillfully

Listening to othersEncouraging exchange of informationProviding feedback

CONCLUSION

Leadership ability determines a person’s level of effectiveness. To be an effective nurse, you must be an effective leader. Your patients, your peers, and your organization are depending on you to influence others. Leadership develops daily. True leaders never stop learning and growing. John Maxwell (1998), one of America’s experts on leadership, states “who we are is who we attract” (p. xi). To attract leaders, people need to start leading and never stop learning to lead.

MANAGEMENT

Every nurse should be a good leader and a good follower. Not everyone should be a manager, however. In fact, new graduates simply are not ready to take on management responsibilities. Once you have had time to develop your clinical and leadership skills, you can begin to think about taking on management responsibilities.

WHAT IS MANAGEMENT?

Mangers come from the “headship” (power from position) category. They hold appointive or directive posts in formal organizations. They can be appointed for both technical and leadership competencies, usually needing both to be accepted.

Managers are delegated authority, including the power to reward or punish. A manager is expected to perform functions such as planning, organizing, directing (leading) and controlling (evaluating).

The essence of management is getting work done through others. The classic definition of managementnis Henri Fayol’s 1916 list of managerial tasks: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling the work of a group of employees (Wren, 1972). But Mintzberg (1989) argued that managers really do whatever is needed to make sure that employees do their work and do it well.

Lombardi (2001) points out that two-thirds of a manager’s time is spent on people problems. The rest is taken up by budget work, going to meetings, preparing reports, and other administrative tasks.

Leadership Management

Based on influence and shared meaning

Based on authority

An informal role A formally designated role

An achieved position As assigned position

Part of every nurse’s responsibility

Usually responsible for budgets, hiring and firing

people

Requires initiative and independent thinking

Improved by the use of effective leadership skills

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

CATEGORY LEADERSHIP MANAGEMENT

Thinking Process

Focuses on people

Focuses on things

Looks outward Looks inward

Goal Setting Articulates a vision

Executes plans

Creates the future

Improves the present

Sees the forest Sees the trees

Employee Relations

Empowers Controls

Colleagues Subordinates

Trusts & Develops

Directs & coordinates

Operation Does the right things

Does things right

Creates change Manages change Serves subordinates

Serves superordinates

Governance

Uses influence Uses authority

Uses conflict Avoids conflict Acts decisively Acts responsibly

MANAGEMENT IS DOING THINGS RIGHT, BUT LEADERSHIP IS DOING THE RIGHT THING

Are You Ready to Be a Manager?

MANAGEMENT THEORIES

There are two major but opposing schools of thought in management: scientific management and the human relations–based approach. As its name implies, the human-relations approach emphasizes the interpersonal aspects of managing people, whereas scientific management emphasizes the task aspects.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Almost 100 years ago, Frederick Taylor argued that most jobs could be done more efficiently if they were analyzed thoroughly (Lee, 1980; Locke, 1982). With a well-designed task and enough incentive to get the work done, workers could be more productive. For example, Taylor promoted the concept of paying people by the piece instead of by the hour. In health care, the equivalent would be by the number of patients bathed or visited at home rather than by the number of hours worked. This would create an incentive to get the most work done in the least amount of time. Taylorism stresses that there is a best way to do a job. Usually, this is also the fastest way to do the job (Dantley, 2005).

The work is analyzed to improve efficiency. In health care, for example, there has been much discussion about the time it takes to bring patients to radiology or to physical therapy versus bringing the technician or therapist to the patient. Eliminating excess staff or increasing the productivity of remaining employees is also based on this kind of thinking.

Nurse managers who use the principles of scientific management will pay particular attention to the type of assessments and treatments done on the unit, the equipment needed to do this efficiently, and the strategies that would facilitate efficient accomplishment of these tasks. Typically, these nurse managers keep careful records of the amount of work accomplished and reward those who accomplish the most.

HUMAN RELATIONS–BASED MANAGEMENT

McGregor’s theories X and Y provide a good example of the difference between scientific management and human relations–based management. Theory X, said McGregor (1960), reflects a common attitude among managers that most people do not want to work very hard and that the manager’s job is to make sure that they do work hard. To accomplish this, according to Theory X, a manager needs to employ strict rules, constant supervision, and the threat of punishment (reprimands, withheld raises, and threats of job loss) to create industrious, conscientious workers.

Theory Y, which McGregor preferred, is the opposite viewpoint. Theory Y managers believe that the work itself can be motivating and that people will work hard if their managers provide a supportive environment. A Theory Y manager emphasizes guidance rather than control, development rather than close supervision, and reward rather than punishment. A Theory Y nurse manager is concerned with keeping employee morale as high as possible, assuming that satisfied, motivates employees will do the best work. Employees’ attitudes, opinions, hopes, and fears are important to this type of nurse manager. Considerable effort is expended to work out conflicts and promote mutual understanding to provide an environment in which people can do their best work.

THEORY X THEORY YWork is

something to be avoided

The work itself can be motivating

People want to do as little as possible

People really want to do their

job well

Use control-supervision-punishment

Use guidance-development-

reward

SERVANT LEADERSHIP

The emphasis on people and interpersonal relationships is taken one step further by Greenleaf (2004), who wrote an essay in 1970 that began the servant leadership movement. Like transformational leadership, servant leadership has a special appeal to nurses and other health-care professionals. Despite its name, servant leadership applies more to people in supervisory or administrative positions than to people in staff positions.

The servant leader–style staff manager believes that people have value as people, not just as workers (Spears & Lawrence, 2004).The manager is committed to improving the way each employee is treated at work. The attitude is “employee first,” not “manager first.”So the manager sees himself or herself as being there for the employee. Here is an example:

Hope Marshall is a relatively new staff nurse at Jefferson County Hospital. When she was invited to be the staff nurse representative on the search committee for a new vice-president for nursing, she was very excited about being on a committee with so many managerial and administrative people.

As the interviews of candidates began, she focused on what they had to say. They had very impressive résumés and spoke confidently about their accomplishments. Hope was impressed but did not yet prefer one over the other. Then the final candidate spoke to the committee. “My primary job,” he said, “is to make it possible for each nurse to do the very best job he or she can do. I am here to make their work easier, to remove barriers, and to provide them with whatever they need to provide the best patient care possible.” Hope had never heard the term servant leadership, but she knew immediately that this candidate, who articulated the essence of servant leadership, was the one she would support for this important position.

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE MANAGER

Two-thirds of people who leave their jobs say the main reason was an ineffective or incompetent manager (Hunter, 2004). A survey of 3266 newly licensed nurses found that lack of support from their manager was the primary reason for leaving their position, followed by a stressful work environment as the second reason. Following are some of the indicators of their stressful work environment:

25% reported at least one needle stick in their first year.

39% reported at least one strain or sprain. 62% reported experiencing verbal abuse. 25% reported a shortage of supplies needed to do

their work.

These results underscore the importance of having effective nurse managers who can create an environment in which new nurses thrive (Kovner, Brewer, Fairchild, et al., 2007)

The effective nurse manager possesses a combination of qualities: leadership, clinical expertise, and business sense. None of these alone is enough; it is the combination that prepares an individual for the complex task of managing a unit or team of healthcare providers. Consider each of these briefly:

Leadership Clinical expertise Business sense

BEHAVIORS OF AN EFFECTIVE MANAGER

Mintzberg (1989) divided a manager’s activities into three categories: interpersonal, decisional, and informational. We use these categories and have added some activities suggested by other authors (Dunham-Taylor, 1995; Montebello,1994) and by our own observations of nurse managers.

Informational

Representing employees

Representing the organization

Public relations monitoring

Decisional Activities

Employee evaluation

Resource allocation

Hiring and firing employees

Planning for the future

Job analysis and redesign

Interpersonal Activities

Networking

Conflict negotiation and resolution

Employee development

Coaching

Rewards and punishments.

BAD MANAGEMENT STYLES

Know-it-all

Self-appointed experts on everything, these managers do not listen to anyone else.

Emotionally remote

Isolated from the staff and the work going on, these managers do not know what is going on in the workplace and cannot inspire others.

Pure mean

Mean, nasty, dictatorial, these managers look for problems and reasons to criticize.

Overnice

Desperate to please everyone, these managers agree to every idea and request, causing confusion and spending too much money on useless projects.

Afraid to decide

In the name of fairness, these managers do not distinguish between competent and incompetent, hard-working and unproductive employees, thus creating an unfair reward system.

Nurse managers have complex, responsible positions in health-care organizations. Ineffective managers may do harm to their employees, their patients, and to the organization, and effective managers can help their staff members grow and develop as health-care professionals while providing the highest quality care to their patients.

WHAT ARE SITUATIONAL CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP?

The trait and behavioural perspectives assume that leadership, by itself, has a strong impact on outcomes. Another development in leadership thinking recognizes, however, that outcomes may be more accurately predicted when leader traits and behaviours are considered in relation to situational contingencies—other important aspects of the leadership situation.

Toward this end, contingency theories of leadership such as those proposed by Fred Fiedler (1967), Robert House (1971; 1996), and Hersey and Blanchard (1988; 2001) focus on specific variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to these approaches, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leader’s preferred style, the capabilities and behaviours of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

STUDY QUESTION 2: WHAT ARE SITUATIONAL CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP?

Leader traits and behaviors can act in conjunction with situational contingencies.

The effects of leader traits are enhanced by their relevance to situational contingencies.

Major situational contingency theories.Fiedler’s leadership contingency theory.Fiedler’s cognitive resource theory.House’s path-goal theory of leadership.Hersey and Blanchard’s situational

leadership model.

STUDY QUESTION 2: WHAT ARE THE SITUATIONAL CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP?

Key variables in Fiedler’s contingency model.Situational control.

The extent to which a leader can determine what his or her group is going to do as well as the outcomes of the group’s actions and decisions.

Is a function of:Leader-member relations.Task structure.Position power.


Key variables in Fiedler’s contingency model (cont.).Least preferred co-worker (LPC) score reflects a

person’s leadership style.High-LPC leaders have a relationship-motivated style.

Low-LPC leaders have a task-motivated style.


Fiedler’s cognitive resource theory.A leader’s use of directive or nondirective

behavior depends on:The leader’s or subordinate group members’ ability or

competency.Stress.Experience.Group support of the leader.

Leader directiveness is most helpful for performance when the leader is competent, relaxed, and supported.


House’s path-goal theory of leadership.Rooted in the expectancy model of motivation.

Emphasizes how a leader influences

subordinates’ perceptions of both work goals and

personal goals and the links, or paths, found

between these two sets of goals.


Path-goal theory predictions.Directive leadership will have a positive impact

on subordinates when tasks are ambiguous and the opposite effect when tasks are clear.

Supportive leadership will increase the satisfaction of subordinates who work on tasks that are highly repetitive, unpleasant, stressful, or frustrating.


Path-goal theory predictions (cont.).Achievement-oriented leadership will encourage

subordinates to strive for higher performance standards and to have more confidence in their ability to meet challenging goals when subordinates are working at ambiguous, nonrepetitive tasks.

Participative leadership will promote satisfaction on nonrepetitive tasks that allow for the ego involvement of subordinates.

STUDY QUESTION 3: WHAT ARE ATTRIBUTIONAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP?

Attribution theory provides a competing perspective to the traditional leadership theory assumption that leadership and its substantive effects can be identified and measured objectively.

Attribution theory suggests that leadership is influenced by attempts to understand causes of and assess responsibilities for behavior.


Leadership prototypes.People’s mental image of what a model leader

should look like.Mix of specific and general characteristics.Prototypes may differ by country and national

culture. The closer that a leader’s behavior matches the

prototype held by the followers, the more favorable the leader’s relations and key outcomes.


Exaggeration of the leadership difference.Top leaders of organizations have little impact on

profits and effectiveness compared to environmental and industry forces.

Much of the impact of top leaders is symbolic.The romance of leadership refers to people

attributing romantic, almost magical, qualities to leadership.

STUDY QUESTION 4: WHAT ARE SOME EMERGING LEADERSHIP PERSPECTIVES AND WHY ARE THEY ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT IN TODAY’S ORGANIZATIONS?

Charismatic approaches to leadership.Charismatic leaders, by force of their personal

abilities, can have a profound and extraordinary effect on followers.

Characteristics of charismatic leaders include:High need for power.High feelings of self-efficacy.Conviction in the moral rightness of their beliefs.


Dark side versus bright side of charismatic leadership.Dark side.

Emphasizes personalized power.Leaders focus on themselves.

Bright side.Emphasizes socialized power.Leaders empower followers.


Conger and Kanungo’s three-stage

charismatic leadership model.

Stage 1: the leader critically evaluates the

status quo.

Stage 2: the leader formulates and

articulates future goals and a idealized

future vision.

Stage 3: the leader shows how the goals

and vision can be achieved.


Transactional leadership. Involves leader-follower exchanges necessary for

achieving routine performance that is agreed upon by leaders and followers.

Leader-follower exchanges involve:Use of contingent rewards.Active management by exception.Passive management by exception.Abdicating responsibilities and avoiding decisions.


Transformational leadership.Leaders broaden and elevate followers’ interests,

generate awareness and acceptance of the group’s mission, and stir followers to look beyond self-interests.

Dimensions of transformational leadership.Charisma.Inspiration.Intellectual stimulation.Individualized consideration.


Leadership in self-managing work teams.Leaders provide resources or act as liaisons with

other units but without the trappings of authority associated with traditional first-line supervisors.

Conditions for creating and maintaining team performance.Efficient, goal-directed effort.Adequate resources.Competent, motivated performance.A productive, supportive climate.Commitment to continuous improvement and

adaptation.


Can people be trained in the new leadership?People can be trained to adopt new leadership

approaches.Leaders can devise improvement programs to

address their weaknesses and work with trainers to develop their leadership skills.

Leaders can be trained in charismatic skills.


Is new leadership always good?Not always good.Dark-side charismatics can have negative effects

on followers.Not always needed.Needs to be used in conjunction with traditional

leadership.Applies at all levels of organizational leadership.

L&M

Documents

different leadership

effective leader

leadership skills

good leaders aremadenot

different situations

different qualities

natural leaders

nurses study leadership