Living Planet - Dr Banda Seneviratne (2006)

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Chapter 1

Earth as a living planet

The solar system in which we are located is living and ever

evolving. Live in time periods of billions of years and distances of

light years. Sun which gives us magnetic force, radio magnetic

spectrum is living and ever evolving. Live in time periods of

billions of years and distances of billions of kilometers.

The earth‟s crust, mantle, outer core and core is living and ever

evolving. Live in time periods of billions of years and distances of

thousands of kilometers. The surfaces of the earth breathe, shake

and live in time periods of billions of years and distances of

thousands of kilometres.

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Table 1.1 Living pulses of the earth – EARTHQUAKES and VOLCANIC ERUPTION releasing pressure of the earth‟s interior

Types of breathes

and shakes

Energy release Time period Result

Earth tremor/

Volcanic tremor

1 Hiroshima

bomb

1 – 5 Seconds with 1

after shock

Shake

Earthquakes below

4.5Richter scale/ volcanic gas burst

2 to 3

Hiroshima

bombs

3 –7 Seconds with 1

to 2 after shocks

Shake and break

Earthquakes 4.5 to 5.4

Richter scale/

volcanic

pyroclastic flow

2 to 4 Hiroshima

bombs

3 – 10 Seconds with 1 to 2 after shocks

Shake and break – temporary buildings, vehicles speeding over 100km/hr can be

thrown out of the road

Earthquakes 5.5 to

6.4

Richter scale/ low level volcanic

explosions

20 Hiroshima

bombs

3 –15 Seconds with 2

to 3 after shocks

Shake and break – temporary buildings,

some weak well constructed buildings,

vehicles speeding over 60 km/hr can be thrown out of the road, mud slides and

landslides can be generated

3

Earthquakes 6.5 to

7.4 Richter scale/

moderate level

volcanic explosions

200 Hiroshima

bombs

5 – 20 Seconds with

3 to 4 after shocks

Shake and break – temporary weak and

even some well constructed buildings, vehicles speeding over 40 km/hr can be

thrown out of the road, mud flow, and

landslides and small Tsunami can be

generated

Earthquakes 7.5 to

8.4

Richter scale/ high

level volcanic explosions

2000

Hiroshima

bombs

10 – 20 Seconds with

4 to 5 after shocks

Shake and break – all buildings without

earthquake proofing, vehicles parked can be

thrown out of the road – mud flow,

landslides and Tsunami can be generated

Earthquakes 8.5 to

9.4 Richter scale/

disastrous

volcanicexplosions

10,000

Hiroshima bombs

20 – 30 Seconds with

5 to 6 after shocks

Shake and break – all buildings without

earthquake proofing and even some earthquake proofed heavy buildings,

vehicles parked can be thrown out of the

road, mud flow, landslides and Tsunami

generated

* 1 Hiroshima bomb (atomic) is equal to about 500,000 claymore mines.

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Table 1.2 Living pulses of the earth - LANDSLIDES - moving masses of soil and rock

Types of

breathes

and

shakes

Time

period

Velocity Material involved Result

Landslide Seconds

to few

minutes

60 to 150

km/hr

Soil, rock, gravel, mud,

vegetation and water

Destruction of any

human construction on

its path

Mud slide

Few to many

seconds

90 to 300 km/hr

Mostly mud and sand and few rocks and vegetation

Destruction of any human construction on

its path

Gravel slide

Few to many

seconds

30 to 70 km/hr

Mostly gravel, rocks and vegetation

Destruction of any human construction on

its path

Rock fall Few to

many seconds

150 to 400

km/hr

Mostly large blocks of rocks and

some soil

Destruction of any

human construction on its path

5

Creep Few

minutes to many

days and

some

times many

years

2 to 5 cms/hr Mostly large blocks of soil

and regolith. Sometimes rock and boulders are

embedded in it.

Destruction of any

human construction on its path

Flow Few

seconds to minutes

30 to 60

km/hr

Mostly small quantities

mud, sand and gravel

Burial of any human

construction on its path

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Table 1.3 Living pulses of the earth - STREAMS (smaller than 5 meter of channel width) and RIVERS (5 meter or

bigger than 5 meter channel width)

Types of breathes and

shakes

Time period Velocity Material involved Result

Low flow Vary on rainfall

3 to 6 km/hr Water, mud and sand Gentle flow - enjoyable

Medium flow High rainfall 5 to 10 km/hr Water, mud sand and

vegetation

Moderate flow – be

careful

High flow Very high rainfall

20 to 30 km/hr

Water, mud sand, gravel vegetation and

settlement debris

High flow – be very careful

Flood flow Extremely

high rainfall

30 to 50

km/hr

Water, mud sand, gravel

vegetation and settlement debris

Flood – be

extremely careful

Catastrophic

flood

Extremely

high rainfall

30 to 70

km/hr

Water, mud sand, gravel

vegetation and

settlement debris

Raging Flood – stay

away from the

stream or river

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Table 1.4 Living pulses of the earth - WIND

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Types of breathes and shakes

Time period Velocity Material involved Result

Gentle wind 80 to 90

percent of the time

2 to 5

km/hr

Dust and light objects (paper and

polythene bags)

Enjoyable

Moderate wind 8 to 20

percent of

the time

4 to 7

km/hr

Dust, fine sand and light objects (leaves,

paper, paper bags, polythene bags and

heavy plastic bags and bottles)

Manageable but

discomfort to women as

long dresses and hair shaking, cycling becomes

difficult, kites can fly

Strong winds 1 to 2

percent of the time

8 to 15

km/hr

Dust, fine sand, coarse sand, light objects

leaves, paper, paper bags, polythene bags and heavy plastic bags and bottles, twigs

and dry branches. Dust rises above the

head.

Difficult to manage

discomfort to women as long dresses and hair

shaking, cycling becomes

very difficult, kites can fly high, felt by motor

vehicles. Difficult to carry

umbrellas.

Light Gale force winds

Less than 0.3 percent

of the time

15 to 30 km/hr

Dust, fine sand, coarse sand, light objects leaves, paper, paper bags, polythene bags

and heavy plastic bags and bottles, twigs

and dry branches. Dust rises above the head. Weak branches break. Some

temporary housing and bird‟s nests will

break.

Very difficult to manage serious discomfort to

women as long dresses and

hair shaking, cycling becomes extremely

difficult, kites will tumble,

felt strongly by motor vehicles. Cannot carry

umbrellas.

Strong gale force

winds

Less than

0.1 percent of the time

30 to 60

km/hr

Objects leaves, paper, paper bags,

polythene bags and heavy plastic bags and bottles, twigs and dry branches. Dust

rises above the head. Weak branches

break. New branches break, weak trees fall, weak roofing fly. All temporary

housing and bird‟s nests will break.

Children under 10 kilos will fall. Cats and

dogs will have difficulty in staying upright. All animals will go into hiding

Dangerous to be outside.

Low visibility and limited flying

Cyclonic/Hurricane/

Typhoon/Tornado

/Khamsin type winds

Less than

0.01 percent

of the time

Over 60

and up

to 300 km/hr

All objects not built from reinforced

concrete or steel is subjected to damage

or destruction. All human and animal life is in danger.

All humans and animals

can die. Low visibility and

No flying

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Table 1. 5 Living pulses of the earth – CLOUDS

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Type of formation

Time period Velocity Size , location in the sky, Material involved

Result

Cirrus 1 percent 5 to 10

km/hr

Small – above 1000 m, Ice particles Dry weather

Stratus -

cirro

2 percent 10 to 15

km/hr

Small above 1000 m, Ice particles and

some water droplets

Dry weather and

sometimes dew

Stratus -

cumulo

3 percent 10 to 20

km/hr

Moderate to big, above 1000 m, Ice

particles and some water droplets

Dry weather and

sometimes dew

Stratus 20 to 25 percent 6 to 20

km/hr

Moderate to big, form over oceans

above 1000m , drift to land, Water

droplets

Wet weather and some

times long duration gentle

rain

Strato - Nimbus

8 percent 10 to 30 km/hr

Moderate to big, form over oceans above 1000m drift to land, Water

droplets

Wet weather and gentle to moderate rain

Strato –

Nimbus – depressional

clouds

4 percent 10 to 30

km/hr

Moderate to very big, form over warm

oceans above 1000m and drift towards land, large from 200 square kilometres

to 3000 square kilometres, Water

droplets

Wet weather and gentle to

strong rain of long duration

Cumulus 50 to 60 percent 5 to 30

km/hr

Moderate to big Water droplets, form

at 3000 to 10000 meters above ground

and drift down to about 1000 meters

Wet weather and some

times long duration rain

Cumulo-Nimbus

11 percent 10 to 40 km/hr

Big to very big, form at 3000 to 10000 meters above ground and drift down to

about 1000 meters, Water droplets

Rain to short duration heavy rain with lightning

Double Cell

Cumulo-Nimbus

0.2 percent 20 to 60

km/hr

Big to very big, Water droplets form at

3000 to 10000 meters above ground and drift down to about 1000 meters

Rain and high intensity

rain. Low visibility and No flying

Multiple

Cell cumulus

0.01 percent 40 to 300

km/hr

Big to very big, form at 5000 to 10000

meters above ground and drift down to about 1000meters, Water droplets

High intensity rain and

winds Cyclonic and Tornado. Low visibility

and No flying

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Table 1.6 Living pulses of the earth – RAINFALL/ SNOW FALL / ICE FALL

Types of

breathes and

shakes

Time period Velocity Size , Material involved Result

Slight rain/

Snow

drops

10 to 20 minutes 0.2 to 0.3 meters per second

0.005 mm to 0.001 mm, water droplets, snow flakes

and ice flakes

Water droplets snow and ice flakes these can make

the ground slippery.

Moderate rain/

Snow fall

10 to 30 minutes 0.4 to 0.6 meters per second

0.003 mm to 0.01mm, water droplets, snow flakes

Water droplets and large snow and ice flakes these

can make the flow and

ground slippery

Heavy rain /

Snow fall

10 to 45 minutes 0.4 to 0.8 meters per second

0.01 mm to 0.5 mm, water droplets, snow flakes

Water droplets and snow flakes.

Torrential rain/

Snow

Storm

(Blizard)

20 to 45 minutes 0.4 to 1.0 meters per second

0.01 mm to 0.5 mm, water droplets, snow flakes

Water droplets and snow flakes. Low visibility and

No flying

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Table 1.7 Living pulses of the earth – DUST STORM

Types of

breathes and

shakes

Time period Velocity Size , Material involved Result

Dust devil 1 to 10 minutes 20 to 30 km/hr Small (1 meter square) to large (5 meter square)

Flying dust at high speed. Health hazard and traffic

hazard

Dust storm 20 minutes to 3

days

10 to 30 km/hr 20 square kilometres to

2000 square kilometers

Slowly drifting dust for

long periods of time. Health hazard and traffic

hazard. Low visibility

and No flying

Sand strom 10 minutes to 45

minutes

15 to 150 km/hr 5 square kilometres to

2000 square kilometres

High speed dust flow

with very low visibility

Serious health hazard and

traffic hazard. Low visibility and No flying.

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Table 1.8 Living pulses of the earth – Glaciers (ice rivers)

Types

of

breathes and

shakes

Time

period

Velocity Size ,

Material

involved

Result

Glacier Geological climatic

change

Few centimetres per year

Ice, snow, rock debris,

soil

Maintenance of rivers, lakes and supply of cool water to the ocean. The rapid melting of

ice sheets are causing flooding and drop of

ocean temperature, which can result in dry

climates globally.

Table 1.9 Living pulses of the earth – Sea and Ocean Waves

Types of breathes

and

shakes

Time period

Velocity Size , Material involved Result

Gentle

waves

99.8

percent

of the

time

4 to 6 km/hr 10 to 50 square meters – water and

light organic debris

Gentle sea and

enjoyable beach

High 0.18 10 to 15 km/hr 100 to 200 square meters –water Rough sea and

14

percent

of the time

and light to heavy organic and

inorganic debris – can shake a canoe violently

dangerous to be in the

beach

Streaming 0.02

percent

of the time

Above 20 km/ hr 500 to 1000 square meters –water

and heavy organic and inorganic

debris can throw a mechanised boat

Dangerous to be at the

beach, can drag a

human being on the splash and take out to

sea.

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Table 1.10 Living pulses of the earth – OCEANIC CIRCULATION AND DEEP SEA CURRENT

Types of

breathes

and shakes

Time period Velocity Size , Material involved Result

Tides Diurnal and

Seasonal

1cm/ minute Millions of cubic kilometres, sea

water, plankton and fish

Coastal areas are washed

and cleaned

Surface currents

Seasonal 5cm/ minute Millions of cubic kilometres, sea water, plankton and fish

Coastal areas are made more wet or dry

Deep

sea

current

Continuous 1 cm /day Billions of cubic kilometres, sea

water and chemical deposits

Earth‟s air conditioner,

cool the tropics and warm

the temperate areas

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The above tables show that earth is always at work with its

pulses of quakes, slides, flows, storms and oceanic flows.

This is why we say that earth is a living planet. These activities make the earth suitable for the growth of plants,

breeding of animals including man.

The present global environment is a result of a 6 billion year living and evolution of the lithosphere (minerals and rocks),

atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and biosphere (plants

and animals including man). Since the advent of fire and

wheel, man has separated himself from the other animals and lives in a cocoon of technosphere (constructive knowledge).

Living in a technosphere has resulted in the increase of the

complexity of natural ecosystem and need for the use of environmental management in our daily lives.

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Chapter 2

Ecosystem

The definition of ecosystem has to change from one type of

study to another, as the relationship between man and his

ecosystem is studied for various reasons. The best suitable for the purpose of this study is

“ The ecosystem is an interdependent and dynamic system of living organisms with their physical and geographical

environment”.

The aim of environmental management is to first understand

the interdependency of the ecosystem and then study how well society can utilise and manage the physical and

geographical environment to reap optimum benefits.

Ecosystems form from the interactions of abiotic, biotic, and

cultural (anthropogenic) components. They are a set of

interacting, interrelated parts that form a unitary whole. All ecosystems are "open" systems and energy and matter are

transferred in and out constantly. The Earth as a single

ecosystem converts solar energy into many types of organic

products and increase the biological complexity over time since its formation.

Natural ecosystems are made up of abiotic factors (air, water, rocks, energy) and biotic factors (plants, animals, and

micro-organisms). The Earth‟s biosphere, including the

atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and litosphere (land),

constitutes a feedback of a cybernatic system that reflects what Rene Dubos referred to as "a co-evolutionary process"

between living things and their physical and chemical

environments.

The Earth Ecosystem is made up of many smaller

ecosystems interlocked through cycles of energy and chemical elements. The flow of energy and matter through

ecosystems, therefore, is regulated by the complex

interactions of the energy, water, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,

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phosphorus, sulfur, and other cycles that are essential to the

functioning of the biosphere. Components of the Ecosystem

Lithosphere

Figure 2.1 Structure of the earth

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Basic structure is composed of a crust, mantle and a core.

Table 2.1 Detailed information on the basic structure 1

Unit Structure Process Result

Crust

The layer at the surface and it is made out of two major types of

rocks. Silica alumina (sial) and

silica magnesia (sima) are these two types. Silica alumina rocks are light

coloured and low density rocks (

granite, granulites,gneiss, schist, crystalline limestones, sandstone,

shale and limestone). Silica

magnesia rocks are dark coloured

and high density varieties like basalt, obsidian and migmatite.

The rock outcrops in Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, campus are

mainly of granulite type and in

some places there are gneisses.

The theory of Plate Tectonics provides the best explanation

for processes in the crust.

The crust is divided in to five major and about 29 minor

blocks and move in three

ways. 1. towards each other-

collision system

2. away from each other

– tension and break 3. past each other –

sliding past each other and

crushes both

Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

are the two most

violent activities produced by the

processes of the

earth crust.

Landslides, creep

and subsidence can

also occur on the crust as a result of

crustal processes.

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Table 2.2 Detailed information on the mantle of the earth

Unit Structure Process Result

Mantle

Mantle is formed of

magnesia rocks and semi-liquid type of material.

Mantle is about 1500

degrees Centigrade hot with hot lava convection

currents.

The convection currents

transfer the heat of the core to the mantle and mantle

slow down the force and

transfer the remaining pressure to the crust. These

currents supply force to

volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Earthquakes and volcanic

eruptions are the two most violent activities produced

by the processes of the

mantle coming to surface through the crustal plates.

Table 2.3 Detailed information on the core of the earth

Unit Structure Process Result

Core

Core of the earth is in two parts.

1. outer core – fluid

2. inner core – solid and iron

The outer core is fluid and act as a filed coil in a

dynamo. It produces the

magnetic field which resist micro waves at the outer

surface of the atmosphere

and prevent them entering

the lower atmosphere. Outer core shoots lava flumes

Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions at the surface of the

earth are the two most violent

activities produced by the processes of the core.

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compunds

(Fe and Ni)

which travel slowly through

the mantle and enter crust and result in volcanic

eruptions and sometimes

form earthquakes.

Inner core is soild and act as

the bar of a dynamo and help

the outer core to produce gravitational stability and

resist entry of micro waves

from the sun into

atmosphere.

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Table 2.4 Structure of matter, processes present and connectivity to the system in the lithosphere.

Type Matter Structure Process System factor

Minerals Chemical solids,

liquids and gas

Platy, Columner,

Cubic, Hexagonal,

Octagonal,

Complex

Interactive,

Mixing, Isolation, Interdependent

Basic units of

mineral particles

Rock Chemical solids Massive, banded, crystallised

Igneous, metamorphic,

sedimentary

Plates and Continents,

Material

storage

Regolith Chemical solids and

liquids

Platy, Columner,

Cubic

Weathering Conversion

of material

begins

Soil Chemical solids and liquids

Platy, Columner, Cubic

Leaching, mottling,

salination,

laterisation

Conversion to basic

mineral

particles. Sand, silt and

clay.

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Table 2.5 Economic value of minerals, rock, regolith and soil (approximate annual production and value)

Type Products Economic

value –world

US $ billions

Employment

in millions -

world

Economic

value –Sri

Lanka Rupees

billion

Employment

– Sri Lanka

Minerals All iron and

steel industrial goods and many

other

1000 8.6 9.3 125,000

Rock For road, concrete and

filling

650 3.5 12.0 50,000

Regolith For filling 1240 11.7 43.0 80,000

Soil For filling and cropping

467 1.2 21.0 45,000

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Following is a list of major, minerals, rock, regolith and

soil type resources obtained from the lithosphere.

Aluminum Antimony

Arsenic

Asbestos

Barite Bauxite and Alumina

Beryllium

Bismuth Boron

Bromine

Cadmium

Cement Chromium

Clays

Coal Combustion Products Cobalt

Construction Sand and Gravel

Columbium (Niobium) and Tantalum Copper

Crushed Stone

Diamond (Industrial)

Diatomite Dimension Stone

Explosives

Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite Ferroalloys

Fluorspar

Gallium Garnet

Gemstones

Germanium

Gold Graphite

Gypsum

Helium Indium

Industrial Diamond

Iodine

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Iron and Steel

Iron and Steel Scrap Iron and Steel Slag

Iron Ore

Iron Oxide Pigments

Kyanite Lead

Lime

Lithium Magnesium

Magnesium Compounds

Manganese Manufactured Abrasives

Mercury

Mica

Molybdenum Nickel

Niobium (See Columbium (Niobium) and Tantalum)

Nitrogen Peat

Perlite

Phosphate Rock Platinum-Group Metals

Potash

Pumice and Pumicite

Quartz Crystal (See Silica) Rare Earths

Recycling-Metals

Rhenium Salt

Sand and Gravel

o Construction Sand and Gravel

o Industrial Sand and Gravel (See Silica) Selenium and Tellurium

Silica

Silicon Silver

Soda Ash

Stone, Crushed Stone, Dimension

Strontium

Sulfur

Talc

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Thorium

Tin Titanium

Tripoli and Special Silica (See Silica)

Tungsten

Vanadium Vermiculite

Wollastonite

Zeolites Zinc

Zirconium and Hafnium

It is very clear that the present industrial development and

good life of the present world is not possible without lithospheric resources. It is estimated that the value of

rocks and minerals, which can be produced in Sri Lanka

exceeds about 100 to 200 billion rupees, but poor industrial

management and financial corruption reduces the income to the nation to about 15 to 20 billion rupees.

Just imagine Mihinthale without Granulite and Gneiss rock outcrop. The Mihinthale temple will not be there as

Venerable Mahinda Thera will not select this are if there

was no rock, because there will be no rock caves and

springs. If there were no granulites and gneisses, people of the Ancient civilisation would not have had the opportunity

to construct most of the wonderful and amazing structures

we see today, because all other types of rocks are either too hard or too soft for their needs. Maligawila Buddha statue,

Dowa Buddha statue and many other large Buddha statues

were damaged because there was an error in the selection of rock. These errors led to decay of weak minerals and the

statues are either broken or highly disfigured. Awukana

statue is a statue with great power and beauty, because it

was carved into a hypersthene granite, which is considered to be the best carving granite in the world. Polonnaruwa

Galvihara statues look live and moving because they are

constructed with some banded gneiss intrusions, which give them a shad and light effect. Rock outcrops in the

Rajarata University main campus are of very high quality

and look scattered. This is because the original large outcrops were used for the construction of many items in

the Mihinthale temple complex, and what we see today are

27

the remnants of the original wide and high ridges. The

waste blocks which were removed during the cutting of stone pillars and slabs can be seen at the foot of the present

ridges.

Regolith (mixture of soil and half weathered regolith)

Regolith is the place where almost all the minerals are found. For example the three major minerals in Sri Lanka :

Gems, Graphite and Phosphate are found in the regolith.

Iron ore, coal, bauxite (mineral to produce aluminium) lead, nickel, chromium (the three minerals used for

plating), gold, silver and many other valuable minerals,

which support the modern civilisation is deposited in the

regolith or rock/regolith boundary.

Soil

Regolith

Rock

Boulders

Iron ore – forms near rock debris

Bauxite – forms near deep regolith

Coal – deposits near the surface

Gems – deposit at or near the surface

where basin shape is present

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Rock

Rock is an aggregate of minerals. Minerals are bonded by a

mechanical clip and pasted with a chemical bond. Most

common minerals in rocks of the surface of the earth are

quartz (thiruwana), feldspar, calcite, biotite (kalu thalathu miniran), muscovite (kaha thalathu miniran), amphibole,

pyroxene, and olivine.

Granite is mostly made of quartz, feldspar, calcite and

pyroxene.

Gneiss is mostly made of quartz, feldspar, calcite and biotite or muscovite.

Granulite is mostly made of quartz, feldspar, calcite and

muscovite.

Migamtie is mostly made of quartz, feldspar, calcite, pyroxene and biotite.

Rocks have the strength to hold pressure and connected by chemical bonds. Therefore it can be used to construct

buildings by mixing it with cement, tar (bitumen) and clay.

Some rocks like Granite can be sliced to make sheets and chips.

Rock weathering is the first transformation of the

ecosystem, which leads to form soil on which plants can grow and provide food for animals. Man in turn will use

soil to plant crops for his food and industrial requirements.

In addition man will use all the edible vegetable and animal products for his food.

Rocks weather due to pressure from temperature (cooling

and heating), dissolving of chemicals by rain water and other sources of water (ground water, waste water), and the

chemical compounds produced by mixing of dissolved

chemicals formed inside the rock.

These weathered rock and dissolved chemicals provide

food to plant roots. This system of chemical transfer is conducted by many biogeochemeical cycles in the earth

ecosystem. These cycles are also affected by human

activities of use of fossil fuels and livelihood activities.

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Carbon cycle Sulphur cycle

Oxygen cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Phosphorous cycle

Ref 01/

GEOLOGY OF SRI LANKA

This presentation relies heavily on Cooray (1967), to which

I am heavily indebted, He made me a hiker, rambler and

mountain climber and finally a geomorphologist, through

going to see most of the places mentioned as type areas in the book, The Geology of Ceylon. Additional information

is taken from various sources given in the references and

my own fieldwork. I am grateful to Professors K. Kularatnam and B.W. Vithanage for their guidance in

composing this document, as they were the people who

directed me first in 1968 to give lectures on this topic.

In terms of the rock types and geological structure, Sri

Lanka is like an old man with a good fitness, because it is

composed of rocks older than 500 to 650 million years, but the surface area lack large-scale faults, which can initiate

powerful earthquakes or instability. However, the recent

activities in the Indian Ocean Plate indicate that the geological structure of Sri Lanka will be shaken heavily

and some old parts may break of fracture more. Examples

can be taken from the occurrence of earthquakes from 1996 to 2005 December, which shook the backbone of Sri Lanka

as the seismic waves from the 9.2 Richter scale earthquake

travelled around the globe 3 times.

Nine-tenths of the island is made up of crystalline rocks of

the Palaeozoic and Pre-Cambrian era. These rocks consist

mainly of gneisses, granites and charnokites. These formations are strewn with quartzites and schists.

However, the majority of these formations is known locally

as „kalu gal‟ and is easily forgotten of their interesting

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structural features. (Details are given in the Tables 2.6.1 to

2.8.5 and Geology is given in Figure 1)

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Table 2.6.1 Highland series – 1600 to about 600 million years ago (Figures 1 and 2)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Khondalite Metamorphosed

sediments – clays or shales. Composed of

alumina rich minerals

such as sillimanite and garnet. Some of these

rocks contain biotite

mica quartz and feldspar. Crystalline

limestones and

graphitiferous gneiss is

also included in this group.

The hill country is mostly built up with

these rocks. Gneisses form the basis of most of the

mountain ranges and blocks (the districts

of Matale, Kandy, Nuwaraeliya and Badulla).

Khondalites are the rocks with alternate

bands of light and dark color layers by the side of the road if you travel in the

hill country. They have marks of red

color dots (garnet) or clumps of pink

squares (feldspar), shinning specs of platy mica and bands of white rocks

(calcite or quartz).

Folds of varying

dimensions are present. The

structural

features of larger folds are

in consistent

with magnitude, strike and dip of

the Taprobanian

fold system.

Individual rock strata or

formations have

small to micro

32

fold patterns of

various origin.

Table 2.6.2 Highland series – 1600 to about 600 million years ago (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Charnockite

s

Meatmorphosed sediments, basic and

volcanic rocks or both. These are the

dark colored fine grained rocks with a

greenish or dirty blue coloration. This is a result of the quartz and feldspar

minerals turning into green or blue in

this group of rocks. Three major sub types

a) Acid type – quartz, feldspar and

small amounts of pyroxene b) Intermediate type – all the minerals

of the acid group and some mica and

hornblende.

The major escarpments

of the southern great

wall from Haputale to

Kunudiyaparvata and the Bulutota massif are

the best examples of

this type of rock formations. The

Kataragama complex is

also mostly built up of charnokites.

Structurally similar to

khondalites, but micro

features of folding are

rare.

33

c) Basic – mainly of plagioclase,

pyroxene, and some hornblende.

The common factor mineral is

hypersthene a magnesium iron calcium

silicate. The origin of these rocks are a

highly debatable issue, but the recent

research indicate that they are of more of a metamorphic origin than direct

igneous as earlier suggested.

Table 2.6.2 Highland series – 1600 to about 600 million years ago (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Kadugannawa gneiss

The rocks of this group appear as massive, schistose or banded. These rocks are mainly

composed of hornblende, plagioclase,

feldspar, mica.

Kadugannawa pass, Dolosbage area

Akurana-

Alawathugoda and Galagedara area.

Rock structure has many attractive

banding and lack

definite folding patterns.

34

Table 2.7.1 VIJAYAN SERIES – A group of polymetamorphic rocks, which were associated with heavy

granitic activity. 1200 to 500 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)

Table 2.7.2 VIJAYAN SERIES – A group of polymetamorphic rocks, which were associated with heavy granitic

activity. 1200 to 500 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Bintenna

gneisses

(in the south eastern

lowlands)

A well banded rock with quartz and feldspar in

the lighter bands and hornblende and biotite in the

darker bands. Sometimes these are bordered by or mixed with some granitic material.

Foliation is evident clearly with irregular, folded

or contorted patterns. At the boundary with the

highland series the rocks are a mixture of charnockites, granitic and migmatic gneisses.

From Kalkudah in the north

to Hambantota in the south

and bounded by the southern and eastern hill country in

the west.

Away from the

highland series, the

folds become

highly

irregular and turn

sometimes E-

W. There are some domed

structures and

many fractures,

though large

scale faults are

rare.

35

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Wanni Gneiss Variety of pinkish to

reddish gneisses dominate this region

from Madhu area in the

north to Panadura-Horana in the south.

Thonigala area is the

best area to observe this rock type, which

contain a group of

gneisses, granites and pegmatites.

Mostly follow the

trend lines of the highland series

and heavily

jointed. Some times the fractures

and shear zones

turn the rock

formation into a shattered

appearance.

DENUDATION PHASE BETWEEN350 TO 180 MILLION YEARS AGO – the Island was under heavy denudation

and finally submerged under an inland sea. Between 190 and 140 million years ago the sediments of Andigama and

Thabbowa deposits were laid down in a trough of this inland sea.

Table 2.8.1 JURASSIC – 180 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe

Structure

Tabbowa and

Andigama beds

The only truly sedimentary rocks of Sri Lanka.

A part of the regional GONDWANA SYTEM.

These beds consist mainly of feldspathic sandstones (arkose), siltstones and mudstones.

Deposited in fault basins in the Vijayan series.

Tabbowa and

Andigama.

Laid down in fault

basins. The

sedimentary history reveals that, sands

and clays were

deposited in a deltaic environment during a

semi-arid phase.

36

Table 2.8.2 MIOCENE LIMESTONES – 25 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)

Group Description Locations

to observe

Structure

Miocene (Tertiary) Flat bedded limestone which dips gently to the west.

Jaffna peninsular

to Puttlam

along the

west coast .

Laid down in a west dipping sea has formed the present trend and

dip of the beds. The rock is hard,

partly crystalline, compact, not

clearly bedded and creamy in colour.

Table 2.8.3 MINHAGALKANDA BEDS - BETWEEN 25 AND 15 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to

observe

Structure

Lower Miocene

(Tertiary)

Beds with ferruginous grit and

sandstones at the base and sandy

and clayey sandstone at the top.

The formation suggests that the deposits were laid down closer to

Minihalgalkanda.

About 40

kilometers east of

Hambantotta.

Extend about a quarter of

a mile inland and dip

steeply towards the recent

deposits.

37

a shoreline

Table 2.8.4 QUARTERNARY SYSTEM - FROM 2 MILLION YEARS TO TODAY- Ratnapura Beds (Map

1)

QUARTERNARY SYSTEM - FROM 2 MILLION YEARS TO TODAY (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Mineral resources

and biotic environment

Structure

Ratnap

ura beds

Older

group

River and

lake deposits laid down on

the strike

valleys.

between Kuruwita and

Balangoda in the area generally known as

Denawaka valley.

Gem bearing

deposits. A valuable mineral

resource.

Top to bottom

Gravel – boralla – transported nodular ironstones

Coloured clay – navan nila matta

– river silt or lake clay

Leaf bed – Kola matta – lake deposit

Plant remains with bituminous

clay – dali pas – lake or swamp deposits

Grit – vali katuwa – coarse river

sand Blue clay – nil matta – lake

deposit

38

Fine white sand – seni veli – fine

river sand Pebble bed – bola gal – river

deposit, possibly re-sorted terrace

gravel

Green sand with fossils – nil valla – river sand

Grey gem bearing sand with

pebbles, boulders and fossils – illama – river deposit

39

QUARTERNARY SYSTEM - FROM 2 MILLION YEARS TO TODAY (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to

observe

Mineral resources and biotic

environment

Structure

Coastal regions

Older

Basal ferruginous gravel

A mixture of coarse

sand , fragments of

chert and pellets of ironstones. Some times

partly cemented.

In a broad belt from Negombo to

Mannar and

beyond

Mostly covered with shrubs in the north and forests in the south. The

climatic factor is more important, but

the effect of gravel is seen on the

density of vegetation.

Loose gravel

Red earth Composed mainly of

small rounded quartz

grains in earthy

material composed of clay and iron oxides.

Essentially a clayey

sand or loam.

From Maha oya to Puttalam and

beyond.

Forms a number of low elongated ridges or domes and heavily cleared

for coconut plantations in the

southern sector.

Compact deposits

Terrace gravels

A coarse quartz gravel

Around Chilaw

and Battuluoya

Extracted heavily for construction Compact to

loose

40

areas

Kelani ganga gravels

41

Table 2.8.5 QUARTERNARY SYSTEM - FROM 2 MILLION YEARS TO TODAY-

Coastal regions – Younger (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Coastal regions

Younger

Littoral

sandstones

Discontinuous reefs

Near Colombo, Beruwala, Matara, Kalmunai,

Batticaloa, Tirkkovil some examples can be seen

Sandy and pebbly -

Indicate the

changing levels of sea

Unconsolidated

sands

Beach sands Sand dunes

Sand dunes – Chilaw to Kalpitiya/Point Pedro to

Elephant pass

Sandy and pebbly

and highly mixed

with human debris -Indicate climatic

change and wind

directions

Lagoonal

deposits

Muthurajawela

Deposits

Shrub and tree group

Reed and segde group Humus peat group

Sandy clay and

peaty/ mixed with

human debris -

Indicate Climatic change

Lowlands Alluvium All the river beds Sandy clay mixed

with gravel inplaces- mixed

with human debris

-Climatic change

Coral reefs Colombo, Mt. Lavinia, Hikkaduwa, between Ambalangoda and Matara

Partially damaged – indicate climate

42

change and rising

sea temperatures/ Climatic change

Lowlands and hills Laterite A highly weathered clayey, rock material rich in

secondary iron or aluminum oxides but poor in silica,

and either massive or vesicular (full of cavities) in structure. West coast

Hard pan, loose

gravel and

clustered/ indicate climatic change

Nodular

ironstones

Dry zone Loose gravel and

indicate climatic

change

Lowlands Mixture of

human made

waste and complex range

of sediments

River beds, reservoirs, wet lands and urban fringe Sand, gravel, silt,

clay, plastics,

industrial chemeicals and

farm chemicals

43

Atmosphere

The Earth is surrounded by an envelope of air, which we

call the atmosphere. It extends to about 560 kilometers

(348 miles) in to space from the surface of the Earth. Its existence is a result of our planet's magnetic field, which

keeps the atmosphere from scattering out into space. The

atmosphere absorbs energy from the Sun, recycles water and other chemicals, and works with the electrical and

magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate to the

surface of the earth. The atmosphere also protects us from high-energy radiation and the cold vacuum of space.

Troposphere

The troposphere begins from Earth's surface and extends 8

to 14.5 kilometers high (5 to 9 miles). As we climb into

troposphere the temperature drops from about 17 degrees Celsius at the bottom to about -52 degrees Celsius at the

top. All our weather is formed and activated in this region.

Ist transitional layer

Tropopause separates the troposphere from the next layer.

Lower part of this is more like the troposphere and the

upper part is like stratosphere. This is about 5 km deep.

The Tropopause and the troposphere are known as the

lower atmosphere.

Stratosphere

The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50 kilometers (31 miles) high. Compared to the

troposphere, this part of the atmosphere is dry and less

dense. The temperature in this region increases gradually to

-3 degrees Celsius, due to the absorbtion of Ultra violet radiation. Ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar

ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer. Ninety-nine percent of

"air" is located in the troposphere and stratosphere.

44

Stratopause

The second transitional layer, stratopause separates the stratosphere from mesosphere.

Mesosphere

The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and

extends to 85 kilometers (53 miles) high. In this region, the temperatures again fall as low as -93 degrees Celsius as

you increase in altitude. The chemicals are in an excited

state, as they absorb energy from the Sun.

Mesopause - The mesopause separates the mesophere from

the thermosphere.

Thermosphere

The thermosphere starts at the upper end of mesopause and extends to 600 kilometers (372 miles) high. The

temperatures go up as you increase in altitude due to the

Sun's energy. Temperatures in this region can go as high as 1,727 degrees Celsius.

Composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is primarily composed of Nitrogen (N2, 78%), Oxygen (O2, 21%), and Argon (Ar, 1%). A myriad

of other very influential components are also present which

include the water (H2O, 0 - 7%), "greenhouse" gases or

Ozone (0 - 0.01%), Carbon Dioxide (CO2, 0.01-0.1%).

Atmosphere in action

Convection – transfer of heat / any other energy through air and gases in currents

Conduction – transfer of heat / any other energy in solids

like earth

Absorption – soaking of heat/ any other energy into air, gas and solids

Scattering – dispersion of light, heat and radiation

45

Reflection – resend light, heat and radiation as it bounces

off the object

This balance makes the earth to be heated correctly and keep warm enough for the survival of the biosphere. Even

the slightest increase of heat will lead to changes in rainfall

activity and disease scenario. The increase is mainly due to accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which

will block long wave radiation which take out the heat of

the atmosphere back to space. Greenhouse effect is formed due to this blockage of long waves.

Increase of 0.7 Degrees Celsius in the last 10 years in Sri

Lanka has increased tornado activity, ratio of high intensity thunderstorms, lightning voltage, cyclonic strength and

dust flow. These have caused an increase in respiratory

diseases.

46

Heat Balance of the atmosphere

Surface of the earth Oceans

Incoming

Short wave

Radiation

100

Reflected back

into space by

the ground and

atmosphere

40

Absorbed

by the

atmosphere

15

Reaches

ground

45

47

Weather and Climate

Weather is the condition of climatic elements and factors in

a short period of time, like hours and time of the day.

Climate is the average condition of climatic elements and factors for a period of 30 years.

However the terms weather and climate is used colloquially in various dimensions. In scientific studies the

above definitions have to be used and presentation of

scientific ideas and concepts should be based on it.

Climate is the most important of all the natural forces on

the living planet. It decides the nature of water at the

surface of the earth (water, snow or ice), types of vegetation (forest, grassland), types of animals (lion, tiger,

cheetah, leopard, elephant, deer, hippo, polar bear, grizzly

bear), colour of the skin of human beings (white, black and brown), types of dress worn (cotton and wool) , crops

cultivated (rice, wheat, maize), housing designs (gentle

sloping roofs, steep sloping roofs, underground housing), time of cultural practise and festivals and vacation periods

( summer and winter festivals). Then it shapes the life of

all the living things and decides what is located where on

the surface of the earth.

48

Major climatic conditions at the surface of the earth (all temperature data is in Degree Celsius and Rainfall data in

millimetres)

Major type Sub type Yearly averages Extremes

Tn Tx Rlv Rhv T R

Warm Warm humid 22 31 1500 2000 35 4000

Warm dry 24 33 1000 1800 38 2500

Cool Humid 05 15 350 450 25 600

Dry 00 10 250 350 25 600

Cold (deserts) Dry -05 05 100 200 10 400

Hot (deserts) Dry 40 55 05 25 70 0

Key: Tn mean annual minimum temperature

Tx mean annual maximum temperature

Rlv low mean annual rainfall Rhv high mean annual rainfall

T temperature

R rainfall

49

Weather in tropical areas like Sri Lanka is identified in relation to high or low temperature, slight or heavy rain, nature of wind and humidity (Temperatures are in degree Celcius, Rainfall in Millimeters by 15 millimeter

intensity, humidity in Relative Humidity percent, wind in kilometres per hour)

The following chart can be used to identify weather at a given place, in a given period of time

(only for Sri Lanka)

Type Temperature Rainfall Humidity% Wind

Cool Below 22 NA Low/ 30-35 Low

Cold Below 18 NA Low/ 20-25 Low/High

Warm 23 to 28 NA High / 40 –60 Low

Hot (sweating) 28- 35 NA High / 50-80 Low

Windy NA NA NA 15-20

Very windy NA NA NA 20 to 30

Gust NA NA NA Above 30

Cyclonic NA NA NA Above 60

Drizzle Will not drop Below 5/15 60-65 Low

Rain Will drop by a Above 10/15 80-85 High

50

degree or 2

Heavy rain Will drop by 2 to

3 degrees

Above 25/15 90-95 High to Very

high

Very heavy rain Will drop by two

to four degrees

Above 30/15 90-99 Very high

51

Sri Lanka has four major climatic seasons constructed by the

types of rain forming mechanisms. The following tables present all the details necessary for the understanding of the climate of

Sri Lanka within the study of environmental management.

52

Extract from- Seneviratne (2004) Man and his Physical Environment, Open University Work Book, Open

University Press, Colombo

Climate of Sri Lanka/Tropical Monsoon Climate

Seasonal rainfall on a monsoon system - inter-monsoonal convection and tropical convergence activity.

PROCESS NATUrE IMPORTANCE PRESENT STATUS AND

CHANGE

53

South-west monsoon

Monsoon is an airmass with a massive amount of stratus clouds.

These clouds are pushed by the upper

atmospheric trade winds and reach Sri

Lanka riding on wave disturbances. They form overcast sky and rainy

spells with moderate intensity long

duration rain. A few rainy days are broken by a dry spell of two to three

days.

Stages of the Monsoon

1. Arrive in the island in the beginning of June and stay active till

the middle of September.

2. The burst of the monsoon (the strong wind currents and heavy rain

occurs around 10 to 15th June.

(sometimes the burst will not occur like in 2001 and 2002).

3. A break may occur in August.

4. In some inland areas the stratus

clouds will encourage the growth of cumulus clouds strong enough to

activate Thunderstorms.

The tropical maritime

airmass (massive and a powerful climatic

scenario) move over

the island in a south-

west north- east direction between

may and September.

Enters the island from the south-west

and run to the

western hills.

The system originates in the southern Indian

ocean/ deflected by

the coriolis force/ pulled by the heat cell

formed in the north

Indian plains and Thar surface low

pressure/ monsoon air

mass drifts over Sri

Lanka loosing height and converging on

the south western and

The most readily awaited

rainfall process in Sri Lanka, which brings rain to

all the upper catchment

areas of the major rivers –

Mahaweli 60 percent/ Kelani 80 percent/ Kalu 80

percent/Walawe 40 percent/

Maha oya 80 percent/ Ging 80 percent -

The source of water for the

cultivation of wet paddy in

the wet zone and irrigated paddy in most of the newly

established settlements in

the dry zone. Supports the plantation system in the hill

and mountain country of Sri

Lanka. The spice cultivation and the

vegetable and fruit

cultivation depends heavily

on it. Can be called the life blood of the nation.

The global climatic change

has seriously affected the regularity, reliability and

the rainfall status of the

south west monsoon. The

prime reason for the above situation stems from the

effect of Ozone hole and El

Nino and La Nina scenarios. These elements

affect the direction of flow

and the quantity of water

vapor supplied to the air mass. The open air nuclear

testing in the south pacific

in the 1950-60s may have caused the primary damage

and is being accelerated by

the global warming. The strength of the south

westerlies may be

weakened in the next 50 to

100 years as predicted by the climatologists.

54

western faces of the

central hill country.

Causes floods in the

western lowlands. The western mountains are

subjected to prolonged rain,

which causes landslides and

gravel flow on steep slopes. The time of the monsoon is

the period of heavy soil

erosion in the area affected by it.

55

PROCESS NATURE IMPORTANCE PRESENT STATUS AND CHANGE

North – east Monsoon is an

airmass which draws moisture

from the Bay of Bengal on its way from the Central Asia to

the equatorial low pressure.

These clouds are pushed by the upper atmospheric trade winds

and reach Sri Lanka riding on

wave disturbances. They form overcast sky and rainy spells

with moderate intensity long

duration rain. A few rainy days

are broken by a dry spell of two to three days.

Stages of the Monsoon

1. Arrive in the island in the

A result of the

tropical maritime

airmass moving over the island in a north-

east /south-west

direction between November and

February.

The system originates in the Siberian high

pressure/ deflected by

the coriolis force/

pulled by the heat cell formed in the equator

drifts over Sri Lanka

loosing height and converging on the

North eastern plains

The most readily awaited rainfall

process in the eastern lowlands and

mountains of Sri Lanka, which brings rain to all the upper catchment areas

of the major rivers – Loggal oya,

Badulu oya, Uma Oya, Maduru oya Gal oya, Menik ganga. In addition

this brings rain to the reservoir system

of the North, north central, Eastern and Uva provinces of Sri Lanka.

The source of water for the

cultivation of wet paddy in the dry

and intermediate zones and irrigated paddy in most of the newly

established settlements in the dry

zone. Supports the cultivation of many types of vegetables and fruits of

the eastern lowlands and hills.

The global climatic change

has seriously affected the

regularity, reliability and the rainfall status of the

north-east monsoon. The

prime reason for the above situation stems from the

effect El Nino and La Nina

scenarios. These elements affect the direction of flow

and the quantity of water

vapor supplied to the air

mass. This is a result of the global warming.

The strength of the north

easterlies may be weakened in the next 50 to 100 years

as predicted by the

56

beginning of November and

stay active till the middle of March.

2. In some inland areas the

stratus clouds will encourage the growth of cumulus clouds

strong enough to activate

Thunderstorms.

3. North-east monsoon is a

weaker airmass than the south-

west monsoon.

and the hill and

mountain ranges of the eastern highlands.

Causes floods in the western

lowlands. The western mountains are

subjected to prolonged rain, which

causes landslides and gravel flow on steep slopes. The time of the

monsoon is the period of heavy soil

erosion in the area affected by it.

climatologists.

57

Inter-monsoon periods

There are two inter-monsoon periods in the climatic regime of Sri Lanka.

1. October to November – Thunderstorm and Depressions (Cyclonic activity) 2. March to May - Thunderstorm and wave disturbances (weak depressions)

October to November – Thunderstorm and Depressions (Cyclonic activity)

PROCESS NATURE IMPORTANCE PRESENT

STATUS AND

CHANGE

Thunderstorms of Sri Lanka originate from the

sea-land breeze activity or

the water vapor supplied by the easterly waves of the

tropical convergence.

Most of the thunderstorms are of

moderate intensity, but

some of them can be deep and rise to a

height of 6 to 10

The thunderstorms are an important element of rain in the

intermediate zone. They

provide a valuable component of heavy rain to these areas.

However they can activate

It has been noted that the

intensity of

thunderstorm rain has

increased as a

58

Cyclonic activity is rare in the Weather of Sri Lanka,

but the depressions

originating in the Bay Of

Bengal area can develop into cyclonic status. These

cyclone generally travel

across Sri Lanka in a south-easterly/ north westerly

direction along a line from

Batticaloa to Mannar.

Sometime the powerful waves can affect the wide

valleys of the highlands.

kilometers and produce

heavy lightning and torrential rain.

Cyclonic rain is heavy

and winds can damage property and lives.

They cause damaging

flash floods and mud flows.

heavy erosion and landslides. result of global

warming.

The global

warming has

reduced the frequency and

intensity of

cyclones in recent past.

59

March to May - Thunderstorm and wave disturbances (weak depressions)

PROCESS NATURE IMPORTANCE PRESENT STATUS AND

CHANGE

Thunderstorms of Sri Lanka originate from the sea-land

breeze activity or the water

vapor supplied by the easterly waves of the tropical

convergence.

The wave disturbances form the pre-monsoon rains, which

sometime resemble a mini-

monsoon. These generally travel across Sri Lanka either

from the south west to north

Most of the thunderstorms are of

moderate intensity,

but some of them can be deep and rise to a

height of 6 to 10

kilometers and

produce heavy lightning and

torrential rain.

Wave disturbances

bring moderate rain.

The thunderstorms are an important

element of rain in the

intermediate zone. They provide a

valuable component

of heavy rain to these

areas. However they can activate heavy

erosion and

landslides.

It has been noted that the intensity of thunderstorm rain

has increased as a result of

global warming.

The global warming has not

much affected these wave

disturbances type activity.

60

east (riding the front of the

south-westerlies) or enter Sri Lanka from the east riding the

equatorial easterlies. These last

for a maximum of 2 to 3 days

and bring considerable rain.

61

Hydrosphere

Hydrosphere is the area of water of the earth. Fresh water that can

be used by the plants, animals and man is stored in the ice sheets,

rivers, glaciers, streams, lakes and storage reservoirs. Out of the total water available on earth it is only 4 percent is usable by plants,

animals and man. However this amount is sufficient for the system

when it is properly used with available technological and environmental management techniques.

Hydrosphere is a result of the processes of evaporation,

condensation and precipitation. All the water in the oceans, streams and rivers and storage in lakes and man made reservoirs originate

from the process of precipitation. The process of precipitation is a

highly complex and a sensitive system connected to solar, global and biosphere systems. The solar system provides the energy to the

precipitation system and set the geological controls of the

precipitation system. The lithospheric system provides the form of land in mountains and plains where clouds rise or fall, winds flow

or rise, heat is accumulated or dispersed and direct the lower

atmospheric condition required for precipitation.

Nature of hydrosphere

Unit Matter Process Management system

62

Oceans Salt

water

Currents Manufacture of salt and other

chloride related products. Oceans are sensitive to chemical waste.

Global warming is seriously

affecting ocean temperatures and

expected to react first to any climatic change, which will occur

as a result of global warming.

Oceans are expected to expand with melting of ice sheets in the next

century and sea level rise may be in

the region of 30 to 60 centimetres

from today. This will bury all the low-lying areas below 1-meter

mark around present coasts. In Sri

Lanka it is expected that about 1/3 of the population in the area

between the coast and 300 meters

from the coast will be affected. All the buildings within 100 meters of

the coast in Colombo will have to

be abandoned.

Unit Matter Process Management system

63

Streams

and rivers

Fresh

water

Flow

and storage

Rivers are the major provider of

drinking water with storage reservoirs feeding most urban and

rural water supply systems.

Pollution of the streams is a major

problem in the developing countries. The global warming has

reduced rainfall and increased the

intensity of rainfall. This change has resulted in the reduction of

stream and river storage, which has

resulted in the lowering of ground

water levels. Reduction of ground water levels has resulted in the

lowering of water levels of local

wells and storage systems like lakes, weva and pond. The loss of

capacity of streams and rivers is

estimated to be about 30 percent reduction in the last 40 years and

expected to be another 20 percent in

the next 30 years. Sri Lanka is

expected to suffer from serious water shortages in the next 10

years.

64

Unit Matter Process Management system

Storage

systems

Fresh

water

Storage

and flow

Storage of water is used for the

generation of hydroelectric power, irrigation farming and drinking

water supply. All the storages in

the world are loosing their capacity due to global warming and

reduction of rainfall. The storage

systems today hold almost about 16

percent of all the water in the rivers and streams and only a further

about 10 percent is available for

storage holding. Storage system of Sri Lanka will loose its capacity in

the next 20 years from

sedimentation of reservoirs and drying-up of springs in the upper

catchments. A massive shift of

population is expected from the dry

zone to wet zone and intermediate zone in the next 50 years if

recycling systems are installed.

Hydrology of Sri Lanka

Hydrological environment of Sri Lanka is composed of three major

water sources and their storage systems.

1. Highland spring system originating from the water bearing

rocks 2. Lowland underground water system which feeds the

extensive well network and

streams

3. Dryzone and semi arid zone water sources fed by seasonal streams, deep water bearing rocks and limestone seepage in some

areas.

65

Drainage and Hydrology of Sri Lanka - Present situation

Type Present situation Result Field data from a six months survey

in a rural area of the Matale

District (along the road 9 kilometers)

Streams of

1,2 and 3 of the

Strahler

system

(Mostly ephemeral)

Except for the streams located

in the high mountains and inaccessible parts of the hill

country these streams are

totally destroyed by human

intervention. Blockage of these or plough across them have

removed them from the tea,

rubber, coconut and paddy cultivated areas.

The destruction of soil conservation measures

during heavy rains with more than 60 to 80 mm/hr intensities. The destruction of, home

garden plots and some high terraced paddy is

a result of the hiding of this category streams.

11 sites were identified as

problematic out of which 4 sites have destroyed gravel surfaced

roads and the adjoining land.

Estimated damage in Rs. 10,000.00

per rainy season

Streams of

4 and 5 of

the Strahler system

(Mostly

seasonal)

Except for the streams located

in the high mountains and

inaccessible parts of the hill country these streams are either

not controlled properly or

redirected without proper study of its erosive power.

This group of streams is with extremely high

erosive power during storms of 60 to 80

mm/hr and above. The overflowing of these streams result in destruction of farm land,

roads, railways and affect hill slopes to form

slides through undercutting. On average about 10 to 15 incidents relating to the

activity of this type of streams are reported in

Three sites were identified as

damaged. Estimated damage about

Rs. 30,000.00

66

the national dailies during the rainy season or

rains.

Type Present situation Result Field data from a six months survey in a rural area of the Matale

District (along the road 9

kilometers)

Permanent

streams

and rivers

Affected by extensive use for

multi-purpose human activities

all the permanent streams and

rivers have changed their regimes. The effect of climatic

change is beginning to reduce

the annual flow.

Flash flooding is common in the mountains

and hill ranges. Rainfall with more than 80

mm/hr intensity in their cathcments have

resulted in serious erosion within the bed and the valley sides. Sedimentation in the

reservoirs results from this high erosive power

resulting from lack of conservation of the catchment areas. The catchment area

conservation plans have not seriously

considered the effect of household unit and

sedentary farming on the erosion and sedimentation system.

Field data suggests that the

sediment flow to these streams and

rivers mostly originate from small

scale farming units and households. The pollutants come from the urban

areas within their catchments. Lack

of storm drains in the farmlands, urban areas and village centers

result in pollution of these streams

and rivers. The continuing low

water levels have affected the water supply and irrigation supplies in the

last 10 year period more than

before.

67

Unit Problem Reason for the problem Probable solution

Wet zone

lowland

Water logging during rainy

season or rains.

Flooding

Lack of long term

planning

Provision of proper drainage through pumping

into a canal system to take it to the dry zone

Dry zone lowland

Seasonal water logging. Flooding

Lack of long term planning

Provision of basins to collect or direct to the nearest reservoir if necessary by pumping

Hills and hill

ranges

Local flooding and bank and

bed erosion of the streams, which cause damage to

human environment

Lack of long term

planning

Conservation of the stream lines and associated

reservations, prevention of heavy sediment discharges to the streams. Possible canalization of

the streams which flow through the settlements.

Establishment of weirs and diverting the water

through a network of storm drains to the rivers. Some of the existing human constructions should

be relocated.

Mountains Local flooding and bank and bed erosion of the streams,

which cause damage to

human environment

Lack of long term planning

Strict conservation of the stream lines and associated reservations, prevention of heavy

sediment discharges to the streams. Possible

canalization of the streams which flow through

the settlements. Establishment of weirs and diverting the water through a network of storm

68

drains to the rivers. Some of the existing human

constructions should be relocated.

69

Major geo-hydrological units

Unit Sub Unit Altitude limits in meters

Plains Coastal 0 to 30

Inland – low

Inland - high

31 to 75

76 to 150

Highland Over 1800

Hills Erosional remnant 30 to 150

Dissected range type 151 to 300

Mountains Ridges – base ranges 301 to 1500

Ridges - high ranges 1501 and above

Hill and mountain blocks Blocks Above 150

Major geo-hydrological sub-units of the Plains

Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley profile Processes Land use and environmental

problems

Capability

Coastal

Plain

0 to 30 m

Wide lowland

valleys with meandering

rivers

Wide low profile

highland with concave slopes.

Covered with a

sandy gravelly soil often laterite

mixed.

Sheet and

rill flow dominant.

Water

logging and Flood

erosion is a

Urban areas- sub-urban

settlements or fishing villages The inter-

valley areas are

generally used for coconuts and home

garden crop complex.

A highly

valuable geomorphic sub

unit for

recreation, tourism and

fishing. Heavily

70

hazard Pollution and

destruction of corals, littoral sandstones and

beaches.

under-utilised

due to problems of ownership

and neglect by

the planners.

Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley profile

Processes Land use and environmental

problems

Capability

Inland Plain –

Low 31

to 75

meters. Mostly

depositi

onal and emergen

t.

Wide to narrow valleys with

meandering rivers

and flood plains

Wide to narrow

highland with

lower

concave and higher convex

slopes. Most

of the ridge like highland

is topped by

tor like or

isolated rock outcrop type

formations.

Covered with a soil mixture

with some

laterite in places.

Rill and gully flow

dominant.

Water

logging, gully erosion and

Flood erosion

is a hazard.

Urban areas- sub-urban settlements or

large units of

industrial and service

oriented industries in the western and

southern provinces.

In the other parts of the island the

farming villages

dominate the scenery

with heavy acreage of paddy on the

lowlands. The

highland is covered with home garden

complex and

coconut.

A highly valuable geomorphic sub

unit for the

production of

food crops and export crops like

tropical flowers

and herbs. Heavily under-

utilised due to

problems of land

ownership and neglect by the

socio-political

authority and planners.

71

Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley profile

Processes Land use and environmenta

l problems

Capability

Inland Plain – High

76 to 150

meters.

Mostly erosional

Moderately broad to

narrow

valleys with

winding rivers and

narrow flood

plains

Moderately broad to

narrow

highland with

lower convex and higher

concave

slopes. Most of the ridge

like highland

is formed by hills

sometimes

topped by tor

like formations.

Covered with

Rill and gully flow

dominant.

Creep, slide

and gully erosion is a

hazard. Gully

erosion is the dominant

process and

the streams in these areas

provide heavy

sediment

loads to the local rivers

and

Mostly covered by

the areas

designated as

rural and covered with

paddy in the

valley bottom, home

garden along

the valley side, coconut,

rubber,

cinnamon and

sometimes tea (Galle and

Matara

The source regions of the lowland springs. Cultivation of rubber and

tea in the higher slopes of the high

hills has led to the rapid lowering

of water levels in the last five to six decades. This is the area where

most of the new settlements in the

wet zone have been located in the last four decades due to rapid

increase in population. Low

capability marginal land, which needs close supervision by the

environmental planners.

72

a soil mixture

with some laterite in

places.

reservoirs.

Today most of this

sediment is

originated in

the areas of home garden

complex and

the vegetable cultivation,

which lack

any overall

conservation system.

districts) on

the hill slopes. The

hills are of

two types.

The elongated ridge like or

isolated hill

type.

73

Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley

profile

Processes Land use and

environmental problems

Capability

Highland

plains over

1800 meters (Horton-

Moon- Elk

and Kandapola)

Located on

the node area of the high

mountains

Moderately

broad to

narrow valleys with

winding

rivers.

Concave -

convex

slopes. The plain surface

is dissected

by high intensity

rainfall and

mimic a surface of

basket of

eggs.

Covered with a soil mixture

with some

peat in places.

Rill flow

dominant.

Creep and slide are

common

hazards. Source areas

of major

streams of the principal river

systems of Sri

Lanka.

Mostly covered by

the areas

designated as conserved forests,

but the

establishment of Nuwaraeliya,

Kandapola and

Pattipola settlements by the

British has begun

the activities

leading to the decay of this

valuable

environment. Today covered

with tea and

vegetable farms the lower reaches of

this valuable

highland plain is

completely destroyed by man.

Recent tourism

development has begun to destroy

the highest and the

most permanent

water source areas since 1980s.

The source regions of

the highland springs.

Low capability marginal land, which

needs close

supervision by the environmental

planners. A massive

reconstruction plan should be the only

answer, but the socio-

political pressure may

never allow the recovery of this land

unit. However the

climatic change is expected to bring

extremely heavy

rainfall into this area which may encounter

destruction of

massive proportions

by landslides in the next 50 to 100 year

period.

Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley profile

Processes Land use and environmental

problems

Capability

Hills –

erosional remnants

30 to 150

meters

Mostly

convex-concave and

combination

of scarp face and steep

slope

segments are

present. The lowland

valleys are

similar to lowland-high

type of

valleys.

Rugged with

scattered debris from

the remnants,

but in most places the

area covered

is negligible.

Rill and gully

dominate in and around

the erosional

remnant.

Mostly barren, but

most of them have been used as

temple or devala

lands since pre-history. Salgala,

Warana, Ethugala,

Dambulugala,

Ritigala, Namal Uyana, Rumassala

are a few. Most of

the kande vihara or kande devala are

located on this type

of hills. In the Plantation areas

covered by

Coconut and

Rubber these hill tops have become

either sites for a

lodge or a bungalow.

Some of the larger

remnants are source regions for local

streams and should

be preserved. When the rock type is of

commercial

importance quarrying

has become an important economic

activity. The granites

of Ambagaspitiya and Thonigala areas are

used for making thin

sheets and memorial stones. Most of these

are high in esthetic

value and can be used

successfully as a resource in the tourist

trade.

74

75

Sub unit Valley profile

Inter-valley profile

Processes Land use and environmental problems

Capability

Hills –

Dissected

range type 151

to 300

Mostly

convex-

concave and combination

of scarp face

and steep slope

segments are

present. The

lowland valleys are

similar to

lowland-high type of

valleys.

Rugged with

scattered

debris from the steep

slopes. The

gentle and moderately

steep slopes

are covered

with a deep regolith and a

thin layer of

soils. The wet zone hills

are composed

of many types of

podsols while

the dry zone

hills have latosols

combinations

. Laterite is a common

occurrence

within this hill ranges.

Rill and gully

dominate the

erosional environment.

This unit is

the largest supplier of

erosional

debris to the

streams and rivers in Sri

Lanka as

these are heavily

settled.

These hills are the prim

regions of coconut, rubber,

cinnamon and sometimes lowland tea (Southern and

Sabragamuwa provinces).

The collapse of the plantation industry in the last 30 years

has resulted in the

abandonment of most of the

plantations in this unit. The areas closer to towns and

cities have been used for new

housing and in the rural areas new housing for the landless

are constructed on these hills.

These hill areas record the highest rates of soil erosion

and falling water levels in Sri

Lanka. The unit can be

identified as the most destroyed natural landform

unit in Sri Lanka, which is

responsible for the local drying-up of springs and

rapid fall of the water table.

These are the source regions of

local drainage, which provides

water subsistence farming in the valley bottoms. Many thousands

of weirs were constructed during

the latter part of the colonial rule and early part of the independent

rule to provide water for irrigation

in the wet zone. The dry zone hill

ranges are the home to shifting cultivation, but with the

expansion of settlements, these

areas are being used for home gardens. However most of the

hill ranges of the dry zone plains

remain forested with low density forest and scanty wild life. This

is a unit for intense conservation.

The wet zone areas should be

organized into a system of modeled home garden units,

while the dry zone hills should

not be used for any intensive type of land use.

76

Sub

unit

Valley profile Inter-valley

profile

Processes Land use and environmental problems Capability

Ranges – 301 -

1500

Mostly convex and

combination of

scarp face and steep slope

segments are

present. The

valleys are of three major

types.

a) Open V shaped

b) Narrow V

shaped c) Gorge

type.

The open V

shaped are mostly located

in the gentle

Rugged with

scattered

debris from the steep

slopes.

The gentle

and moderately

steep

slopes are covered

with a deep

regolith and a thin

layer of

soils. The

wet zone ranges are

composed

Rill and gully

dominate

the erosional

environme

nt. This

unit is the second

largest

supplier of erosional

debris to

the streams and rivers

in Sri

Lanka as

this area is heavily

cultivated

These ranges are the prime regions of tea, vegetable and potato cultivation. The

collapse of the plantation industry in the last

30 years has resulted in the abandonment of most of the plantations in this unit. The

areas closer to towns and cities have been

used for new housing and in the rural areas

new housing for the landless are constructed on the lower slopes of the ranges. These hill

areas record the second highest rates of soil

erosion and falling water levels in Sri Lanka. The unit can be identified as the

second most destroyed natural landform

unit in Sri Lanka. This destruction is responsible for the local drying-up of

springs and rapid fall of the water table.

The present crisis of water shortage, which

has affected the hydro power generation and water supply system of the densely

populated upcountry towns and large village

These are the major supply regions of national drainage, which

provides water for the multi-

purpose dam complex of the hydro power generation and irrigation

system. The initial destruction by

the colonial program of

indiscriminate clearing of forests for coffee and tea and later

abandonment without proper

reforestation has lowered the capability of this land unit by more

than 60 percent. The former

colonial master (presently UK) should be asked to provide aid in

the massive reconstruction program,

which may require about a billion

US dollars over period of about 25 years.

The recent abandonment and

77

sloping sides of

the ranges and the other two

types are in the

high ranges.

Rocky channels,

boulder strewn

channel beds and falls of

various heights

are a common

occurrence.

of many

types of podsols

while the

intermediat

e zone hills have

latosols

combinations.

Lithosols

are a

common occurrence

within this

mountain ranges.

with tea

and used for

upcountry

village

expansion program in

the last 30

years.

s.

The intermediate zone ranges are the home to upcountry vegetable farming, which

produce more than 60 percent of the annual

sediment load in Sri Lanka. This is result of

the friable soils on deep regolith. The deep regolith is responsible for the heavy

presence of mass wasting systems, such as

creep, slide and fall. The density of occurrence of these type of events (any

type) is between 3 to 4 sites per kilometer

during the rainy season. The cultivation of

lithosols and river bed erosion are the two major factors responsible for the higher

frequency of mass wasting processes.

However, in the last 30 years the establishment of new villages, abandonment

of tea plantations and road widening has

added more sites for mass wasting.

unplanned nature of the

establishment of new villages has put this unit much closer to its total

destruction. Coupled with the

decreasing effects of the SW

Monsoons and its shift of axis over Sri Lanka has further endanger the

survival of this unit. This is a unit

for intense conservation. This area should be organized into a properly

planned units of conservation with

strict adherence to rules and

regulation governing conservation. The system of modeled home

garden and farmland unit should be

used in this program. Any further large scale clearance should be

coupled with strict conservation

practices.

Sub unit Valley Inter-valley Processes Land use and Capability

78

profile profile environmenta

l problems

Ranges – 1501 and

above

Mostly convex and

combination

of scarp face and steep

slope

segments are

present. The valleys are of

two types.

a)Narrow V shaped

b)Gorge type.

ranges. Rocky

channels,

boulder

strewn channel beds

and falls of

various heights are a

common

occurrence.

Rugged with scattered debris

from the steep

slopes. The gentle and

moderately

steep slopes are

covered with a thin regolith

and a thin layer

of soils. The wet zone

ranges are

composed of many types of

podsols while

the

intermediate zone hills have

latosols

combinations. Lithosols are a

common

occurrence within this high

mountain

ranges.

Rill and gully dominate the

erosional

environment. This unit was

originally

degraded due to

the establishment of \highland tea\

estates. The

encroachment farmers and the

illegal forest

clearance by elite in the last thirty

years have begun

to accelerate soil

erosion and land sliding in this

unit.

These ranges are the prime

regions of

highland tea. This unit is

under

immense

pressure from man and to

be saved

immediately. This

destruction is

responsible for the

drying-up of

springs and

rapid fall of the water

table, which

affects the flow of major

rivers in Sri

Lanka.

These are the second major supply regions of national drainage, which

provides water for the multi-

purpose dam complex of the hydro power generation and irrigation

system. The initial destruction by

the colonial program should be

assessed and reconstruction should be carried out as in the lower range

unit

Coupled with the decreasing effects of the SW Monsoons and its shift of

axis over Sri Lanka has further

endanger the survival of this unit. This is a unit for intense

conservation. This area should be

organized into a properly planned

units of conservation with strict adherence to rules and regulation

governing conservation. The

system of modeled home garden and farmland unit should be used in

this program. No new clearance

should be allowed unless the forest harvesting based on the truly

scientific principles.

79

80

Sub unit Valley profile

Inter-valley profile

Processes Land use and environmental

problems

Capability

Blocks

and Scarp

faces –

150 to 1501 and

above

Mostly

convex and combination

of scarp face

and steep slope

segments are

present. The

valleys are of two major

types.

a) Narrow V shaped

b) Gorge

type.

Rocky channels,

boulder

strewn channel beds

and falls of

various heights are a

common

occurrence.

Rugged with

scattered debris from the steep

slopes. The

slopes show the rapidity of

mass wasting

and gully

erosion. At places the

valley slope is

a combination of boulder

fields, terraced

formed by soil

creep. Massive scars of older

landslides are

visible along the major river

valleys. Some

of them have formed the

base for the

formation of

natural mountain

passes like

Beragala, Ramboda and

Ella.

Rill and gully

dominate the erosional

environment.

The major sites of the

landslides in

the country are

located in this unit. Covered

by lithosols the

soil rests on a boulder mixed

thin regolith

The base and the

lower slopes of these blocks and scarp

faces were used as tea

or rubber plantations during the colonial

rule. This unit

mimics the

landscapes of the highlands of UK and

Europe and the

original names of the plantations indicate

the psychology of the

early planters. These

blocks are the prime safe havens of virgin

forest and wild life.

Most of the virgin forest and wild life is

extinct due to large

scale valuable timber harvesting and

organized hunting of

wild life carried out

by the colonial rulers and later by the elite

indigenes.

These areas are incapable of providing any

long term benefits from any form of economic activity other than water storage and

recreation. This aesthetically supreme areas

of Sri Lanka are located in this unit. The highest water falls, cataracts and narrow

gorges in this region can support a massive

tourist industry within the scope of

programmed conservation.

The World‟s End, Bambarakanda Falls,

Nonperil – Belihul oya valley, Lihinigala, Kunudiya Parvata, The parrot shaped

Benasamanalagala, Ohiya aretes, Ella rock

and Rawana Ella falls, Hakgala Triangles,

Namunukula Nine Tops, Samanala Gala, Mahaberiyatenna Rock, Ragala Gala,

Kandapola scarp, Kuda Hunnasgiriya and the

17 Elbow Bend area, Corbets Gap, Knuckles (the knuckles shaped tops), Dumbanagala,

Riverston and its slopes, Ritigala,

Toppikanda, Inginiyagala, Nuwaragalkanda, Diyaluma precipe, Beragala rocks, ,

Wahulalagala, Watawala slopes, Ramboda

Scarp, Kotmale – Uda Pussellawa precipe,

Kadugannawa hills, Alagalla, Batalegala, Gongala – Sinharaja complex are the most

valuable assets within this unit.

81

Why water shortage?

Reason Status Remedy

Climatic change Climatic change has resulted in the reduction of mean

annual rainfall, increased

intensity of thunderstorms

and increase of temperature and evaporation. Details are

in

A proper environmental management through,

rain water harvesting,

spring rejuvenation,

spring regeneration, strict reduction of pool

effect and recycling.

Increased human use

Domestic use

Industrial and commercial

use

Population has increased by

50 percent in the last 20 years

This use has increased by

about 500 percent

Strict control of waste

Strict recycling by large commercial and

industrial units

Waste About 10 to 15 percent of cleaned water supplied by the

National Water Supply and

National Policy on Water has no capacity at

the moment to

82

Drainage Board is wasted

through leakages and use of cleaned water for low quality

water requirements

implement any

meaningful water policy, therefore a future based

water policy has to be

prepared. (USA has

installed a Water Police to monitor water use).

Biosphere

Plants and environment

Global system

Type Location Structure Present status

Forests In wet areas of the world, where mean annual

rainfall is higher than

mean annual evaporation

for a minimum of 6 to 7 months.

Mostly trees and shrubs. Reptiles and selected

group of water loving

mamals

Highly exploited. In the developed world forests are reforested successfully with forest

harvesting

Grassland In wet and dry climates,

where mean annual rainfall is higher than

mean annual evaporation

for a minimum of 4 to 5

months.

Mostly grass, but along

rivers there is gallery forest. The richest animal

kingdom with all types of

mammals, reptiles, birds

and insects

Highly exploited. In the developed world these

are controlled well and used successfully for animal husbandry.

Wet In all climates Wetland vegetation with Highly exploited. In the developed world these

83

lands special plants. Specialised

group of reptiles and amphibians.

are controlled well successfully re-established.

Semi-

desert

scrub

In very dry or cold

climates

Grass and specialised

thorny plants. Highly

specialised types of reptiles and mammals.

Highly exploited in the developing world and

desertification is active destroying this area.

84

Sri Lanka in General

Forests

About 85 percent of the land area of Sri Lanka is identified as covered by forest

vegetation in vegetation groupings of the world. However only about 20 to 30 percent

of these forests remain as forests today, because of human intervention in the forest

ecosystem. The following table gives some basic information.

85

Location Structure Present status

Tropical Rain

forest 50 to

1000 meters

Thick forest with a minimum of

four layers.

Tall, Medium and low trees, two layers of shrubs, lianas and

orchids

Highly threatened by human activity.

Strict natural Reserves of Sinharaja is

the best remaining. Most of the animals are under threat of extinction.

Tropical

midland rain forest (wet)

350 to 1500

meters

Thick forest with a minimum of

four layers. Tall, Medium and low trees,

two layers of shrubs, lianas and

orchids

Highly threatened by human activity.

Almost extinct. Strict natural Reserves on isolated patches in the wet zone hills.

Most of the animals are under threat of

extinction.

Tropical

monsoon

lowland forest

(dry) 50 to 350

meters

Thick forest with a minimum of

three layers.

Tall, Medium and low trees,

two layers of shrubs and lianas

Highly threatened by human activity.

Almost extinct. Strict natural Reserves

on isolated patches in the dry zone hills.

(Ritigala) Most of the animals are under threat of extinction.

Tropical

highland rain forest

1500 meters

and above

Thick forest with a minimum of

two layers. Medium and low trees, two

layers of shrubs, lianas and

orchids

Most of it was cleared for tea, coffee

and cardamom and patches are preserved in the central highland and

Knuckles range Most of the animals are

under threat of extinction.

Tropical cloud

forest

Thick forest with a minimum of

two layers.

Medium and low trees, two

layers of shrubs, lianas and orchids

Preserved now in the Peak wilderness

Most of the animals are under threat of

extinction. Some recent extinctions

have been reported.

86

Other types : grassland, scrub and wet lands

Location Structure Present status

Grass land – wet Wet grassland known as Wet

Pathana exists in the highland

areas over 350 meters, where

mean annual rainfall is over 1500 millimeters.

Seriously damaged by tea

cultivation and recent land

alienation. Few areas are

preserved in the peak wilderness.

Grass land – wet Dry grassland known as Dry

Pathana exists in the eastern and northern dry zone area below 350

meters.

Seriously damaged by chena

cultivation and recent land alienation. Few areas are

preserved in the aboriginal

reserves.

Scrub Mixture of thorny shrub and grass exists in the lowlands of the

dry zone below 350 meters.

Seriously damaged by chena cultivation and recent land

alienation. But most of the land

area is in the conflict zone at present.

Wetlands Coastal, lagoon and flood plain

wetlands of Sri Lanka is

seriously damaged in the last 20 years due to urban expansion

along the coasts and on flood

plains.

Seriously damaged by urban

development and conversion into

farmland. Some attempts are being made to protect them.

87

Plants are the only units, which are capable of utilising energy of sun to produce food.

This process is known as photosynthesis. The only other food construction system of the earth operates deep in the waters near the volcanic or rift vents of the earth surface,

where life has managed to use chemical compounds through a process of

chemosynthesis.

Plant Ecosystems

The excessive production of carbon dioxide and other chemical pollutants like carbon

monoxide and chemical salts have seriously affected the plant environment and many

natural species have begun to stunt or die. The yield of many other valuable food plants is affected by many chemical pollutants and results in a high variation of production

from year to year. In addition this type of pollution has accelerated the global warming

process leading to drought and food scarcity in most parts of the developing world.

SOILS OF SRI LANKA

Soils form the materials of the ground cover. It provides the base material for the plant

growth and thus constructs life. The nature and dynamics of soil determines the value

of land with reference to its, agricultural capacity, industrial use and construction.

Geology, climate, landform and natural vegetation are the major factors, which decide

the type of soils formed and its primary composition. The geology provides the basic

mineral material, which accounts for about 90 percent of soil. Sand and clay particles of soil are formed directly from the weathering of hard rocks. Silt is formed through

the combination of mineral and organic material derived form the vegetation.

Geology provides the basic raw materials for the formation of the mineral content of

soils. The primarily acidic rocks of Sri Lanka produces acidic soils. The reddish and

reddish brown soil group covers more than 75 percent of the surface area of Sri Lanka,

which indicate the prolific nature of oxidation of acidic basic soil forming material. The mineral composition produce the brown earths from Charnokitic rocks, light

colored soils from alluvium and beach deposits. Therefore most of the soil formed on

acidic rocks are subjected to heavy leaching and have moderate to low fertility.

Climate decides the meteorological environment of the weathering through processes

like solution in warm humid areas and shattering in the cold areas. These physical processes lead to the decay and disintegration of rock to produce a weathered mantle,

which finally forms the soil. Further the fluvial, arid and glacial climatic environment

display their own set of processes through which the system of erosion and

sedimentation can lead to soil formation.

Landform depicts the slope and the overland process, which determines the rate of soil

forming process through the thickness of soil in a given profile. The natural

88

environment and the landform combines to produce the optimal soil profile. The steep

slopes have a thin cover of soils and gentle slopes are covered with a thick layer of soil. The development of laterites or hard pan may be partially a result of the landform

profile. Therefore the two most important landform units to be identified in the study of

soils are the depositional or erosional surface. The depositional surface is a place where

the soil is being deposited continuously, while an erosional surface has more erosion than deposition.

The vegetation provides the soil with its organic matter and compounds. The nature and amount of organic matter in soil is highly influenced by the type of vegetation

cover. The forests, grasslands and scrub-land show a marked variation of soils between

them. The grasslands have deeper soils, while the forest soils are more acidic.

Man has made many modifications to the soil forming environments since he began

practicing agriculture. Therefore in a country like Sri Lanka, which has a long history

of agriculture and irrigation, the present status of soil has to be studied with a continuous reference to its past culture. This should be an important element in the

study of soils of Sri Lanka.

General Soil types

Soils of the dry zone and semi-dry intermediate zone

1. Reddish brown earths and low humic gley soils : undulating terrain

2. Reddish brown earths and solodized Solonetz : undulating terrain

3. Reddish brown earths Non-calcic brown soils and low humic gley soils : undulating terrain

4. Reddish brown earths and immature brown loams : rolling hilly steep terrain

5. Non-calcic brown soils, soils on old alluvium and Solodized solonetz : undulating terrain

6. Red yellow latosols : flat to slightly undulating terrain

7. Calcic red yellow latosols : flat terrain 8. Solodized solonetz, solonchacks and soils on recent marine calcareous sediments :

flat terrain

9. Grumusols : flat terrain

10. Alluvial soils of variable drainage and texture : flat terrain 11. Regosols on recent beach and dune sands : flat terrain

Soils of the wet zone and semi-wet intermediate zone

12. Red yellow podzolic soils and mountain regosols : mountainous terrain 13. Red yellow podzolic soils: steeply dissected, hilly and rolling terrain

89

14. Red yellow podzolic soils with strongly mottled sub-soil and low humic gley soils :

rolling and undulating terrain 15. Red yellow podzolic soils with soft or hard laterite : rolling and undulating terrain

16. Red yellow podzolic soils with dark B horizon and red yellow podzolic soils with

prominent A 1 horizon : rolling terrain

17. Red yellow podzolic soils with semi prominent A 1 horizon : hilly and rolling terrain

18. Reddish brown latosolic soils: steeply dissected hilly and rolling terrain

19. Immature brown loams : steeply dissected hilly and rolling terrain 20. Bog and half bog soils ; flat terrain

21. Latosols and Regosols on old red and yellow sands :flat terrain

22. Alluvial soils of variable drainage and texture : flat terrain 23. Regosols on recent beach sands : flat terrain

Miscellaneous land units

24. Rock knob plains and eroded lands

25. Erosional remnants

26. Steep rockland and lithosols

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Soils and Agriculture

Soil type Major

agricultural

activity

Cropping systems Cultural system

Reddish brown earths

Sedentary cultivation

Irrigated

farming

Wet rice on the alluvial deposits and highland

rice on this soil produce

about 70 percent of the

total rice produced in the country. Once

supplied the granaries

of an ancient hydraulic civilization from

around 200 BC to about

1100 AD. Home garden complex of crops.

An unending effort to cultivate what ever is useful

goes on in these home

gardens. Almost all the wet

zone fruits and flowers are planted with varying results.

Managed intensively home

gardens can produce well.

Red yellow

podzols

Tree crops

Sedentary

cultivation

Wet rice on the alluvial

deposits and tree crops

on the highland. The „forest garden‟ of the

wet zone lowland, hill

and mountain country is in this group.

Coconut, Rubber, Tea

and Cinnamon are the

major cash crops cultivated. Until late

70s these plantations

were the backbone of the economy of the

nation.

An unending effort to

cultivate what ever is useful

goes on in these home gardens. Almost all the wet

zone fruits and flowers are

planted with varying results. Managed intensively home

gardens can produce well. If

used intensively, there is high

potential for the production of various types of tropical

fruits, vegetables, flowers and

spices in these gardens or units of cultivation.

Soil type Major agricultural

activity

Cropping systems Cultural

system

Calcic red yellow

latosols

Known as the Jaffna

limestone soil , this is regarded as a soil in

which dry area

vegetables and rice is successfully cultivated

Intensive farming

with irrigation

Home gardens

are gathered on the sandy

areas and the

clayey soil surfaces are

intensively

cultivated by the indigenous

Tamil people.

91

Soils in the landscape

Reddish brown earths

Quarts vein and rubble

Underlying regolith or bedrock

Podzols : Highland areas

Red yellow podzols

Underlying regolith or bedrock

Alluvial

soils

Low humic gley soils

Alluvial

soils

92

Podzols : Lowland areas

Red yellow podzols

Underlying regolith or bedrock

Technosphere

Technosphere is the sphere of human constructed knowledge, which affect all the

geologically constructed spheres of the earth. The inventions from the discovery of fire

and wheel to micro-computers and cruise missiles have influenced the way we think about our living planet. The technosphere directs the consumer to be aggressive and

has created a massive destruction of limited resources of the earth. However, the most

recent concepts of environmental management through the invention of biodegradable plastics, forest harvesting, water recycling and large scale bioenergy production has

indicated that the technosphere may not always be damaging to the earth.

The deeper understanding of geological phenomena and social behaviour will help to manage environment better in the future. The knowledge gained on technology is

already helping the world population to live more safely than ever in a more unstable

world.

Sri Lanka will face more earthquakes, cyclones and tornadoes in future. Creep and

slide resulting from rock decay and rock structure breakages and road construction in mountainous areas will increase causing serious damage to property, livelihood and

government expenditure. However, these can be controlled to minimise damage by

using scientific systems already available.

For example

Alluvial

soils

93

Earthquakes – insertion of clay into pressure zones to create many small quakes than a

big one, Adjusting construction systems to suit the strength of shock and pressure

Asteroid hit – use of nuclear bomb to deviate or destroy asteroid

Core – use of an untanium vehicle to go to core and explode nuclear bombs to reactivate

Landslides – heavy barriers and tunnels for escape routes

Tsunami – massive sea walls, reliable prediction systems

Floods – water transfer, stronger levees

Cyclones – seed the cloud with salts or pulp to reduce power

Drought – inter basin transfer – use of ice bergs – transport of water in massive

polythene bags, artificial rain. In USA already 15 percent of rain in the dry areas is

artificial.

Insect invasions – use of bio-killing systems

Discipline – reduction of socio-political corruption, literacy, ethical behaviour and use

of mannerisms

Misbehaviour – application of law and correct punishment

Roads – use of strict law and fines reduce death on roads

Pattern of thought in Sri Lanka is that these remedial measures are

Expensive

Too high technology

We have no expertise But, the reality is that we have no master plan for our national environment in which we

live.

94

Chapter 3

Development: General Theory

Development is a scientific process, which operates logically within the confines of the

selected socio-economic environment. It has to be conducted with the given principles

of the ideology used and supported by a steady growth in the economy and improvement in living standards.

Modernisation

The modern development theory is known by various names like modernisation, neo-

classical approach, and development perspective and as neo-colonialism in the political

arena of some developing countries. The most commonly used term is the modernisation.

The modernisation theory is based on the Keynesian ideology, which paved way for a new idea of the role of the government in managing the economy (Preston 1996).

Keynes was of the belief that government borrowings can finance expenditures, which

in turn would generate more revenue and these additional revenues and higher tax

returns from increased revenue can be used for the repayment of borrowings. Therefore, the modernisation theory believed in authoritative intervention, through the

use of economic growth models and aid mechanisms.

The modern development theory is based on the experiences of the western world and

its economics, sociology, political and scientific views and the poor countries were to

follow this method for their development. This theory was explained by many on the

basis of a structural and dynamic programme, with stages and categories.

Rostow (1960), presented a model based on five stages, which are to be experienced by

all societies in the transformation of their economy from undeveloped to develop. It assumes that the increased production leads to growth and that the redistribution of

capital will occur in the process of growth. The capital accumulation, growth of labour

force and scientific and technological advancement are woven into the process of development through five major stages given in this theory. This theory remained a

pre-eminent theory of modernisation in the early 1960s (Preston, 1996).

The major criticism against Rostow's theory was that it was principally an economic programme, which did not consider the historical aspect of the development process in

the developing countries or their colonial type relationship with the western developed

nations. Firstly, the newly independent developing countries were not able to guide

95

themselves towards their economic goals due to social and political problems associated

with the formation of new states as given in Hettne, (1990). Hettne (1990) was of the view that development is a national goal that cannot be separated from be other

political goals and has to be treated as equal to political goals.

Secondly, the inability of the new states to identify their priorities of development as well as high levels of official corruption did not enable the capital accumulation,

scientific development or growth of a skilled labour force.

Lund (1993) is of the view that after independence colonies were unsuccessful in

economic improvement and local elite was busy keeping themselves in power, fighting

neighbours or suppressing rebellions.

Crew and Harrison (1998) and Dube (1988) identify the eurocentric nature of the

modernisation paradigm, as a major factor for its failure in the developing countries.

Crew and Harrison, (1998) indicate that rationality, the search for objective truth, and a movement towards modernity was expected in the ideology but not practised in the

developing nations.

Therefore, the criticisms of the modernisation paradigm have been extended to include

its heavy dependence on economic theory and the failure to understand the complex

social situations. However, the modernisation remained a powerful tool in development planning in the developing countries well into the late 1970s, mainly because its

utilisation by the international development agencies and funding authorities.

The crisis faced by the modernisation theory led to the formulation of some alternative perspectives of development. Though these approaches have some change in the

secondary strategies, they still believed in the transformation of societies, international

exploitation and domination. The intention was to make a more service oriented development and aid redistribution of wealth. Within this framework, there was a

struggle in the poor nations and some tried to establish socialist societies, while others

worked towards national capitalism.

The dependency school formulated the underdevelopment theory through the writings

of many radical researchers, which contained the elements of Marxist language, mode

of analysis and ideological and theoretical projects (Aina, 1993). This wing was headed by Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin, Walter Rodney and a host of others, and which

has been called the underdevelopment theory, which is Neo-Marxist in formation.

(Aina, 1993).

A parallel to the theory of under-development, the problems of modernisation were

discussed in the structural Marxism originating from the French school of Marxist

studies. This theory explained the importance of class relations in the development and gave a strong critique of capitalism and explained the process of development with

the use of impeccable logic and convincing inter-linkage.

96

These two variants managed to introduce alternatives to the modernisation on social

transformation, production and political organisation and became popular in the undeveloped world as it gave a deep critique of capitalism, colonisation and neo-

colonial imperialism.

Frank (1966) presents the best overview of this group of theories, which studies the overall exploitation of the satellite states by the central powerful industrial states. His

view was that the industrialised countries have become rich through the exploitation of

the poor countries.

It is pertinent to look at Myrdal (1970), who brought forward the concept of circular

cumulative causation, which became popular through the notion of vicious cycle of poverty. He regarded the development as a social process and stressed that the power

structures of the developing world have to be changed either by evolution or revolution

as a prerequisite for development. He further explained that this should be followed by

changes in orientation on the part of the developed world.

However, the modernisation paradigm survived in the developing world as a major

instrument in the process of development from its beginnings to 1980s and the influences of theories of underdevelopment and Marxist alternatives were not capable

of making a marked impact. This is a result of the strong presence of nationalism,

ethnicity and corruption in the developing world , which were more easily accommodated within the modernist capitalist philosophy (Aina, 1993). Giddens

(1991) claims that the inability of the theories of underdevelopment to consider cultural

and political factors in detail may have led to their weaknesses. According to Lund

(1993), the renewal of interest in the modernist thinking was initiated by the rise of a few newly industrialised countries in the East Asian region. These countries have used

joint ventures with multi-national or trans-national companies and have built an export

oriented industrial base, which led to the transformation of the economy . A similar rapid growth was noticed in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka in the early 1980s. However, it

should be noted that this rapid growth and diversification was mostly associated with

the financial and tariff support given by the industrialised countries.

Alternative development

The continuing poverty of the developing world led to a rethinking of the validity of the modernist and dependency theories and a search for a better alternative of development

discourse. The Cocoyoc conference in 1974 discussed the idea of sustainable

development and the international foundation for development alternatives (IFAD) recommended the establishment of a humanist model of development (Friedmann,

1992)

Following the above attempt, in the 1980s, along with ecological crisis and poverty,

which threatened not only the developing world, but also the developed world, many world gatherings were convened to find a serious alternative to the current development

strategy. The need for a paradigm, which can focus on the ways of improving the

97

productivity of poor through social, economic and political empowerment, became

vital.

Therefore, the alternative development approach became action oriented based on

humanistic and post-structuralism methods.

The alternative development therefore, brought forward practises like provision of basic

needs, informal sector utilisation and redistribution of wealth. This is a result of the

recognition of the importance and dignity of the ordinary people over the institutionalised systems. However, the response to this ideology was slow, because

most of the developing nations were either holding onto neo-Marxist theories of

development or embroiled in corruption and regional conflicts. Lund (1993), indicates that the alternative development was not utilised well because it was too optimistic, and

not capable of providing rapid solutions to development problems.

The difficulty to see the clarity of the many faces of the initial alternative development paradigm, resulted in the establishment of the notions of empowerment, sustainability

and participation.

As Friedman (1998) explains, the people in their pursuit of life and livelihood needs to

acquire three kinds of power: social, political, and psychological. This is conducted by

the households, which are production centred and public. In the discussion of the politics of alternative development and the existing power imbalances in the world

today, Friedmann (1998:36) indicates that the capacity of the alternative development to

depend on the local social, political and psychological situations.

The participatory strategy in development can also be discussed within the alternative

development, because the development within it demands for citizen participation

(Friedman, 1998). The origin of the participatory strategy can be traced back to the late 1960s and early 1970s in rural development work (Aina, 1993). This has been mainly

in operation in micro-scale projects and exhibit some difference to empowerment.

The alternative development has not indicated that it is capable of the establishment of a better process of development and the developing world is still immersed in poverty or

getting poorer than before. There are many debates on the nature of the development

paradigm needed for the two worlds, developed and developing. The modern development has had major negative impacts on the environment and on

existing social structures. Many livelihoods have been seriously affected by

excessive use of forests, water systems, and fisheries. Urban areas in developing countries suffer from serious pollution and congestion in transportation, poor quality

water, and solid waste disposal problems. By 1990 it was clear that if this damage is not

checked properly it may retard development of these areas. Then the occurrence of

massive destruction through increased intensity of cyclones, landslides and droughts resulting from El Nino effect between 1990 and 2000 prompted the World

Organisations to take note of effects of global warming resulting from the process of

development in the highly industrialised countries of the world.

98

World Bank President James Wolfensohn and chief economist Joseph Stiglitz acknowledged in 1999 that these issues are crucial to address if global development has

to bring any meaning to livelihoods of millions in the developing world which rested

outside the centalised government control. Richard Norgaard, identifies a fundamental

error in the modernisation thinking which prevented us from identifying environmental concerns.

Extract from

Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (2003) Environment and Health, PhD. Thesis, NTNU, Norway.

ISBN 82-471-5222-3, Trondheim (in Rajarata University Library).

Sustainable Development

The term sustainable development is used as a global remedy for all the ills including

poor environmental management. Economically sustainable system is a system which to produce goods and services without being heavily indebted and not causing

environmental damage (Harris, 2000). In here environmental sustainability is to

maintain natural resources at a level where they are not threatened with serious damage which cannot be remedied with the use of available technology. A social sustainability

is achieved through the operation of a free and fair government and social institutions

where equity of all is honoured. However, it should be remembered that in a

developing world where corruption, gluttony and conflicts arising from ethnicity, religious fanatism and extreme nationalism has continued to effect the livelihoods this

form of sustainability has only a nominal meaning.

Chapter 4

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Economics of Environment

Environment is the primary economic resource for all human activities. The natural

geological environment provides air, water, minerals, vegetation and animals required for economic activities. The human environment provides the humans and technology

required for economic activities. The economics and its subsidiary branches of

knowledge provide a logical structure for the provision of stable livelihoods.

Modern economics has indicated that nations where scientific environmental

management is practised have the highest level of human comfort and development. For example the nations with the highest levels of human development index like Norway,

Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Denmark and Austria have strict application of scientific

environmental management.

The process of scientific environmental management depends on the principles of

scientific environmental management.

The scientific environmental management uses concepts like Environment Impact

Assessment Analysis, SWOT Analysis in addition to Cost benefit Analysis.

The traditional economics is heavily used in nations and countries in the developing

world (including Sri Lanka) where corruption and gluttony prevails. In these countries

the impact reports are prepared, but the true application of the guidelines are not

properly implemented due to corruption.

The two following calculation systems indicate that the scientific evaluation is required

and should be followed for the long-term stability of the environment.

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Net Percent Value (NPV) = Bt –Ct / (1-r) t

Bt = benefit over time

Ct = cost over time

(1-r) t = discount rate over time

Environmental Percent Value (EPV) = (V) - (Rcet - Vet )

V = value added to economy

Rcet = Replacement cost to environment over time

Vet = Value deducted from environment over time

Environmental Percent Value (EPV) is different from the Net Percent Value in many

ways and it is adjusted to suit developing nations where strict environmental management practises are not followed.

Value in V is the total gross gain to the economy through collection, transportation, wholesale and retail of the product. If the product is intangible kind then the customer

satisfaction have to be measured accordingly by evaluating the time saved or quickness

achieved. The gross gain is taken because it creates many avenues of informal employment and benefits in disorganised economies of the developing world.

Rcet is the replacement cost originating due to extraction of a certain geological or

societal resource from the environment. Any activity in the environment will require some form of digging or cutting which will damage a certain area of the environment.

For example, any form of cultivation and construction will loosen soil, insert some

foreign chemicals, remove material and add new material to the existing environment. Some or all of these activities have to be reduced to a level which will not lead to

environmental problems in the future. For example in Norway in urban areas the water

is not allowed to flow over-ground for more than a distance required by the design of

the area, because it is an accepted fact that it is freely running water which damages road surfaces. The road is the primary resource in any urban area as urban activity

depends on supply of goods and customers to the market quick. If the roads are

damaged this activity cannot be performed properly and traffic delays consume extra fuel adding an extra damage to environment and economy.

Therefore all types of human activities have their own scientific and logical way of management, which humans must follow if to avoid environmental damage. It is

impossible to replace totally any material removed from the environment. However, it

is possible to replace the impact to a level of minimal damage of environment. This

minimum damage control is a highly balanced situation, which must be decided only by scientific analysis.

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Vet is the total value deducted from the environment. This is the value of the primary

product, the secondary product (any other product which may be there in-line) and the cost of damage to processes. If a road is constructed the following will occur)

Change of geological environment

Loss of soil and vegetation surface

Loss of soil water due to compaction of material

Change of water flow direction

Change of human environment

Increase population density

Increase housing density

Increase mobility

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Chapter 5

Regional variation of the living planet

The variations created by climate and geomorphic characteristics form various regions

on the surface of the earth. In association with human activities three major regions can be identified.

1. tropical 2. temperate

3. cold

The criteria used in the identification of these three major regions are given below with their association to human environment and development.

Region Major criteria Human development

Tropics

Between N and S 35

degrees latitude

Warm and humid

throughout the year –

suitable for large scale human settlements

About 60 percent of the

population of the world live in tropics

All the developing and

poor countries are located

in this region. However all the prosperous ancient

civilisations were located

in this region

Temperate

Between N 35 and 65

degrees latitudes in the northern and southern

hemisphere

Cool and wet – suitable for

large scale settlements

About 40 percent of the population of the world

live in temperate areas

All the developed countries

are located in this region

and until modern development was

introduced these regions

remained undeveloped

Cold Between 65 degree latitude

and poles in the northern

and southern hemisphere

In the extreme north and south of the earth and in

the areas higher than 3000

meters above seal level – not suitable for human

settlements

Remains a frontier with only frontier settlements

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Selected countries and their location

Country Region and other features Development level

Sri Lanka Tropical wet and tropical wet and dry Low /poor

Malaysia Tropical wet and tropical wet and dry Fast developing

China Tropical wet, tropical wet and dry and dry/ temperate cool and cold

Fast developing

Australia Tropical wet, tropical wet and dry and dry/

temperate cool

Developed

New Zealand

Temperate cool and cold Developed

Iran Tropical wet and dry and dry/ temperate

cool and cold

Low

Egypt Tropical wet and dry and dry Moderate

Nigeria Tropical wet and dry and dry Moderate

Norway Temperate cool and cold Highly developed

Sweden Temperate cool and cold Highly developed

Russia Temperate cool and cold Developed

USA Tropical wet and dry and dry/ temperate cool and cold

Highly developed

UK Temperate cool and cold Highly developed

Managing Tropics

Managing tropics is the most difficult economic and social challenges man has ever faced as it has a massive population and a natural environment with high energy

transfer. This high energy environment is product of its temperature, which in turn

produces rapidly circulating air, deep clouds, and thunderstorms, high rates of mass movement, soil erosion and floods. These extremities have resulted in the inability to

develop tropics and Malaysia is the only country with a sizable landmass which is fast

developing and the only model available for development of a tropical country. Israel

has developed, but it has taken the western model culture in to development which is not directly applicable to cultures of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

In addition to the above mentioned natural extremities, many social ills have also resulted in the problems of management in the tropics. Almost all the developing

countries have no democratic governance, cultural instability, religious fanatics and

terrorism within their borders. These countries are troubled with public service

inefficiency and corruption with elitist power overrunning the rights of the masses. This unpleasant situation has forced many developing countries in the tropics to remain poor

and unstable. The result is that these countries in the tropics are constantly troubled by

104

natural and societal hazards which affect their economic development. In 2006 about 87

percent of the deaths and 84 percent of the damages recorded world wide were reported from developing countries located in the tropics. Total estimated damage to property

was about 2 trillion dollars (200,000 billion rupees). Most of these disasters occur due

to lack of scientific understanding and non-utilisation available scientific environmental

management system in these countries by the inefficient public service systems.

The facts to be understood

Tropical environment is of high energy – high temperature/ high humidity/ rapid

convection (circulation of warm air)/ high energy thunderstorms with lightning/ fast

moving air masses, which bring heavy rains and strong winds ( large gatherings of clouds moving rapidly)/ heavy cultural and religious mix (Hinduism – Buddhism –

Islam and Christianity with sizable number of followers in all religions)/ many ancient

cultural belief systems (it is estimated that there are about 2000 languages and 20,000

dialects in the tropics).

Tropical environment has local extremes of environment - Locally there are extreme

warm temperatures (average 28 to 30 degree C), wide daily range ( day and night difference) , high humidity (most of the time over 65% (which results in sweating), high

run off from heavy rainfall which erode soil easily (muddy streams and rivers), rapid

weathering of rocks ( resulting from high daily range and humidity), high rates of oxidation and calcification (reddish soils and lime flavour water), deep soils with semi-

weathered rock particles in them ( liable for landslides), high salinity in seas water

(more particles for cloud formation) and high level of diversity of plants and animals

(high biodiversity).

The present social structure of the tropics is based on a mixture of ancient and modern

belief systems, which has not yet found the path to development. In reality, the mixture of old and new has not been stabilised by legislation either from the old or the new

systems of governance. Therefore the discipline in the process of development which

can be seen clearly through environmental management systems (waste control through

strict scientific legislation/ societal control through fair application of rule of law) in the developed world are not utilised by the countries of the tropics. Further, the developed

world utilises their high status of development to exploit the weaker developing world

through global business and monetary institutions.

The tropics are the poor area of the world which were under many empires and

kingdoms from the ancient past to the end of European colonisation. The effect of colonisation is present in the tropics from the physical (environmental change

conducted through the establishment of plantation agriculture and establishment of food

production programmes using western models of irrigation) and societal ( construction

of new hybrid culture centred on the language of the colonist and trade links) transformation the colonists left behind.

The utilisation of the theory of modernisation in the development process was the norm

after the second world war. This was not practised in the tropical developing world as

105

the colonists required to keep tropics as the raw material suppliers to their

manufacturing. The faithful of the colonists were brought to political power through the cultural connection and these leaders could not provide the impetus for national

development. The coming of the cold war brought a division in the poor developing

countries of the tropics and for about 1980 this division was responsible for the slaying

of many national leaders and , bloody revolutions. These revolutions brought confusion to the poor tropical world and many fanatical systems emerged against the

destabilisation forces supported by the western system.

Frank (1966) presents the best overview of this group of theories, which studies the

overall exploitation of the satellite states by the central powerful industrial states. His

view was that the industrialised countries have become rich through the exploitation of the poor countries. It is pertinent to look at Myrdal (1970), who brought forward the

concept of circular cumulative causation, which became popular through the notion of

vicious cycle of poverty. He regarded the development as a social process and stressed

that the power structures of the developing world have to be changed either by evolution or revolution as a prerequisite for development. He further explained that this

should be followed by changes in orientation on the part of the developed world. Crew

and Harrison (1998) and Dube (1988) identify the eurocentric nature of the modernisation paradigm, as a major factor for its failure in the developing countries.

Crew and Harrison, (1998) indicate that rationality, the search for objective truth, and a

movement towards modernity was expected in the ideology but not practised in the developing nations. There was no serious discussion of the modernisation theory until

the early 1970s and environmental degradation was becoming a problem, because role

of spatial variables and geographical contexts were not considered important Lund (

1993). She reiterates the validity of the cultural and historic factors of development in a discussion of the newly industrialised countries of Asia and relates this development to

a pre-modern or modern phenomenon in the Rostowian sense. A continuation of this

process of change into the 1970s is related to the rapid growth of Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, which was curtailed by the recession in the west in the 1980s.

Globalisation has nat managed to correct the situation, though it has managed to

provide marginal wealth to poor of the tropical developing world through flow of

foreign investment. A few countries like India, China, Brazil, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and South Korea have managed to be fairly developed due to existence of a

good political leadership and heavy support from western financial institutions.

However, the rest of the tropical developing countries are affected by many economic and social problems and stay poor while many have become poorer than before.

There are two primary reasons for poverty in the tropics

First is its high energy physical environment which requires a different magnitude of

basic scientific knowledge in the utilisation and control of environment. All tropical

poor countries suffer from lack of utilisation of scientific knowledge in national planning and the political problems have resulted in non-adherence to scientific

planning systems.

106

Secondly, the social complexities of the tropical nations require a different model of

governance from the types of governance in the western modern societies. Social complexities arising from multi-culturalism have destabilised the nations resulting in

conflict and war within their boundaries, which retards economic development.

However countries like Malaysia, China and India have shown that a system constructed in alliance with the modern world systems, but with local independence can

change the status of poverty. With this background knowledge of the tropics the

following tables are prepared and they will provide you information on the environment of the tropics.

Tropics : major climatic subdivisions

The major environmental sub-divisions of the tropics in this book are based on climate.

In this book we utilise the simple system information from Koppen (1900).

107

Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation Value

Tropical

rainforest (Af)

All the

rainforest areas of

Congo,

Amazon and Indonesian

Islands,

some

locations in Sri Lanka,

Southern

India, Northern

Austarlia,

South east Asia

(Malaysia

and southern

Phillipines) East Africa (

Kenya and

Uganda)

Forest has a minimum of four to five layered

forest. Forest floor is covered with lianas and High rainfall (mean annual rainfall over 3000

mms) and high humidity (relative humidity

over 65%, which is not conducive for humans) makes this area to be very uncomfortable for

humans. No dry season and there may be about

250 to 300 rainy days with about 90 percent of

the rain coming from Thunderstorms in the afternoon or evening. High evapotranspiration

makes the air constantly sticky and sweating.

Very few rainforest areas are inhabited and mostly forest tribes occupy these areas.

Average population density is less than 25

people/ per square kilometre. The soils depend on the continuous supply of organic matter

from the forest and once the forest is cleared,

soil looses its fertility rapidly.

Best suitable for forest harvesting in a scientific way, which can supply rare tropical

hardwoods, medicinal products and flowering

plants. Malaysia and Vietnam have begun forest harvesting in its rainforest.

Many species of baboons, orangutang and

chimpancies live in the forest with varied types of bats. In addition this is the home of many

types of reptiles and amphibians.

Heavily damaged by

uncontrolled human activities. Poverty has

forced many border

people to encroach in to the forest.

However, the most

serious damage is

from illegal timber collection and

removal of medicinal

and flowering plants by hired labour of the

local elites some

times supported by corrupt westerners.

In 2006 Sri Lankan

media reported 12

cases related to damage to its

Rainforest and about

4 cases where foreigners were

involved in export of

rainforest plants and animals.

The most valuable

carbon storage in the world and place

where most of the

carbon dioxide gases are processed.

Recent scientific

investigations have

indicated that destriction of these

forests can activate

a rapid global climatic change.

The medicinal value of these forests is

considered to be

irreplaceable. With

the highes biodiversity these

forests may contain

the secrets of medicine and the

global food chain.

108

Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation

Tropical rainforest (Am)

Or Monsoon Rain

Forest

All the rainforest areas of the monsoon

lands are categorised

under this type. Once of the largest forest

regions of the globe

which were utilised

by many ancient civilisations (Rajarata

of Sri Lanka, south

and Central Indian civilisations (

Mayura, Chola and

Gujarat Tamilnadu Vijayanagar- south

east Asian

civilisations -

Angkorwat- and central American

indian Civilisations-

Inca and Aztec- ) which flourished

when these areas

were slightly more rainier than today. At

present these forests

are limited to highly

localised small forest units.

Forest has a minimum of two to three layered forest. Forest floor is covered with srubs, herbs and

lianas.

Moderate rainfall ( mean annual 1500 to 2000 millimeters) and moderate humidity ( relative

humidity of 75% to 55%)makes this area to be very

comfortable for humans. There is a minimum of 3

months dry season and rainfall is received mainly from the southwest monsoon in the south and south

west and north easterlies in the north and east of

the areas. Convection is high and tropical depressions and cyclones are common.

Thunderstorms are common in the periods of

March-April and October – Novemebr. High evapotranspiration makes the dry season very dry

and windy. Today most of the populations of Asia,

Africa and Latin America live in this area (total of

about 3.0 billion) The soils depend on the continuous supply of organic matter from the forest

and once the forest is cleared, soil looses its

fertility rapidly. Best suitable for tropical grain cultivation in

valleys, tree crops and forest harvesting in a

scientific way. These forests carry highly ornamental tropical hardwoods, which are very

expensive in the global market. Further, medicinal

products and tropical fruit trees add value to this

forest. India, Malaysia and Vietnam have begun forest harvesting in its rainforest.

The boundary of this forest with tropical grasslands

Heavily damaged by uncontrolled human

activities. Poverty has

forced many border people to encroach in

to the forest.

However, the most

serious damage is from illegal timber

collection and

removal of medicinal and flowering plants

by hired labour of the

local elites some times supported by

corrupt westerners.

In 2006 Sri Lankan

media reported more than 170 cases related

to damage to its

monsoon forest.

109

is the home to many exotic mammals like elephant,

tiger, cheetah and lion. In addition many species of monkey, deer, antelope, wild buffalos, many types

of reptiles and amphibians also live in this area.

This is the most visited forest in the world by

tourists local and foreign.

110

Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation

Tropical Grasslands

(BS)

Tropical grasslands are

located between

the monsoon forest (Am) and

the tropical

deserts. Some

ancient civilisations

(Egyptian,

mesapotamian, Indo-gangetic,

Persian, Middle

Eastern and Amerindian)

flourished in this

region when

these regions were slightly

more rainy than

today. American indian

Civilisations-

Inca and Aztec- ) and today

limited to highly

localised small

forest units.

Grasslands are known as Savanna in Africa Stepps in Asia, Downs in Australia and Prairies in North America belong to

this type of environment. Forest has a minimum of two to three

layered forest. Grassland is about 80 percent grass with shrub forest along the river valleys.

Low rainfall ( less than 600 millimeters annually) and low

humidity ( between 35% to 60% for more than 9 months of the

year) makes this area to be slightly uncomfortable humans. Rainy season is about 3 months and the rest of the year is dry.

Today this area is damaged by desert encroachment and

humans have begun to migrate out. The grasslands of the developed countries have been scientifically developed and

sustain human habitation without many problems. However, the

regions of developing countries suffer continuously from water shortage and related diseases. In Africa, Asia and Latin

America the lowest life expectancy and highest children

mortalities are reported from the grassland areas due to constant

food shortages. People live in tribal groups which have a cultural attachments to the area. The soils depend on the

continuous supply of organic matter from the grassland and

once the grassland is cleared, soil looses its fertility rapidly and begins to blow away in dust storms.

Best suitable for tropical grain cultivation in a low intensive

scientific way. Tropical grasslands is the home to many exotic mammals like elephant, tiger, cheetah and lion. In addition

many species of monkey, deer, antelope, wild buffalos, many

types of reptiles and amphibians also live in this area. This is

the most visited forest in the world by tourists local and foreign.

Heavily damaged by uncontrolled human

activities. Poverty has

forced many border people to encroach in

to the grassland.

However, the most

serious damage is from increased

animal rearing and

killing of wild animals for fun and

collection of body

parts. This activity is conducted by hired

labour of the local

elites some times

supported by corrupt westerners.

In 2006 international

media reported about 125 cases related to

damage to tropical

grasslands and its biotic resources.

111

Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation

Tropical Deserts

(BW)

Tropical deserts are located

between the

tropical grasslands and

humid cool

climates (humid

mesothermal climates). These

are the hottest

deserts of the world where day

temperatures can

be about 50 degrees Celsius

and night

temperatures

lower than 10 degrees Celcius.

These deserts

have the largest range of

temperature in

the world. settlements

Deserts like Sahara, Arabian, New mexico, Iranian, Thar Taklamakan, Kyzylkum and Kara kum are in this category of hot

deserts. Mean annual rainfall is about 25 millimeters, but there

may be no rain for two to three years. Humidty is low with about an average of about 30% which is not sufficient for humans.

People living here live in mud houses near a permanent spring

created in the underground water. Most of the large settlements

are located in the borders of the desert which is known as Sahel. Many large depressions and remnenets of lakes from the last

glacial period of the earth are located in the Sahel.

However, Still some tribes who specialise in living in isolated

desert oasis (Bedouin and Tureg) live in these inhospitable

terrain. Their speciality is to utilise the limited supply of water to produce vegetables and fruits. Some times in a wet year they

may farm some grains. They rare domesticated desert goat (ram)

and camels for milk and meat. These people operate the caravan

trade between grassland area and the desert using camel caravans, which carry salt and some salt minerals from the dry

lake beds in the desert and carry some food items, clothing and

tools back to their oasis village.

It is well known that these people operate the trade of the Silk

Route and Opium route in Asia, East-West and North-South Saharan caravan system. However, these people are affected by

oil exploration in the desert, which has brought them live in a

pore permanent way. The trans-saharan highway and trans asian

highway has drastically reduced caravan trade in the desert in the recent years.

Deserts are becoming hotter and desert

dwellers are now

leaving the deserts. Some desert areas are

highle urbanised by

the oil wealth like in

the middle East. Further, desert has

become the most

active battleground for culture clash

between west and

east.

112

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Note for readers: The Department of Social Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka

collects data on hazards in the dry zone of Sri Lanka on a regular basis and publishes

the data sheet “ENINFO”. Detailed information is available from Dr. H.M.M.B.

Seneviratne of the Department of Social Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.

116

THE GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA

Simulated on the basis of available evidence given by

From Adams (1929), Wadia (1945), Kularatnam (1952) ,

Vithanage (1970), Cooray (1967), and Seneviratne (1968).

Adams, F.D., 1929 The geology of Ceylon. Can. J.Res.,

1:425–511 Cooray, P.G. (1967) Geology of Ceylon, National Museums,

Colombo.

Kularatnam, K. (1952) late mature Erosion Surfaces in

Ceylon and their Tectonic Relations in Proceedings of the International Geographical Congress, Washington, D.C., p344

-349.

Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (1968) A review on the identification of the major landform units of Sri Lanka, Polawatalaya, The

Annual Magazine of the Geographical Society of University

of Colombo, (in Sinhala). Vitanage, P.W., 1970 A study of geomorphology and

morphotecttonics in Ceylon. Proceedings of the Seminar on

geochemical prospecting methods and techniques,

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, University of Ceylon, pp 391–406 Wadia, D.N. 1945 The three superposed peneplains of Ceylon.

Prof. Pap. Ceylon Dep. Minerol., 1:25–32

STAGE 1

FORMATION OF THE GEOSYNCLINE – PRE CAMBRIAN

(more than 500-600 million years ago)

This is the phase of sedimentation, during which the earliest possible

sediments were laid down in the dawn of the Sri Lanka landmass. Sri Lanka

landmass was still a part of Gondwanaland and was located in the massive

landmass somewhere between present day Australia, Africa and Antarctica.

117

During the Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian

Probable

position of

Sri Lanka

118

THE FOLDING AND THE METAMORPHISM OF THE GEOSYNCLINE

PRE-CAMBRIAN AND CAMBRIAN (around 500 million years ago)

Mantle rocks

119

STAGE 3

POSSIBLE PENEPLANATION ( Possibly in Carboniferous-Devonian )

POSSIBLE MARINE TRANSGRESSION IN Mesozoic

120

STAGE 4

FAULTING AND EVOLUTION OF PRESENT SCENERY

(EN MASSE BLOCK UPLIFT – WADIA, CIRCUMSCRIBE BLOCK UPLIFT –

KULARATNAM, MULTIPLE BLOCK - COORAY/ VITHANAGE - MULTIPLE BLOCK AND DIFFERENTIAL EROSION

The land mass was uplifted to various heights and the basis for present day structure was

established. The synclinorium structure was visible.

THIS HIGHLY SIMPLIFIED VERSION OF THE STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION IS

ONLY A PICTORIAL FORM AND SHOULD NOT BE TAKEN AS HYPOTHESIS

121

:

Figure 1. Geology of Sri Lanka

Based on Cooray, (1967) and

Seneviratne (1977)

122

Key

Granites - pink

Other Granite intrusions

Thonigala

Warana

Ambagaspitiya

Thabbowa – Andigama Sandstones and Shales

Kataragama Granitic Complex -

Rathnapura beds

Kadugannawa Gneiss

123

Hazards observed, studied and predicted - landslides, mud flows, rock

falls, embankment collapse, floods, flash floods, new diseases and

ethnic conflict. (based on public records, media reports and field visits)

Appendix 1

124

Key:

Heat wave deaths (2006) -

Floods which led to loss of life and heavy property loss and

required substantial government help

Landslides which led to loss of life and heavy property loss and

required substantial government help

Tornadoes which were investigated – between 2 to 5 million rupee damage

Flash floods which were investigated – between 1to 2 million rupee

damage

Long duration creep sites – damages in million of rupees

Roads with continuous blockage by mud flow, rock fall, gravel

slide and landslides in the rainy season. The road builders have not taken these pressures seriously and road surfaces are damaged

continuously leading to increased journey time

Liable to damaging floods due to non adherence to advice on

climatic change

Liable to heavy local flooding due to increased intensity of

thunderstorm rainfall in the next 20 to 50 years

Occurrence of new diseases

125

Ethnic conflict related destruction

Probable fracture zones on which some shift of rock strata is

expected, creating landslides and creep