Chapter- 2- Review of Literature Page | 25 LITERATURE REVIEW A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work. Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such as a thesis, a literature review usually precedes a research proposal and results section. Its ultimate goal is to bring the researcher up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area. A well-structured literature review is characterized by a logical flow of ideas; current and relevant references with consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper use of terminology; and an unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on the topic. This study also followed number of national and International research, which are as follows: NATIONAL STATUS Mavalankar et al., (2009) 1 in their study ‘A preliminary estimate of immediate cost of chikungunya and dengue to Gujarat, India’, estimated cost of chikungunya and dengue by combining nine earlier studies on major cost factors such as costs of illness and control, and thus building a more comprehensive picture of the immediate cost of these Aedesmosquito-borne diseases to Gujarat. Dorret al.,(2008) 2 examined ‘Cost of illness: Evidence from a study in five resource-poor locations in India’ founds that health services are funded largely through out-of-pocket spending (OOPS). They carried out this study to collect data on the cost of an illness episode and parameters affecting cost in five locations in India. 1 Dileep V. Mavalankar, Tapasvi I. Puwar, DiptiGovil, Tina M. Murtola, S.S. Vasan (2009). A Preliminary Estimate of Immediate Cost of Chikungunya and Dengue to Gujarat, India. 2 David M. Dror, Olga van Putten-Rademaker& Ruth Koren,(2008). Cost of illness: Evidence from a study in five resource-poor locations in India” Indian J Med Res 127, pp 347-361
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Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
Page | 25
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current
knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological
contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as
such, do not report any new or original experimental work.
Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such as a thesis, a literature
review usually precedes a research proposal and results section. Its ultimate goal is to
bring the researcher up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for
another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area.
A well-structured literature review is characterized by a logical flow of ideas; current and
relevant references with consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper use of
terminology; and an unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on the
topic. This study also followed number of national and International research, which are
as follows:
NATIONAL STATUS
Mavalankar et al., (2009)1in their study ‘A preliminary estimate of immediate cost of
chikungunya and dengue to Gujarat, India’, estimated cost of chikungunya and dengue
by combining nine earlier studies on major cost factors such as costs of illness and
control, and thus building a more comprehensive picture of the immediate cost of these
Aedesmosquito-borne diseases to Gujarat.
Dorret al.,(2008)2examined ‘Cost of illness: Evidence from a study in five resource-poor
locations in India’ founds that health services are funded largely through out-of-pocket
spending (OOPS). They carried out this study to collect data on the cost of an illness
episode and parameters affecting cost in five locations in India.
1Dileep V. Mavalankar, Tapasvi I. Puwar, DiptiGovil, Tina M. Murtola, S.S. Vasan (2009). A Preliminary Estimate of Immediate Cost of Chikungunya and Dengue to Gujarat, India. 2David M. Dror, Olga van Putten-Rademaker& Ruth Koren,(2008). Cost of illness: Evidence from a study in five resource-poor locations in India” Indian J Med Res 127, pp 347-361
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
Page | 26
Dorr. et al., (2007)3 studied‘ Willingness to pay for health insurance among rural and
poor persons: Field evidence from seven micro health insurance units in India’ The
study provides evidence on Willingness to pay (WTP), gathered through a unidirectional
(descending) bidding game among 3024 households in seven locations where micro
health insurance units are in operation.
Usha Gupta (2006)4worked on the topic “Valuation of Urban Air Pollution: A Case
Study of Kanpur City in India’ . Theauthor estimated the monetary benefits to
individuals from health damages avoided as a result on reductions in air pollution in the
urban industrial city of Kanpur in India.
Gautam A. et al(2003)5 examined on “Impact of air pollution on Human Health in
Dehradoon City”. They studied on Air quality levels of Dehradoon city from four selected
sites and simultaneously collected the health effect data from the selected area and
calculate the effects of air pollution on human health
Shankar and Rao (June 2002)6 analyzed the “Impact of Air Quality on Human Health:
A case of Mumbai City, India,” and measured the levels of air pollution and estimated
the monetary benefits to individuals from health damages avoided as a result on
reductions in air pollution in the urban industrial city of Kanpur in India.
Srivastava and Kumar (2001)7have disclosed in their study “Economic valuation of
health impacts of air pollution in Mumbai” that air pollution leads to serious negative
impacts on health. An attempt has been made in this paper to establish dose-response
relationship of Ambient Air Quality Index and human health, based on time spent by an
individual in different microenvironments during one day. Economic valuation of
3David M. Dror, Ralf Radermacher& Ruth Koren (2008).Willingness to pay for health insurance among rural and poor persons: Field evidence from seven micro health insurance units in India 4Usha Gupta(2006),.him RaoAmbedkar College, University of Delhi. Valuation of Urban Air Pollution: A Case Study of Kanpur City in India. 5 A. Gautam, M. Mahajan& S. Garg (2003). Impact of air pollution on human health in Dehradoon city. 6P.Ravi Shankar, G.RamaRao. (2002).Impact of Air Quality on Human Health: A Case of Mumbai City, India, (Paper presented at the IUSSP Regional Conference on Southeast Asia’s Population in a Changing Asian Context, 10-13. 7Anjali Srivastava, RakeshKumar (2001). Economic valuation of health impacts of air pollution in Mumbai.inEnvironmental Monitoring and Assessment , 75:135-143.
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
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morbidity and mortality has been attempted through lost salary approach. The results
show that the avoidance cost is 29% of the total health damage cost.
Smith et.al. (2000)8in their paper “National burden of disease in India from indoor air
pollution” evaluated the existing epidemiological studies and applies the resulting risks
to more than three-quarters of Indian households dependent on such fuels. Allowance is
made for the existence of improved stoves with chimneys and other factors that may
lower exposures. Attributable risks are calculated in reference to the demographic
conditions and patterns of each disease in India.
Cropper, Simon, et al., (1997)9In their paper “The Health Benefits of Air Pollution
Control in Delhi.”Reported the result of relating levels of particulate matter to daily
deaths in Delhi, India, between 1991 and 1994. The focus is on Delhi because it is one
of the world’s most polluted cities. This study concludes, that the impact of particulate
matter on total non-trauma deaths in Delhi is smaller than effects found in the United
States. The impacts of air pollution on deaths by age group may be very different in
developing countries than in the United States, where peak effects occur among people
aged sixty-five and older. In Delhi, peak effects occur between the ages of fifteen and
forty-four, implying that a death associated with air pollution causes more life-years to
be lost.
INTERNATIONAL STATUS
SoyeonGuh, et al., (2008)10, in their study“ Comparison of cost-of-illness with
willingness-to-pay estimates to avoid shigellosis: evidence from China” have shown that
cost of illness (COI) measures are lower than the conceptually correct willingness-to-
pay (WTP) measure of the economic benefits of disease prevention. They compared 8Smith, K.R., Corvalan, C.F. and T. Kjellstrom, (1999).National burden of disease in India from indoor air pollution Factors, Epidemiology, 10, 573-584. 9Cropper, Simon, Alberini, Arora and Sharma (1997).The Health Benefits of Air Pollution Control in Delhi American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 79, 1625-1629. 10SoyeonGuh, Chen Xingbao, Christine Poulos, Zhang Qi, Cao Jianwen, Lorenz von Seidlein, Chen Jichao, XuanYi Wang, Xing Zhanchun, Andrew Nyamete, John Clemens and Dale Whittington (2008).Comparison of cost-of-illness with willingness-to-pay estimates to avoid shigellosis: evidence from China. Health Policy and Planning;23:pp 125–136
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
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COI with stated preference estimates of WTP associated with shigellosis in a rural area
of China.
George, et al., (2008)11 studied the “Costs of Illness Among Older Adults: An Analysis
of Six Major Health Conditions with Significant Environmental Risk Factors”had
estimated the cost burden associated with six major illnesses among Americans age 65
and gastrointestinal illness. These illnesses were selected because of their relatively
high impact among older populations and because they include environmental
exposures as a significant risk factor. A prevalence-based cost-of-illness approach was
applied. Medical costs were estimated from Medicare claims data in 2000.
TanjimaPervinet. al., (2008)12carried out a research on the topic“Societal costs of air
pollution-related health hazards: A review of methods and results”.This paper aims to
provide a critical and systematic review of the societal costs of air pollution-related ill
health (CAP), to explore methodological issues that may be important when assessing
or comparing CAP across countries and to suggest ways in which future CAP studies
can be made more useful for policy analysis.
Spadaro and Rabl (2008)13in their paper“Estimating the uncertainty of damage costs of
pollution: A simple transparent method and typical results”lightingthat most (and in
many cases all) of the uncertainty calculation involves products and/or sums of products
and can be accomplished with an analytic solution which is simple and transparent.
They present their own assessment of the component uncertainties and calculate the
total uncertainty for the impacts and damage costs of the classical air pollutants; results
for a Monte Carlo calculation for the dispersion part werealso shown. The distribution of
11George van Houtven, Amanda A. Honeycutt, Boyd Gilman, Nancy T. Mccall, Wanda W. Throneburg, and Kathy E. Sykes (2008).Costs of illness among older adults: an analysis of six major health conditions with significant environmental risk factors. 12TanjimaPervin, Ulf-G Gerdtham and Carl H Lyttkens (2008) Societal costs of air pollution-related health hazards: A review of methods and results, http://www.resource-allocation.com/content/6/1/19 13Joseph V. Spadaro and Ari Rabl(2008). Estimating the uncertainty of damage costs of pollution: A simple transparent method and typical results in Environmental Impact Assessment ReviewVolume 28, Issues 2-3, pp 166-183
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
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the damage costs was approximately lognormal and can be characterized in terms of
geometric mean µg and geometric standard deviation σg, implying that the confidence
interval is multiplicative.
Marbek Resource Consultants and Colin Welburn (2007)14 have focused on
“Evaluation of Total Cost of Air Pollution Due to Transportation in Canada” have
focused on estimating the economic value of transport-caused air pollution, allocating
these costs by transport mode and province and estimating average unit pollutant costs.
The goal of the study was to provide reasonable and credible estimates of the total cost
of transport-caused air pollution in Canada in the year 2000.
Wen-Yi Chenet. al., (2007)15“The Willingness to Pay for the Health Care under
Taiwan’s National Health Insurance” have utilized the nested multinomial logit model to
estimate the willingness to pay (WTP) values for different National Health Insurance
(NHI) coverage plans in Taiwan. The WTP value for having care from clinics in a
hospital care only plan is NT$178 (US$6) per person/month. The WTP value for having
care from hospitals in a clinic care only plan is NT$1,342 (US$43) per person/month.
The WTP value for the NHI with a universal coverage is NT$1,540 (US$49) per
person/month. The figure NT$1,540 (US$49) is equivalent to 8.77% of monthly
household income, much higher than the new premium rate of the new NHI tax (2.5%-
4% of monthly household income) proposed by the Taiwan’s government. Their result
suggests that Taiwan’s government may increase the new premium rate further in order
to make Taiwan’s NHI financially more sustainable.
Dave Sawyer et. al (2007)16 “Evaluation of Total Cost of Air Pollution Due to
Transportation in Canada” The Reduced Form Source-Receptor Tool, ReFSoRT,
developed by RWDI in collaboration with Environment Canada, was used to determine
14Dave Sawyer and Seton Stiebert (Marbek Resource Consultants),ColinWelburn(2007).Evaluation of Total Cost of Air Pollution Due to Transportation in Canada. 15Wen-Yi Chen a , Chunhuei Chi b , Yu-Hui Lin (2007) .The Willingness to Pay for the Health Care under Taiwan’s National Health Insurance2007 International Health Economics Association 6th World Congress in Copenhagen, Denmark. 16Dave Sawyer and Seton Stiebert (Marbek Resource Consultants),ColinWelburn(2007).Evaluation of Total Cost of Air Pollution Due to Transportation in Canada.
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
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changes in ambient air quality attributable to year 2000 transport emissions at the
census division level. A review of the year 2000 emission inventory indicates that the
transportation sector comprises a significant proportion of the total emissions for all the
relevant pollutants considered (SO2, NOX, PM2.5 and VOC). NOX transportation
emissions contributed the largest share of the overall emissions.
Alexander et. al.,(2004)17in his study“ Rich-Poor Differences in Health Care Financing”
have found that most community finance schemes have evolved in the context of
severe economic constraints, political instability, and lack of good governance. Usually
government taxation capacity is weak, formal mechanisms of social protection for
vulnerable populations absent, and government oversight of the informal health sector
lacking. In this context of extreme public sector failure, community involvement in
financing health care provides a critical, though insufficient, first step in the long march
toward improved health care access for the poor and social protection against the cost
of illness.
Wilson, (2004)18 worked on “A WTP Model Showing the Relationships Between Three
Approaches For Pollution Control”. In this study , a simple willingness to pay (WTP)
model that shows the theoretical relationships among three valuation approaches that
can be used to measure changes in health resulting from pollution has been developed.
The three valuation approaches considered are the contingent valuation (CV), cost of
illness (COI) and the defensive behavior approaches.
B. Schramm et al., (2003)19 in their study evaluated the “Cost of illness of moderate to-
severe atopic asthma and/or seasonal allergic rhinitis (SAR) in Germany” from the
perspective of third-party payers (TPP) and patients. Five-hundred patients (276
children/adolescents) with moderate-to-severe asthma and/ or SAR were included in
17Preker, Alexander, Carrin, Guy, Dror, David M., Jakab, Melitta, Hsiao, William and Arhin, Dyna, (2004). Rich-Poor Differences in Health Care Financing. Health Financing For Poor People: Resource Mobilization And Risk Sharing, Preker A.S., Carrin G., eds., pp. 3-51, World Bank. 18Clevo Wilson(2004). A WTP Model Showing the Relationships Between Three Approaches For Pollution. 19B. Schramm, B. Ehlken, A. Smala, K. Quednau, K. Berger, D. Nowak (2003) .Cost of illness of atopic asthma and seasonal allergic rhinitis in Germany: 1-yr retrospective study, ISSN 0903-1936
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
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this cross-sectional study. Information was collected using as pacific patient
questionnaire and the abstraction of patient records.
Anne Case et at.,(2002)20“Economic Status and Health in Childhood: The Origins of
the Gradien”.In the study the authors said that the well-known positive association
between health and income in adulthood has antecedents in childhood. Not only is
children's health positively related to household income, but the relationship between
household income and children's health becomes more pronounced as children age.
Part of the relationship can be explained by the arrival and impact of chronic conditions.
Children from lower income households with chronic conditions have worse health than
to those from higher-income households. The adverse health effects of lower income
accumulate over children's lives. Part of the intergenerational transmission of
socioeconomic status may work through the impact of parents' income on children's
health.
Caceres. et at.,(2001),21‘Indoor air pollution in a zone of extreme poverty of
metropolitan Santiago. The study represent an important risk factor for human health.
They have investigated the levels of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2),
Respirable particulate matter(PM10), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and
mutagen city in the PM5 fraction, as well as temperature and humidity, in the interior of
24 houses in La Pintana, Santiago. The survey showed that in children younger than 2
years, most respiratory diseases occur during winter (75%), the most frequent complaint
being bronchitis (62%) and obstructive bronchitis (50%). The higher pollutant
concentrations were observed during heating hours, in houses that used coal(mean
PM10 250 µg·m-3, CO 42 ppm, SO2 192 ppb) or firewood (mean PM10 489 µg·m-3,CO
57 ppm, SO2 295 ppb). PAHs were detected in all houses and they concluded that they
came from inside the house and not from outdoor infiltration.
20Case, Anne, Darren Lubotsky, and Christina Paxson. (2002). "Economic Status and Health in Childhood: The Origins of the Gradient ."American Economic Review, 92(5): 1308–1334. 21Caceres, D., M. Adonis, G. Retamal, P. Ancic, M. Valencia, X. Ramos, N. Olivares and L. Gil (2001).Indoor air pollution in a zone of extreme poverty of metropolitan Santiago. RevistaMedicaChilena 129:33-42.
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
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H. Sommer, et al.,(2000)22have come out with a study on “Economic evaluation of
health impacts due to road traffic-related air pollution (An impact assessment project of
Austria, France and Switzerland)”.In preparation for the Transport, Environment and
Health Session of the WHO Ministerial Conference on Environment and Health in
London (June 1999) a tri-lateral project was carried out by Austria, France and
Switzerland. The project assessed the health costs of road-traffic related air pollution in
the three countries using a common methodological framework.
Alberini and Krupnik (2000).23In their study“ Cost-of-Illness and Willingness-to-Pay
Estimates of the Benefits of Improved Air Quality: Evidence from Taiwan” have compare
cost-of-illness (COI) and willingness-to-pay (WTP) estimates of the damages from minor
respiratory symptoms associated with air pollution using data from a study in Taiwan in
1991-92. A contingent valuation survey is conducted to estimate WTP to avoid minor
respiratory illnesses. Health diaries are analyzed to predict the likelihood and cost of
seeking relief from symptoms and of missing work. As predicted by estimates, WTP is
exceeding on COI the latter by 1.61 to 2.26 times, depending on pollution levels. These
ratios are similar to those for the United States, despite the differences between the two
countries.
Thanh and Lefevre (2000)24carried out a research on the topic “Assessing Health
Impacts of Air Pollution from Electricity Generation: The Case of Thailand” and have
applied they apply the impact pathway approach (IPA) to estimate health impacts and
corresponding damage costs of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and emissions offline particulate
matter (PM10) from four power units using different fuels (lignite, oil, natural gas, and
coal) at four locations in Thailand. The results show that the damage cost related to
health effects of electricity generation in Thailand are relatively small, but not negligible,
ranging from 0.006 U.S. cent to 0.05 U.S. cent per kilowatt-hour (in 1995 dollars).
22H. Sommer, N. Künzli, R. Seethaler, O. Chanel, M. Herry, S. Masson, J-C. Vergnaud, P. Filliger, F. Horak JR., R. Kaiser, S. Medina. V. Puybonnieux-texier, P. Quénel, J. Schneider, M. Studnicka(2000).Economic Evaluation Of Health Impacts Due To Road Traffic-Related Air Pollution (An impact assessment project of Austria, France and Switzerland) 23Alberini, Anna and Alan Krupnick, (2000). .Cost-of-Illness and WTP Estimates of the Benefits of Improved Air Quality: Evidence from Taiwan.,Land Economics 76(1). 24Thanh, Bui Duy and Thierry Lefevre, (2000). .Assessing Health Impacts of Air Pollution from Electricity Generation: The Case of Thailand., Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 20, 137-158.
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
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Damage costs to the public health due to SO2 andPM10 emissions from electricity
generation not only depend on fuel and generating technology but also depend strongly
on power plant location. This implies that the assessment of adverse health impacts is
very important for technology choice and setting of new power plants.
Sean D. Sullivanet al.,(2000)25“The Economic Burden of COPD”. In this study they
found that COPD is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide and
imparts a substantial economic burden on individuals and society. Despite the intense
interest in COPD among clinicians and researchers, there is a paucity of data on health-
care utilization, costs, and social burden in this population. The total economic costs of
COPD morbidity and mortality in the United States were estimated at $23.9 billion in
1993. Direct treatments for COPD-related illness accounted for $14.7 billion, and the
remaining $9.2 billion were indirect morbidity and premature mortality estimated as lost
future earnings. Similar data from another US study suggest that 10% of persons with
COPD account for > 70% of all medical care costs.
Larson, Avaliani.et. al(1999)26“The Economics of Air Pollution Health Risks in Russia:
A case study of Volgograd” in the study a combined health risk assessment, cost-
effectiveness analysis, and benefit-cost analysis is undertaken for direct particulate
emissions from 29 stationary source polluters in the city of Volgograd, Russia. Annual
particulate-related mortality risks from these stationary sources are estimated to be
substantial, with an estimate in the range of 960- 2,667 additional deaths per year in this
city of one million. The majority of these risks are attributed to two major facilities in the
northern part of the city. For several emission reduction projects, the cost-per-life saved
was estimated to be quite low. The total net benefits to the city of implementing five of
the six identified projects, leading to roughly a 25% reduction in mortality risk, are
estimated to be at least $40 million in present value terms.
25Sean D. Sullivan,Scott D. Ramsey, Todd A. Lee. (2000)“The Economic Burden of COPD” in doi: 10.1378/chest.117.2_suppl.5S CHEST February 2000 vol. 117 no. 2 suppl 5S-9S 26Larson, Avaliani, Golub, Rosen, Shaposhnikov, Strukova, Vincent (1999) .The Economics of Air Pollution Health Risks in Russia: Acase study of Volgograd.,World Development, 10, 1803-1819.
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
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Clevo Wilson (1999)27“A WTP Model Showing The Relationships Between Three
Approaches For Pollution Control”. In this paper, a simple willingness to pay (WTP)
model that shows the theoretical relationships among three valuation approaches that
can be used to measure changes in health resulting from pollution is developed. The
three valuation approaches considered are the contingent valuation (CV), cost of illness
(COI) and the defensive behavior approaches. After showing the relationships between
the three valuation approaches, the model demonstrates that the CV approach exceeds
the COI and the defensive behavior approaches. The theoretical results are supported
by field survey data. The pollution referred to in this paper is direct exposure to
pesticides by farmers during handling and spraying on their farms.
McCubbin and Delucchi, (1999)28“The Health Costs of Motor-Vehicle-Related Air
Pollution”.Motor vehicles have significantly larger health costs than previously reported.
Particulates are the most damaging pollutant, while ozone and other pollutants have
smaller effects. Diesel vehicles cause more damages per mile than dogasoline vehicles,
because of greater particulate emissions. Very fine particles appear more dangerous
than larger particles, and combustion particles appear more dangerous than road dust.
Chen and Vine (1999)29“A Scoping Study on the Costs of Indoor Air Quality Illnesses:
Ann Insurance Loss Reduction Perspective”. This paper reports on the results of a
literature search of buildings-related, business and legal databases, and interviews with
insurance and risk management representatives aimed at finding information on the
direct costs to the insurance industry of poor building IAQ, as well as the costs of
litigation. The literature search turned up little specific cost information, but indicated
that there is strong awareness and growing concern over the silent crisis of IAQ and its
potential to cause large industry losses. The source of these losses includes both direct
27Clevo Wilson (1999) A WTP Model Showing The Relationships Between Three Approaches For Pollution Control published by Department of Economics, University of Queensland. 28McCubbin, Donald R., Mark A. Delucchi, (1999) .The Health Costs of Motor-Vehicle- Related Air Pollution., Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 33(3), 253-286. 29Chen, Allen and Edward L. Vine, (1999).A Scoping Study on the Costs of Indoor Air Quality Illnesses: An Insurance Loss Reduction Perspective., Environmental Science and Policy, 2, 457-464.
Chapter- 2- Review of Literature
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costs to insurers from paying health insurance and professional liability claims as well
as the cost of litigation.
Alberini and Krupnick (1998)30, have worked the study “Air Quality and Episodes of
Acute Respiratory Illness in Taiwan Cities: Evidence from Survey Data”. The paper
reports on a unique study that records daily health status for over nine hundred
residents of three urban areas in Taiwan and elicits their willingness to pay to avoid
episodes of illness. Incidence of illness is related to the ambient concentration levels of
particulate matter but the effects are much less pronounced than would be expected
from earlier U.S. studies. Willingness to pay to avoid illness is considerably higher than
that predicted by extrapolations of U.S. studies that rely on simple income adjustments.
Alberini, et al., (1997)31, in their study “Valuing Health Effects of Air Pollution in
Developing Countries: The Case of Taiwan”, conducted a contingent valuation survey in
Taiwan to elicit willingness to pay (WTP) to avoid a recurrence of the episode of acute
respiratory illness experienced by the respondent. They estimated a model in which
willingness to pay depends on the attributes of the illness (duration and number of
symptoms, and nature of the illness) and on respondent characteristics (such as income
and health history), and allow mitigating behavior to be endogenously determined with
willingness to pay.
30Alberini, Anna; Krupnick, Alan J. (1998).Air Quality and Episodes of Acute Respiratory Illness in Taiwan Cities: Evidence from Survey Data in Journal of Urban Economics (44). 31Alberini, Anna, Cropper, Maureen, Fu, Tsu-Tan, Krupnick, Alan, Liu, Jin-Tan, Shaw, Daigee, Harrington, Winston (1997)Valuing Health Effects of Air Pollution in Developing Countries: The Case of Taiwan”