Literature Review

In the name of Allah Kareem,Most Beneficent, Most Gracious, the Most Merciful !

Research Process

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2.Literature review

3.Research design

4.Data Collection

5. Data Preparation

6.Data Analysis

7.Discussion and Conclusion

8.Report Writing

1.Select a Topic / Problem

“A literature review is a body of text and its main goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as the justification for future research in the area. It seeks to describe, summarize, evaluate, clarify and/or integrate the content of previous researches".

A LITERATURE REVIEW

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.27)

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WHY LITERATURE REVIEW ?

The literature review in a research study accomplishes several purposes that are as follows:

1- Distinguishing what has been done form what need to be done

2- Discovering important variables relevant to the topic

3- Synthesizing and gaining a new perspective

4- Establishing the context of the topic or problem

5- Rationalizing the significance of the problem

6- Enhancing and acquiring the subject vocabulary

7- Understanding the structure of the subject

8- Relating ideas and theory to applications

9- Identifying the main methodologies and research techniques that

have been used

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.27)

HOW TO CODUCT LITERATURE REVIEWThere is no one way to conduct a literature review, but many scholars

proceed in a systematic fashion to capture, evaluate and summarize the literature.

1. Identify the topic

2. Locate sources of literature

3. Read the literature

4. Analyze the literature

5. Assembling and organizing

6. Writing the literature

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1

•Chose Area for research

(Management Sciences)

2

•Select field of research

(Finance, HRM, Marketing)

3

•Select topic of research

(Advertising in Marketing)

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•Refine topic of research

(Refining topic)

1. Identification of Topic

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2. SOURCES OF

LITERATUREThe literature sources available to help you to develop a good

understanding of and insight into previous research can be divided

into three following categories:

ReportsThesesEmails

Conference reports

Company reports

Unpublished manuscript

sources

NewspapersBooks

JournalsInternet

Some government publications

IndexesAbstracts

CataloguesEncyclopediaDictionnairesBibliographies

Citation indexes

Search Engines

Primary Sources Secondary Sources Tertiary sources

Adapted from “research Methods for business Students” by Mark Saunders (p.68)

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TERTIARY SOURCESTertiary Resource available at Superior can be accessed via following address http://www.digitallibrary.edu.pk/superior.html

Through Superior website www.superior.edu.pk by clicking on Digital Library link

Or

Name Type Internet address

Google Search engine www.google.com

Google Scholar Search engine for scholarly material

www.scholar.google.com

Yahoo Search engine www.yahoo.com

Ebscohost Database

Springer link Database http://www.springerlink.com

Blackwell synergy http://www.blackwell-synergy.com

Oxford press Publisher http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/index.html

University Of Chicago Press

Publisher http://www.journals.uchicago.edu

Adapted from “research Methods for business Students” by Mark Saunders (p.68)

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3.READING THE LITERATURE

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.53)

Read abstract of the article or preface and introduction of book

Skim through the article/ book

Survey the main parts of the article/ book

Read in detail the selected important parts

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4. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS

Analysis is the job of systematically breaking down something into its constituents parts and describing how they relate to each other – it is not random dissection but a methodological examination.

1. Systematic Analysis: Systematic Analysis is the kind of analysis in which we systematically evaluate the literature on the basis of key ideas, theories, concepts and methodological assumptions and the overall structure and format of the research work

2. Arguments Analysis: If a range of arguments is being analyzed, you will need to explicate the claim, data and warrant for each argument. In this way, the identification of the individual and similar elements in a range of items can be compared and contrasted.

There are two types of analysis i.e. argument analysis and systematic analysis.

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Systematic Analysis is the kind of analysis in which we systematically evaluate the literature on the basis of key ideas, theories, concepts and methodological assumptions and the overall structure and format of the research work. In systematic analysis we can do the analysis of single research work but preferably we should go for comparative analysis of two or more studies on the same topic

1. SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS

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A common practice in the social sciences is to make comparisons

between the works and ideas of different authors. This usually

involves finding common points of interest between, definitions of

main concepts, kinds of data collected and the interpretations of

findings. The practice can be useful in identifying common areas

of interest and differing positions on similar topic areas.

Following figure points out the levels of comparison and contrast.

The point to note, however, is that comparing theorists has

inherent difficulties, mainly to do with the selection of criteria or

points of reference that are valid and comparable

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

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COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

OntologyEpistemolog

yMoralityPolitics

Interpretation

DataMethodolog

yAxiologyRhetoric

OntologyEpistemolog

yMoralityPolitics

Interpretation

DataMethodolog

yAxiologyRhetoric

Points of reference for making a comparison

between theorists

Theorist A Theorist B

Area of similarity

Area of difference

Area of difference

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.131)

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2. ARGUMENT ANALYSIS

An argument involves putting forward reasons to influence someone’s belief that you are proposing in the case (Hinderer, 1992). Whichever way someone makes an argument they are attempting to convince others of the validity (or logic) of how they see the world and convince us that we should see it the way they do.

An argument has at least two components: a point and a reason:

·Making a point (or statement/ conclusion)

·Providing sufficient reason (or evidence) for the point to be accepted by others

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METHODS OF ANALYZING ARGUMENTS

1. Fisher’s method of critical reading

2. Toulmin’s method of argumentation analysis

There are basically two method to analyze and evaluate arguments intelligently and fairly:

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Fisher’s Method of critical reading:Fisher (1993) provides a method for a systematic reading of texts. This initial reading technique enables the reader to systematically extracts the main elements (words) of any arguments for the purposes of evaluation.

R = CR1 + R2 = (Therefore) C1 (Interim

conclusion)C1 or R3 = (Therefore) C2 (Main

conclusion)

SKIM THROUGH THE TEXT

CONSTRUCT AN ARGUMENTS DIAGRAM

UNDERLINE CONCLUSION ( C ) & PLACE REASONS ( R ) IN BRACKETS < >

INDICATED BY WORDS LIKE BECAUSE, SINCE etc.

CIRCLE ANY INFERENCE INDICATORS (THUS, THEREFORE etc.)

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.110)

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Toulmin developed an approach to argumentation analysis that was rooted in the practice rather than the theory of logic.

He proposes that an argument can be broken up into a number of basic elements that are as follow

• Claim an arguable statement

• Evidence Data used to supports the claim

• Warrant (or permit) an expectation that provides the link between the evidence and claim

• Backing Context and assumption used to support the validity or the warrant and evidence

Toulmin’s Method Of Argumentation Analysis:

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Example:

Following is an example from everyday life. In dry summers consumers are asked and expected to save water through careful and limited use. This is normally taken to mean water should only be used for essential things-watering lawns, filling swimming pools and washing cars are prohibited. The argument for this could have the following structure

Data Claimso

Warrant

Since

Backing

because

Car washes can use upto 250,000 gallons of water in the main summer weeks. This quantity depletes water reservoirs by 20% during a season when there is heavy

water usage.

Car owners should restrict washing their cars in areas of the country where there is a water shortage

(Restriction).

Water is essential and people should not waste it in times of

shortage

Water shortage cause inconvenience, are a danger to people and can be costly to consumers.

Adopted from “Doing a literature review “ by Chris Hart p.87)

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Defining is about placing boundaries around the meaning of a term; it

comes from the Latin defenire – to put boundaries around. The

boundaries relate to the way in which a term or word is used in a give

context. There are different types of definitions, such as formal

definitions and stipulate definitions.

DEFINING (CONSTRUCTING

MEANING)

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.110)

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CONNECTION BETWEEN ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS, COMPREHENSION &

KNOWLEDGEAnalysis Select,

differentiate, dissect, and break up.

Unpacking a thing into its constituent parts in order to infer or determine the relationship and/or organizing principle between them; thereby isolating the main variables.

Synthesis Integrate, combing recast, formulate, reorganize.

Synthesis is the act of making connections between the parts identified in analysis. It is not simply a matter of reassembling the parts back into the original order, but looking for a new order. Rearranging the elements derived from analysis to identity relationship or show main organizing principle or show how these principles can be used to make a different phenomenon.

Comprehension

Understand, be able to explain, distinguish, and interpret.

Interpreting and distinguishing between different types of data, theory and argument; thereby being able to describe, discuss and explain in various ways the substance of an idea or working of a phenomenon.

Knowledge Define, classify, describe, name, use, recognized, become aware of, understand, problem solve.

Perceiving the principles, use and function of rules, methods and events in different situations; classify, characterize, generalize, analyze the structure of, and learn from experimentation on the meaning of, concepts and their application.

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Mapping ideas is about setting out, on paper, the geography of

research and thinking that has been done on a topic. In other words it

is the process of organizing the content of the literature into sections

and subsections in order to make connections between ideas

contained in different articles, books and work published over a certain

time period. It is an effective way of getting overview of the topic

5. ASSEMBLING ORGANIZING

LITERATURE USING MAPS

TYPES OF MAPSThere are four types of maps that are as follows

1. Feature map

2. Tree construction

3. Content Map

4. Taxonomic Map

5. Concept MapAdapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.142-143)

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1- Feature Maps:

Author / Date

Questions /Concerns

Materials/

Evidence

Arguments Concepts/Form of Analysis

Main Sources

shield, 1990

How is meaning communicated through visual images, ads in particular? How do spectators of different genders find pleasures in images constructed for the male interest?

Photocopy ads for cologne, 2illustrations, other studies

visual images communicate meaning through codes/ messages which are produced within the dominant male ideologyimages reflect/reinforce/reproduced dominant cultural discourse of attractivenessCodes/messages and referent systems can therefore be analyzed using visual images to reveal the dominant ideology

Feminist/structuralism/semioticsmale interest ad power of lookingobjectified/ commodified female

Williamson,1978barthes, 1985Nichols, 1981Berger, 1973Haug, 1987

Yanni, 1990

how do women enter into the thing-people relationship differently form menhow can feminist analysis of ads provide evidence for the power of dominantideological forms of constraint

other studies no illustrations

ad images (visuals/text) continually devalue women while maintaining a priority/ privilege to male experience and position of power to define convention codestheories of commodities,the material and symbolic meaning of women is misconceived by ads which misrepresent and objectivity women for the sake of beauty as it were a commoditywomen are therefore given material value

Feminist critique. Addresses the nature and function of advertising through (1) the structure of representations (2) the process of commodification (3) the power of ads.

Jhally, 1987Berger, 1972Williamson, 1978Kappeler, 1986

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.148-149)

Feature maps are a method by which the content of many articles can be systematically analyzed and recorded in a standardized format the method entails recording the key features of a predetermined aspects of study to

- Produced a summary schemata of the argument proposed by that study- to locate any similarities and differences between other studies on the

topicExtract from an analysis of feminist analysis of fragrance advertisement.

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Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.152)

A subject tree aims to show the different ways in which the major topic has

developed sub-themes and related questions. The tree shows how the topic has

branched out not the author.

Following is the example of subject relevance tree based on the general topic of

advertising, showing some of the sub-topics within the general literature.

2- Tree

Construction:

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Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.153)

Content map is a common hierarchal (top to bottom) arrangement of the contents

of a topic starting with the conceptual elements, subdivided into segments and

further into levels producing a linear flow diagram.

Following is an example of content map developed by Tesch (1990) for partial

classification of qualitative research.

3- Content Maps:

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Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.154)

Closely related to content maps are taxonomic maps (sometimes called elaboration maps), that aims to

show how a range of things can be placed into a general class. They also show differences between

objects within the general class.

Following is the example of taxonomy of passenger cars

4- Taxonomic

Maps:

34Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart

(p.154)

In order to turn declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge we often need to now the linkages

between concepts and processes. A concept map can be useful because it can be constructed to show the

relationships between ideas ad practice and include, if necessary, reference to relevant examples.

Following figure shows some of the processes involved in undertaking and analysis of qualitative data.

Note how different concepts can be linked in multiple ways and how emphasis can be given to some

links. Also note the cause and effect or problem and solution structure that is an implicit assumption

underlying all concept maps.

5- Concept Maps:

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6. WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEWWe have already studied that in quantitative and mixed method

literature review plays an important role and its is usually

composed in five parts.

Introduction

Review on independent variable

Review on dependent variable

Review on the relationship of independent and dependent variables

SummaryAdapted from by Creswell, 2003

(p.45)

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MODULE BRM

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Course Aims• To introduce the basic philosophical and methodological approaches currently used as a foundation for

research in Business, Management and Social Sciences.

• To discuss critically the conventional distinction between “quantitative and qualitative” research and its usefulness in planning and evaluating research.

• To develop the skills of literature review and critical analysis of research reports by giving practical exposure to locating literature and reviewing critically by argumentation, reading analysis and mapping.

• To provide a comprehensive knowledge about the introduction, purpose statement, research questions, hypothesis, use of theory limitations and significance for the development of rationale in designing research.

• To provide a comprehensive understanding about quantitative research and develop their skills in different areas like operationalization, quantitative methods and ensure the reliability and validity of the data.

• To make a clear understanding for the use of SPSS (which is related to their previous course “Quantitative Techniques”).

• To provide a comprehensive understanding about qualitative research and develop their skills in using valid and reliable qualitative methods.

• To discuss various ways of designing research which focuses on the purpose of research, the use of theory and the research significance, its limitations and delimitations.

• To present a range of ethical issues relevant to the conduct and publication of research.

• To give an introduction of Nvivo (for qualitative data).

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Classification Topics

Knowledge and Comprehension

At the end of this module, successful students will be able to demonstrate the knowledge of: A range of methodological approaches and philosophical assumptions to

organizational and professional research. Ways of formulating and defining business and management research problems,

significance or limitations. Understanding of Literature Review and critical Analysis Issues in, and methods of, research design. The importance of ethics and values in business research. The requirements for effective analysis and interpretation of quantitative,

qualitative data and mixed methods.

Application and Skills

At the end of this module, the successful students will be able to: Make informed decisions about different research approaches, strategies,

design and methods which are relevant to different purposes To write a literature review related to business research problems. To conduct interviews and interpret them to develop results. To conduct surveys and develop analysis & interpretation of them. Write a successful research proposal which outlines and evaluates the research

process and method(s) most appropriate to investigate the student’s own research questions/subject.

Analysis and Synthesis

At the end of this module successful students will be able to: Critically evaluate the range of qualitative and quantitative data and information

collection strategies in a meaningful manner to solve problems. To analyze the research and findings of other people. Analyze the quantitative & Qualitative data for interpretation of results.

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TO DEVELOP A RESEARCH PROPOSAL FOR AN APPROVED RESEARCH PROBLEM

Guidelines and Assessment Criteria

(a) Abstract(b) Aims of the investigation:

Including the need for / value of the research(c) Problem formulation:

Relevant social / business context Main research questions / hypothesesBrief summary of theoretical / conceptual bases of the project Target population of interest

(d) Selective literature review: Brief summary (max. 3000 words) of the areas to be addressed, and of illustrative resources, including selective bibliography in recognized format

(e) Initial choice of methodological approach * and research strategy (ies)(f) Fieldwork:

An outline (only) of plans for methods of data production / sources, and for negotiating access

FINAL PROJECT

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(g) Research design: Outline of plans for indicators / descriptors for key concepts Methods for ruling out alternative explanations (or descriptions) Sampling procedures / selection of cases (organizations or individuals)

(h) Discussion of issues of validity and reliability – or alternative

criteria for research quality (to be clearly specified)

(i) Ethical and other commitments: Brief discussion of any major ethical or legal dilemma and political or organizational constraints etc.

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Presentation

The aim of the presentation is to allow students to gain constructive feedback from their peers regarding their comparative reports as well as allowing them to demonstrate their presentation skills. The structure of the presentation will largely mirror the structure of the report and thus contain the comparison on the basis of three basic research approaches i.e. qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. Points to consider when marking presentations are: • Timing of presentation.• Clarity of concepts.• Structure of the presentation.• Quality of overheads, handouts etc. • Application of theory to practice.• Ability to answer questions effectively.• Use of sources of information.

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Criteria of Assessment• Clarity and conciseness of your specification of various aspects of the proposal.• The relation of details of your research design specifically to the aims of your

particular study (That is, credit will not be given for the production of generalities about research design that are unrelated to any particular study).

• Justification of key decisions made.• Completeness of coverage of guidelines.

Weighting: 20 Marks• Guidelines (a,b,c) (5% + 5% + 15%) 25%• Guidelines (d,e) 15% • Guidelines (f,g) 40% • Guideline (h) 10%• Presentation (including bibliography in a recognized format) 10%

Length: Maximum 6000 words, plus references (at most 10) in selective bibliography (based on selective literature review).

Weightage: 30% (project: 20%, presentation: 10%)

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