LITERARY APPRECIATION TABLE OF CONTENT DEDICATION PREFACE CHAPTER ONE LITERARY APPRECIATION The Meaning of Literature Functions of Literature Elements of Literature a. characters b. plot c. Subject Matter/theme d. setting Narrative Technique CHAPTER TWO GENRES OF LITERATURE Poetry Types of poems Elements of poetry Poetic Devices
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
LITERARY APPRECIATION
TABLE OF CONTENT
DEDICATION
PREFACE
CHAPTER ONE
LITERARY APPRECIATION
The Meaning of Literature
Functions of Literature
Elements of Literature
a. characters
b. plot
c. Subject Matter/theme
d. setting
Narrative Technique
CHAPTER TWO
GENRES OF LITERATURE
Poetry
Types of poems
Elements of poetry
Poetic Devices
CHAPTER THREE
DRAMA
Types of drama
Elements of Drama
CHAPTER FOUR
PROSE
Types of prose
Elements of Novel
CHAPTER FIVE
LITERARY TERMS AND TECHNIQUES
PAST QUESTIONS
REFERENCES
DEDICATION
To God most high; and the literary genius, Mr. Victor Saduwa
PREFACE
For any student to perform well in Literature, he or she
must be well-grounded in Literary Appreciation. Literary
Appreciation is the bedrock of Literature. It covers literary
principles, terms, techniques and devices. The SSCE Literature
Paper 1 and some JAMB questions are based on literary
appreciation. In addition literary appreciation’s knowledge is
required for evaluation of poems, plays and prose works. For
instance, a candidate may be asked in a Literature Examination
to compare the dramatic technique used by one playwright to
that of another. Such a student needs literary appreciation
knowledge to answer such a question successfully. Moreover, to
acquire the language of literary criticism, so as to use
appropriate words to describe techniques/devices, expressions
and situations employed in a literature text, literature
students need a thorough study of literary appreciation.
This textbook is specially designed to furnish Senior
Secondary School Students and JAMB candidates with the
essential literary appreciation skills and knowledge they need
to perform well in their Literature Examinations.
My special thanks go to the following persons who
assisted me in the course of writing this textbook: Mr.
Francis Dieseru, Mr. Moses,Miss Ayuba Abigail, Mr. Fatai J.
among others.
Permit me also, to place on record my appreciation of the
following authors whose works provided me with valuable
information in the course of my research which has flowered
into this textbook: Benson Omonode, Richard .J. Smith and
Max .F. Schulz, Nanyen Ojukwu, Chinweikpe Iwuchukwu ,Sylvanus
Igwebuike, William Shakespeare of blessed memory and a host of
others.
Usiemure O. Christopher
CHAPTER ONE
LITERARY APPRECIATION
Literary Appreciation is simply the ability to
understand, enjoy and evaluate works of Literature. Evaluate
here means to make judgment about the quality or value of
literary work. Evaluation is usually an opinion about a
given work, but it must be based on facts
The Paper one of the SSCE Literature usually requires
candidates to answer questions on: Literary Appreciation and
a Prescribed Shakespearean Text. Questions on Literature
Appreciation are further divided into questions on general
knowledge of literature, questions on unseen prose and
poetry passages. This text is devoted to these aspects of
Literature.
The Meaning of Literature
Literature is a word derived from a Latin word
‘Littera’ which means, ‘letter of the alphabet’. Literature
as a field of study has many definitions. Some of these
definitions tend to describe literature as writings valued
as creative works, as writings of a country or as anything
in print. However it is wrong to limit Literature to only
written materials. An effort to reduce Literature to only
written materials removes from Literature the Literature of
Preliterate societies that were not written down. For
example, Nigeria only began writing with the advent of
European education in the 19th century. Should we then
conclude that Nigeria had no Literature before the coming of
the British Education, it would be a wrong conclusion. Of
course, the proverbs, songs, folktales, riddles etc that
existed in preliterate societies like Nigeria are forms of
Literature. Creative writings valued as work of arts are
only forms of literature. Literature is an umbrella word
used to describe a variety of creative works of imagination
that may be written or oral. We can also define Literature
as imitation of Life. It is an imaginary composition.
Literature is not a faithful record of reality as History
is. This means Literature merely copies actual life people,
events and situations.
Professor Egudu in his book, The Study of Poetry, describes
Literature as ‘a mode or method of expression. This implies
that Literature is concerned with the manner in which words
are put together to express a new idea. It is not a subject
that just says something new, but says that new thing with
skillful manipulation of words as somebody plaiting hair
dexterously weaves it to form a beautiful hairstyle like
braid.
The Functions of Literature
We study literature because of its great value, which
include the following;
1. Entertainment: One of the functions of literature is
entertainment. The primary purpose of literature is to
provide entertainment. A book that fails to provide
entertainment can hardly pass for a literature book. We read
novels, play, recite poems mainly for recreation. People
tell stories or sing to entertain themselves. Referring to
this function of literature, Horace had said that literature
is out to please and delight
2. Mastering of English Language: By reading literary works
composed in the English Language, students get familiar with
new words and master the structure of the English Language.
3. Emotional Relief: By expressing our thought or our
emotions as we often do through literary works or reading
literature books, we release our emotions. This is because a
literary work leaves us at the end of easthetic experience
with a relax mind, by providing our emotions with focus.
4. Social Control: Literature serves as a weapon of social
control. The literary artiste (i.e. novelist, poet, e.t.c.)
is like a watch dog to the society. He barks the moment
things start going wrong. Morality of the society is
measured through his works. Also through works of literature
wrong-doings of a society are exposed to all and sundry.
5. Literature also functions as a means of direct
experience. Some literary works have the settings
(background) of a foreign land we may not have been to. E.g.
The Merchant of Venice written by Shakespeare has Venice,
Belmont as well as Jewish and Christian traditions as its
background. In the same vein, The Joys of Motherhood,
written by Buchi Emechata has Ibusa, Lagos together with the
Igbo culture as its background. Thus by reading such works,
we get to know about the people and places reflected without
having been to these lands.
6. Literature Mirrors Life: By this we mean that literature
is a mimetic art. It imitates. The events, Situation and
characters we find in literature shows real life situations.
As we get amused by actions in literary works or condemn
activities of some characters, we equally laugh at ourselves
or condemn ourselves.
7. Literature is a reservoir of culture: When we read
literary works written by people from other culture area, we
get to know about those cultures. Sometimes we learn more
about our own culture by reading works by authors from our
culture area. This is because most of the literary works we
read embodies culture of a group of people. Simply put,
Literature is a store in which culture are stocked or
preserved.
8. Literature Serves As Historical Document/ Social
Document: A literary work would be used by historians as
social document to reconstruct history of past society. This
is because; a literary work conveys or reflects time it was
written as well as the virtues and the prejudices of the
time. The idea is that, every writer is influenced by the
happenings of the time he is writing. In fact some novels,
poems, plays e.t.c are reactions to political happenings at
the time they were written.
9. Finally, Literature is also a means of education and
enlightenment: It teaches new things and new ways of doing
things. In so doing, it broadens our knowledge and builds
our individual skills. In addition, it informs us about the
happenings around us.
ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE
There are four basic elements of literature. This include
1. Character
2. Plot
3. Subject Matter/Theme
4. Setting
1. Characters: These are the people we read about in a
literary work. In a literary work, a writer describing
actions or ideas must as well describe the characters
affected by the actions or ideas. The major interest of an
audience is on the people in a drama. So also our central
interest is on the characters in a novel. The author of a
literary work makes his comments on society through his
characters. A good writer must have complete knowledge of
his characters; the way they look, how they talk, e.t.c.
There are two identifiable ways of showing characters,
namely are, Motivation and Setting.
Motivation: This refers to the reason for a character’s
action. The reason for a character’s action must be given.
In literature, as in life, characters dictate actions. For
example, if Shylock had not insisted on Antonio’s pound of
flesh, the play, Merchant of Venice would have been
something different. A writer has to ensure that the reasons
behind his character’s action are clear and logical.
2. Setting: It is the place in which a character’s story
takes place. The people in literature, like the one who
reads about them, do not exist in space. They act and react
to one another. They also react to their world. The real
geographical location, the period and cultural environment
are some of the things which come together to form setting.
For example, the setting of Sizwe Bansi is Dead is South
Africa and the Apartheid regime. So also the settings of The
Joys of Motherhood are Ibusa, Lagos as well as the Colonial
period.
3. Plot: Every literary work has element of plot. Plot tells
what happens to the characters. It is the story-line of a
literary work. A plot is created around a series of event
that occur within a specific period of time. There are no
general rules guiding the order in which the events are
arranged. However a good plot has a beginning, middle and an
end. That is to say, the plot guides us from a character
with problem {somewhere} through a character confronting the
problem, {through somewhere} to the character overcoming or
being overcome by the problem {to a point.}
E.M. Forster describes plot as “the arrangement of event in
cause-effect relationship”. This means a plot tells us what
makes something happens (cause) and what happens (effect).
If there is no relationship between cause and effect, there
will be no conflict, and therefore no plot.
A story is different from a plot. Story is the narration of
a series of events or happenings in chronological order.
Consider the example below:
a. Mr. Odudu died last week and was buried two days later.
His children are in his home town sharing his property now.
This is a story telling us what events took place in order
of time. (Chronological order)
b. Mr. Odudu died last week. It was uncertain what killed
him, until it was discovered that he drank poison. His
children had gone to his village to share his property as
their tradition requires children of a deceased to inherit
his belongings.
In the above, the cause of Mr. Odudu’s death was his
drinking of poison. And the effect was his death. This is a
good example of a plot. A story may have more than one plot.
Hence we talk of major plot and sub-plot. Sub-plots are
woven into the major plot.
4. Theme or Statement: Is the basic idea expressed by a
literary work. It is the central idea or observation about
life. It builds from the interplay of characters and plot. A
theme may state that life is good or not good, or condemn
crime or exonerate crimes. It may sanction or warn the
reader to live a better life or adopt a new lifestyle. A
good story directs the reader to the author’s conclusion.
5. Subject Matter: Often students mistake theme for subject-
matter. Subject-matter is what is discussed by a literary
work while the theme is derived from the comments on what is
discussed or how the writer discusses the subject-matter.
The things, people and events a writer writes about are the
subject matter. We can liken a theme and subject-matter to
the subject and predicate of a sentence. While the subject
is what performs the action mentioned in a sentence, the
predicate is the comment on the subject of the verb. E.g.
Ojevwe went home. Here Ojevwe is the subject while went home
is the comment (predicate).
Mr. and Mrs. Portrayal’s children are very good children.
They are obedient and hard-working at home. They do all
their assignments and home-works. They keep their house
clean at all times and respect one another. Their good-
manners and hard-work at school are indeed reflections of
their good behavior at home. They are very intelligent too.
This has made them win scholarships. Their parents and
teachers praise them and are proud of them.
In this story, the subject-matter is Mr. and Mrs.
Portrayal’s children. While the theme is good behaviour, is
praise-worthy.
Mr. and Mrs. Portrayal’s children are very bad children.
They are disobedient and lazy at home. They do not care to
do their assignment and home-works when they get home from
school. They don’t help their parents. They are the worst
set of students at school. They give their teachers
headache. They are lukewarm and dull set of students. Their
behavior at school is the reflection of what they do at
home. Their parents and teachers are ashamed of them and
always punish them.
In the above plot the subject-matter is Mr. and Mrs.
Portrayal’s children. Even though the subject-matter of this
passage is the same as the first, the theme is different.
What is the theme?
Style: Is the manner a writer uses words to create his
literary work. The way a writer or a poet writes what they
have to express. We can rarely enjoy a story’s characters or
plot without enjoying the author’s style. A writer must
solve problems of style from his first word to the last, by
answering such questions as: What kind of words shall I use?
How shall I present details? Should sentences be colloquial
or formal? Should paragraphs be long or short?
Point Of View or Narrative Technique is a part of a writer’s
style. Point of view may be first person Narrator, Third
person Narrator, Third person limited, or Third Person
Omniscient.
a. First Person Narrator: This is technique by which the
writer tells his story as though he was one of the
characters in the story. The writer uses I, We, Us instead
of He/ She, They, Them.
b. Third Person Point Of View: Here the writer uses the
third person pronouns (he/ she). The narrator/ writer stands
apart from the character.
c. Third Person Limited Point Of View: This is a narrative
technique by which the writer describes the action as a
single character might see them. The writer sees the events
through the eyes of his narrator.
d. Third Person Omniscient: It is the method in which the
narrator/ writer reports on what many characters are
thinking and feeling.
e. Stream Of Consciousness: It is a narrative technique by
which the audience or reader is made to follow the mind or
thoughts of the narrator. The narrator here is not regarded
as real narrator though. The story is usually not told in
the order the events took place or in the order of time.
This is because; the human mind we are made to follow by
this narrative technique can recall many things at the same
time
CHAPTER TWO
GENRES OF LITERATURE
The term genre means branch of literature. There are
three main branches of literature, namely are: Poetry, Drama
and Prose.
POETRY: Poetry has been variously defined by different
poets. According to one school of thought, it is the
expression, in a language, of thoughts and feelings which
popped up intuitively. William Wordsworth however defines
poetry as the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings
recollected in the moment of tranquility. The above
definitions imply that poetry is natural, imaginative and
emotional expression. Poetry is also defined as “the art
which uses words as both speech and songs to reveal the
realities that the senses record, the feeling salute the
mind perceives and the harping imaginations orders”. . It
employs beautiful language in passing across its message. A
poem is usually written in verse, stanza and arranged in
lines.
UNSEEN POETRY
Unseen poetry is a piece of a poem, examination candidates
might not have seen before the examination. The poem is not
among the ones prescribed. Candidates are expected to read
and demonstrate their literary appreciation skills by
answering questions based on the unseen poem. Students who
make good use of this textbook will find this section not
only easy but also interesting.
TYPES OF POEM
There are four basic types of poem, namely are: Narrative
poem, dramatic poem, A closet Drama and lyric.
Narrative poem: tells a story. Epic is an example of
narrative poem
Dramatic poem: This is a poem that tells its story
through the speech of a character. There are two types of
Dramatic poem. A dramatic poem, in which only one character
speaks, is termed Monologue.
Closet Drama: A play in a poem form that is designed to be
read but not acted.
Lyric: Is a short song-like poem, often expressing strong
feelings. We may describe a lyric poem in terms of what it
discusses (Subject-Matter) or in terms of its form. Hence we
term a poem eulogy if it praises the qualities of someone or
something; or elegy if it laments the dead. Other poems
classified according to subject-matter are discussed below.
Panegyric poem: It is a poem meant to praise a person or
object.
Ode: It is a poem addressed to somebody or something or an
idea. It is often more or less a sober reflection on an
object or a personage. The following are examples of ode:
Ode to the Grecian Urn, by John Keats, Ode on the Morning of
Christ’s Nativity-by Milton, Ode to Nightingale, by John
Keats e.t.c
Dirge: A poem which expresses grief or mourns the dead. It
is shorter and less formal than Elegy. Songs of Sorrow, by
Kofi Awoonor is an example of Dirge.
Poems Described According To Forms
Sonnet: It is a poem of 14 lines long with a definite rhyme
scheme. There are two types of sonnets. The Shakespearean
sonnet and Pertrechan or Italian sonnet
.
Shakespearean sonnet is also called English sonnet. It is
named after William Shakespeare who is a foremost writer of
this type of poem. It has four divisions. From the first to
the twelfth line, it is divided into three stanzas of four
lines each. The last two lines form the fourth divisions.
Pertrechan or Italian sonnet is a poem named after the poet
Francesco Pertrach. It is usually divided into two stanzas,
viz: The OCTAVE (eight lines) and the SESTET (six lines).
The second stanza has the following rhyme scheme: c d e c d
e. However note that the rhyme pattern of the sestet is not
constant. It may have cde dde etc, as its rhyme scheme.
Usually, the octave creates a problem while the sestet
resolves or comments on the problem.
Ballad: It is a narrative poem which tells a simple and
dramatic story. It is often meant to be sung. A ballad has
strong rhythms and rhymes which give it its songlike
qualities. The following are features of a ballad:
(i) Themes of physical courage and love
(ii) Events that happen to common people
Every stanza of a Ballad is made up of four lines with
the following rhyme - scheme: ab ab, the first and the third
lines usually have four stressed syllables while the second
and the fourth carry three syllables
Idyll: a short poem that expresses a peaceful and happy
scene.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
Diction: It is the choice of words of a poet. A good diction
passes its message with suitable words
Rhyme: It is the repetition of similar sounds in different
words. Rhyme often occurs at the end of lines. E.g.(by /
sky). For there to be a perfect rhyme, the consonants
preceding the rhyming vowel sounds must be different. E.g.
ban /can, corn/ born
Internal Rhyme: If the rhyming words are in the middle of a
line of poem, the kind of rhyme thus form is called internal
rhyme.
End Rhyme: It is a form of rhyme that occurs at the end of
each line
Masculine Rhyme: Rhyme made up of single stressed syllable
e.g. Word/work
Feminine Rhyme: Double rhyme (when rhyme consists of two
syllables with a stressed syllable followed by unstressed
syllable e.g. ending/ pending
Rhyme- scheme: The pattern or sequence of in which words
rhyme with each other. It is usually denoted aa, bb, cc, dd,
e.t.c.
Alternate Rhyme-Scheme: It occurs when first line of a poem
rhymes with the third. The second, with the fourth, the
fifth with the seventh e.t.c.
Tone: Tone is the inner voice which sends the feelings of
the poet or the poet’s persona to the reader. A tone may be
of sorrow, anger, resignation, ridicule, contempt, sarcasm,
joyous e.t.c if a student is asked to state the tone of a
poem; he is expected to use appropriate word as one of the
ones listed above, to describe the tone. The tone of a poem
has direct effect on the mood.
Mood: It is the author’s or poet’s state of mind at the time
of writing his poem. Put differently, it is the emotional
attitude of the poet to his theme.
Rhythm: Is a word derived from a Greek word. It means
movement from one part to another part. Sounds are expected
to flow in poetry. As we unstressed or stressed word in a
line of poem, flow of sound is generated. Briefly put,
rhythm is that element which gives a poem its musical
quality.
Stanza: It is an Italian word for stopping place. Stanza in
a poem is a group of lines considered as one unit. Each
stanza contains a single thought or idea. Stanzas are to
poem as paragraphs are to a prose. Stanzas are usually
separated by spaces. A stanza may be named according to the
number of lines it contains.
1. Couplet: a stanza of two lines
2. Tercet: a stanza that has three lines
3. Quatrain: a stanza that contains four lines
4. Cinquain: a five-line poem
5. Sestet: a six-line stanza
6. Heptastich: a seven-line stanza
7. Octave: a stanza of eight lines
Imagery: It is a language that produces pictures in the mind
of a reader or a listener. In other words, it is a form of
language which calls up picture in the mind.
Imagery appeals to the following senses
1. Visual sense (sight)
2. Aural sense (hearing)
3. Olfactory sense (smell)
4. Gustatory sense (taste)
5. Tactile sense (touch)
6. Thermal sense (heat)
7. Motion
POETIC DEVICES
Figures of Speech: These are expressions commonly used by
poets in composing poems in order to arouse feelings through
evoking images in the mind. Figures of speech include: