LITERACY FOR LIVELIHOODS 1

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Contents1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 CONFERENCE RATIONALE

4 CONFERENCE OUTLINE

5 LESSONS LEARNED FROM DFID EXPERIENCE OF

LITERACY IN ASIA

5.1 Can be an effective vehicle of empowerment5.2 Concept needs broadening to that of ‘communication and

information strategies’5.3 Targeting needs to be improved5.4 Context is all important5.5 More attention to conceptualisation and design5.6 Evaluation systems need strengthening5.7 Needs to be considered within coherent planning

frameworks5.8 Needs adequate and supportive institutional base5.9 Needs adequate targeted funding

6 LITERACY AND THE IDTs

7 EXTENDING THE CONCEPT: LITERACY AND

LIVELIHOODS

8 FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR DFID STRATEGY

8.1 Institutional issues8.2 Knowledge management8.3 Working with others

9 DFID: RECOMMENDED ACTION POINTS

10 CONCLUSIONS

✧ Appendix 1: Conference background note✧ Appendix 2: Key challenges✧ Appendix 3: Literacy and links to IDTs✧ Appendix 4: List of core participants

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LITERACY FOR LIVELIHOODS: CONFERENCE REPORT

1.0 Summary

One billion people are illiterate. A DFID multi-disciplinary meeting in Nepal in December, 2000focused upon the theme of Literacy for Livelihoods.The purpose of the meeting was to explore strategiesto meet the IDTs and the ways of overcoming globalilliteracy. The meeting set out to learn from DFID’sexperience in funding ‘literacy’ initiatives in the Asiaregion. It also questioned why such initiatives appearto have had limited impact on the high incidence ofilliteracy. The meeting successfully extended thedebate beyond past and present programmes. Itexplored how the Sustainable Livelihoods Frameworkprovides an opportunity to design initiativesincorporating ‘literacy’ which might in future makea more sustainable impact upon the lives of poorpeople. The report suggests future directions forDFID strategies, institutional arrangements andknowledge management in order to engage moreeffectively in literacy programmes.

The key messages are

● Literacy can be an effective vehicle forempowerment for poverty reduction

● Literacy has the potential to enhance progresstowards the IDTs

● The concept of literacy needs broadening to thatof ‘communication and information’ strategies

● Context and responsiveness to local need are allimportant

● Policy, planning and implementation strategiesneed strengthening

● Literacy and wider information/communicationstrategies are not only education sector issuesbut need to be embedded within widerapproaches to development

● The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach providesa helpful framework for linking literacy andhuman capital needs with livelihoods

● The implications for DFID engagement includechanged institutional practices, a newprogramme of knowledge management andcloser partnerships with others.

The unanimous consensus was that this was anexceptionally enriching and innovative event, directlyfocused on strengthening ways of working to improveour effectiveness in poverty reduction.

2.0 Introduction

This report is produced for DFID’s Asia Director,who approved the meeting. We intend to disseminateit through a range of internal and external channels.We recommend that the Action Points for DFID(9.0) are carried forward by Chief Advisers and theirprofessional groups.

The meeting attracted more than 40 people fromDFID Asia regional offices and headquarters, as wellas from World Bank, UNICEF, UNAIDS andICIMOD (Appendix 4). Participants from a rangeof sectors and disciplines gained a deeperunderstanding of the complex linkages betweenilliteracy, poverty, vulnerability, gender and socialexclusion. It included participants from managementand administration and advisers from health,education, livelihoods, economics and socialdevelopment professional groups. The wealth anddiversity of background and experience led to a rich,exciting and dynamic cross-sectoral debate.

The conference addressed the key questionscontained in the conference background note

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(Appendix 1) - and extended the debate beyond them.The report provides an overview of the rationale,process and content of the meeting; and details thesalient issues discussed and the conclusions reached.It is not intended as a global strategy on literacy butit is anticipated that it will pave the way forarticulating the means of operationalising the futuredirections with which the report concludes. Werecommend, therefore, that this output be followedby further developments and outputs as a widerDFID Literacy strategy develops, which seeks tocreate synergy between both concepts of ‘Literacy’and ‘Livelihoods’.

3.0 Conference Rationale

The purpose of the meeting was to seek ways to meetthe 16-24 Literacy target in Asia through a newapproach to Literacy for Livelihoods. Section 6.0 returnsspecifically to the issue of targets. Approaches toliteracy programmes in the past have been criticisedas having limited impact - through high dropoutrates, low enrolment and completion rates and lowrates of return. They have been largely confined toeducation sector work, although there are initiativesthat owe their origin to social development and othersectors that are built into wider developmentinitiatives. Literacy and wider information/communication strategies are not only educationissues per se but need to be embedded within widerapproaches to development. The conference aimedto learn lessons from the past (especially but not onlyfrom DFID’s experience in Asia); to address specificissues of conceptualisation, design, implementationand take-up; and seek new understandings forapproaching and conceptualising literacy.

4.0 Conference Outline

The structure of the meeting (Box 1) enabled a logicalflow:(i) determining the key challenges and issues(ii) sharing experience by consolidating past

lessons(iii) developing an extended framework(iv) considering plans for the future.

Box 1

Conference Outline

Theme 1: Focus on Voices of the Poor● Literacy, Livelihoods and Lives - Some Challenges

(Kevin Lillis)● Community Literacy Project — Garib Ko Awaj

(Sushan Acharya and Vidya Nath Koirala)● Voices from the Field: Reflections from Nepal

(Cliff Meyers)

Theme 2: Lessons from DFID Experience● Nepal Community Forestry and Community

Literacy Projects (Peter Neil and RoshanChitrakar)

● Good News: Bad News — Big Success and BigNew Developments in Literacy Programmes —but the Poor and the Illiterate are Still with Us...Literacy in Bangladesh (Terri Kelly and LouiseBanham)

● Literacy and Rights: Perspectives from China (SueMilner and Jillian Popkins)

Theme 3: Plans for the Future● Literacy for Empowerment in India (Felicity

Townsend, Vandana Jena and Jagan Mathews)● Literacy, Livelihoods and Poverty Alleviation in

Pakistan (Hazel Bines and Carol Morris)

Theme 4 : Extending the Concept of Literacy● Literacy, Health and HIV/AIDs (David Clarke,

Michael O’Dwyer and Michael Hahn)● Literacy and the Environment (Amanda Seel)● Social and Human Capital Formation in the

Hindu Kush/ Himalaya (Zahir Sadeque)● Gender and Empowerment (Frances Winter)● The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (Cate

Turton and Susanne Clark)

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The report does not summarise each presentation.Rather it draws on and synthesises key issues raisedand discussed in the presentations, group work andplenaries. The summaries of the presentations anddiscussions are assembled, together with the papersthemselves, on the Livelihoods Connect site:www.livelihoods.org.

5.0 Lessons learned fromDFID experience in Asia

This section reflects on the background notequestions: (a) why have past returns to adult literacybeen so limited? (b) (more positively) what outcomescan be expected from literacy programmes? It alsoaddresses the challenges tabled at the opening plenaryof the conference (Appendix 2). Nine key lessons aresuggested.

5.1 Literacy can be an effectivevehicle of empowerment for povertyreduction

A major and recurring key lesson, which provides acause for optimism when rates of return discussionprovides a down-beat view, is that literacy contributesto more than educational attainments. Literacy is anempowering skill which reduces many fears - of beinglost, cheated or manipulated by others. It alsoincreases access to many types of information thatindividuals may want or need to achieve a moresatisfying life, to carry out responsibilities moreefficiently / effectively, even to challenge/ reject whathas been learnt through socialisation in an unequalsociety. It thus provides the potential (but not theguarantee) for a better life politically, culturally,socially and economically. DFID’s concept of Literacyfor Empowerment in India will carry forward theseideas in collaboration with the National LiteracyMission.

Box 2

Individual Empowermentthrough Literacy

In one programme, in Pudukkottai district of TamilNadu in India, with the backing of the districtadministration, women quarry workers were ableto use their newly-acquired literacy to organisethemselves for securing group leases fromgovernment quarries where they had been workingas bonded labourers. As important as theireconomic improvement was, their emergence asmanagers and leaders, as well as their increasedefficacy within and outside the home, provedimportant. A unique feature was teaching womencycling. Mobility was seen as a key toempowerment. In the words of a quarry worker,“By learning to cycle, I have broken many barriers- the gender barrier, the age barrier, the caste barrierand the class barrier. It was unheard of for a womenfrom a poor Scheduled Caste labourer’s family likemine to even touch a cycle, let alone ride onethrough the streets of our village. Now I can talkon equal terms with the contractors and even ridepast them on my bicycle.”

The National Literacy Mission in India did notperceive literacy campaigns as a women’s campaignnor was women’s empowerment a conscious partof its agenda. Yet surprisingly, two thirds of thelearners in the districts were women and the literacycampaigns had a powerful impact on theirempowerment. Women of one small village becameinspired enough by a story of a victim ofalcoholism, to launch a blockade against ‘arrack’in their village, which then motivated others. Themovement spread throughout the state, eventuallyforcing the government to impose prohibition. Asincome was saved as a result of bans on arrack sales,small savings, credit and thrift societies wereformed, school enrolment figures increased, andpeople began demanding teachers and repairs toschool buildings.

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Where programmes have aimed to empower the poorand marginalised, impact has included improvedhealth, economic opportunities, gender relations andequitable access to decision making fora (e.g. forestuser groups). Thus literacy programmes, whereconceived within broader strategies to reduce povertyand exclusion, have the potential to make animportant contribution to poverty reduction.

5.2 The concept of ‘Literacy’ needsbroadening to that of ‘communicationand information strategies’

The background note raised the simple question‘literacy for what?’ The wide ranging discussions andexamples revealed the complexity and multi-dimensionality of the phenomena of literacy andilliteracy.

‘Literacy’ and ‘illiteracy’ are not only aboutreading and writing skills

Being illiterate is closely tied up with marginalisationand social exclusion. In the past, ‘illiterate’ peoplehave been characterised as unknowing or unthinking.Learning to read and write has been seen assynonymous with learning to think, and also as beinga separate activity from other aspects of daily life.Illiteracy has been associated with ‘immorality’ and‘deserved poverty’ and has a strong cultural tabooattached to it. In China, those who are illiterate arereferred to as being ‘culturally blind’. Becomingliterate, therefore, has a significance beyond the actualacquisition and use of reading, writing and numeracyskills.

People use a whole variety of ‘literacies’ indifferent contexts

Many past approaches have relied upon a narrowvision of literacy, failing to capture the wider ranges

of literacy practices and processes with which peopleengage in daily life. ‘Signature’ literacy, for example,plays a powerful role for people in Bangladesh. ‘Visualliteracy’ (the ability to understand pictures, diagrams,video) and ‘audio literacy’ (the ability to understandradio messages etc.) are important in Nepal.

Box 3

Communication and CommunityLiteracy

The publishing of wall newspapers by communitygroups has been able to introduce more non-literatepeople to textual literacy through the use of picturesetc. Sharing and monitoring activities have led toa re-organising of a local communication network,and this network has published three issues of aquarterly village magazine, which has beencirculated to schools, forest-user groups and otherorganisations in the area, generating a high levelof discussion and action on a number of socialissues.

Strategies for literacy programmes need to take intoaccount these many and varied uses and needs ofliteracy; and also to begin with the perceptions andmotivations of ‘education’, as well as of literacy, ofthe poor.

Furthermore, recent research has shown that peoplehave developed their own strategies for coping withbeing unable to read and write. A study in Bangladeshsuggests that there are ‘hidden literacies’ and thatverbal transactions are codified in private ‘invented’versions of writing by those considered illiterate.

Given that illiteracy and lack of access to many kindsof information are part of the experience of poverty,literacy programmes therefore need to be re-conceptualised as ‘communication and informationstrategies’; and as a means of enabling the poor tomake their voices and expressions heard and seen.

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5.3 Targeting needs to be improved

Lack of involvement of the ‘voices of the poor’ indetermining programmes that can enhance theirliteracy capability is but one reason for the limitedsuccess of literacy programmes. Many programmeshave failed to reach the poorest of the poor - andindeed failed to target them - and in particular therehas been limited success in reaching women. It islargely the case that those who have been excludedfrom primary schooling due to economic and socialfactors are also largely excluded from literacy classesfor the same reasons. Insights from Bangladesh showthe extent of the problem.

Box 4

The distribution of illiterates inBangladesh

In Bangladesh, poverty measures have generally,but not universally, shown improvement. However,about 50% of the population still live in povertywith the burden falling disproportionately onwomen; and there has been a worrying increase ininequality (most especially affecting women) inboth rural and urban areas. Rates of literacy haveshown a strong correlation with poverty. Yet, it isclaimed that (a) the rate of literacy now exceeds62% (of the EFA target); and (b) that illiteracywill be eliminated by the end of 2001. The ‘literacyrate’ is, however, being measured by countingputative enrolments in courses - not by measuringattainments in any meaningful way. The scale ofthe problem remains huge -with an estimated 34million 15-45 year olds yet to receive theopportunity to acquire basic literacy skills.

There are frequent examples of exaggerated claimsof the success of literacy programmes - through theuse of massaged and inflated data. Targeting the poorand illiterate is extremely difficult in contexts wheretheir existence is denied, or where governments useliteracy programme enrolment statistics as ‘evidence’for national progress in literacy. Significantachievements in basic education and literacy arejeopardised by such over-claiming.

Unless new approaches acknowledge the real state ofliteracy attainment and are based on learners’ progressand their expressed needs for developing realisticlivelihoods chances then strategic opportunities willbe lost. What is critically at stake is the chance forpeople to understand and access their rights, to gainthe skills they need to benefit from an increasinglyglobalised labour market and to play an active partin shaping their own livelihoods options.

5.4 Context is all important

Research shows that literacy is contextualised inpeople’s ways of living and should not be delinkedfrom them in literacy programmes. Since, ‘one sizedoes not fit all’, more extensive context-specific needsanalysis would enable courses and curricular to beshaped according to the requirements of the targetgroups within highly diverse and stratified societies.

This raises tensions between making programmesappropriate to the intricacies of local contexts andscaling up to a nationwide programme. It offers apotential explanation for the failure of many massliteracy movements to make an impact upon marginalgroups. The discussion revealed that programmestend to be most effective when they directly addressthe self-expressed priorities of the learners themselves.Initiatives that address the interests of disaggregatedgroups and avoid the rigidities of central prescriptions(typified by generalised literacy primers and readers)are most likely to witness successful take-up andachievement.

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5.5 More attention must be given toprogramme conceptualisation anddesign

Many literacy programmes lack a sufficientlysophisticated design to achieve their aims effectively.The shared DFID Asia experiences highlight thatprogrammes need to be:

Seeking relevant entry points

In some contexts, literacy has been identified by poorpeople as a priority, and responding to this expressedneed has led to a demand for broader action (e.g.women becoming literate in Nepal have thenexpressed an interest in using wood-savingtechnologies that will also relieve their labourburden). In other contexts, supporting groups orcommunities to improve their livelihoods has led toa demand for literacy, starting with the forest-usergroups as ‘entry points’ in the case of the partnershipbetween the Nepal Community Forestry andCommunity Literacy projects.

A review in Nepal showed six different types ofliteracy projects and programmes: general literacy,‘real’ literacy, family literacy, empowerment literacy,business literacy and community literacy. While thisillustrates an attempt to categorise the different entrypoints and emphases, it does not fully capture thecomplexity of the picture (as the discussion in section7.0 illustrates). ‘Ways in’ may include a focus ontarget groups - working children, regionally remote,newly urbanised or migrant workers. The proposedcommunications and information strategy is a cross-cutting approach, enabling fresh inter-ministryconsultation. An explicit globalisation/labour marketskills approach also has potential. However, the WhitePaper: Making Globalisation Work for the Poor (Dec.2000) does not perceive illiteracy or the ‘literacydivide’ as backwash effects upon ICT or uponglobalisation.

It is important to stress, too, that the multiplicity ofliteracy approaches, entry points and types hasobvious implications for co-ordination between themultiplicity of sponsoring agencies (governments andministries, NGOs, CBOs and donors). Each mayindividually seek to espouse one or other of theseapproaches, with inevitable problems of attributionand ownership, at the expense of the needs of thepotential learners.

Based on a recognition of existing knowledge andan understanding of how adults learn

Adults have existing knowledge that is highly relevantto their lives and livelihoods. For example, poorwomen in Nepal were found to understand thelinkages between deforestation and landslides.Programmes which respect and build on thisknowledge, and enable people to take action on themultiple problems with which they are faced, aremore likely to be effective.

Many programmes are not underpinned by adequatecurriculum theory and practice. There remains analmost total lack of empirical understanding abouthow adults, especially the poor, learn and use literacy.Methods of teaching and learning and appropriatecontent are both important (and often overlooked)design issues. Traditional teaching styles have oftenbeen inappropriate, and many facilitators lack theskill and experience (and possibly the commitment)to bring about learning changes in their learnergroups (mainly poor and mainly women).

While these are extremely difficult areas to deal with,it seems that much can be learned from participatoryor learner-centred approaches (based on ‘participativeneeds analysis’) which offer greater flexibility andresponsiveness. Learner-generated material is valuablein terms of both the process (the educational valuefor the participants) and the product (materials whichare seen to be culturally appropriate, based on direct

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local experience and therefore of immediate appealto local learners and readers).

Responsive to the language of the learners

Of particular importance in relation to both targetingand design is the issue of the appropriate languagefor learning. The gains from learning in the mothertongue for children and adults are well documented.However, many programmes falter through theendeavour to push national or hegemonisticlanguages as a priority. The costs to government ofsupporting a multiplicity of local, indigenouslanguages cannot, of course, be overlooked. Learner-centred approaches in local languages allow forflexible responses and a greater chance of take-up andimpact.

5.6 Evaluation systems needstrengthening, with attention toqualitative and quantitative data onimpact

The background note asks: how can we judgesuccess?

Data as elsewhere are notoriously inadequate andunreliable. Formal monitoring and evaluation systemsare often ineffective in terms of assessing the real value

of literacy programmes. Traditional monitoring andevaluation systems are rightly critiqued by the NepalCommunity Literacy Project as rituals in whichassessors track the attendance level and what hasbeen learnt through a paper and pencil test and treatpeople like children — which is counter to adultlearning theory. This and other experience suggestthat evaluation indicators should come out ofcontext-specific exploration of the project rather thanexternal imposition.

Much evaluation has focused on numbers andquantification of inputs and has rarely been contextspecific. That said, a whole host of impact in specificcontexts has been identified. In China, literacy hasplayed an important role in the recent past in themove to collectivise agriculture. Communities inChina identified account-keeping, letter-writing, theavoidance of being cheated and reading newspapersand books as main motivations for literacy. Much ofthis is based upon anecdotal evidence rather thanempirical data. The World Bank, however isconsolidating a global data base, which section 6.0draws upon to illustrate the effects and impact ofliteracy upon the IDTs.

Much work needs to be done to ensure an effectivebase for judging success. A new approach based uponLiteracy for Livelihoods will require a new approachto identifying appropriate indicators for literacy andits contribution to livelihood. The potentialadvantages of qualitative and ethnographicapproaches require full consideration.

5.7 Literacy needs to be consideredstrategically within coherent nationaland local planning frameworks

The lack of clarity surrounding what literacy means,particularly to intended beneficiaries, often leads toa lack of a clear strategic vision at country level

Box 5

Choice of language

Decisions on the choice of language or languagesto be used will depend both on pedagogicalconsiderations and on visions and aspirations forthe polity as well as the economy. This will, ofcourse, affect the costs of the literacy materials andthe overall costs of the programme

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regarding approaches to programming literacy. Whilea range of literacy uses calls for flexibility and diversityin planning, this is often not matched with overallcoherence of vision. There is a clear need toincorporate policies for literacy as an integraldimension of national and local policy frameworksfor poverty reduction. The need for clear nationalstrategies and priorities, including gendermainstreaming, is axiomatic.

5.8 Sustainable progress in literacyneeds an adequate and supportiveinstitutional base

The background note asked: What are effectiveinstitutional arrangements? There are many examplesof the confusion and lack of co-ordination resultingfrom the multiple sources of provision at differentlevels, including indigenous provision throughNGOs/CBOs. Many systems are characterised by

Box 6

Role of the State

If a government decides to encourage literacy for livelihoods, a number of choices are open:from insisting on a state monopoly of a system to simply offering moral support to voluntaryor private agencies in their quests for financial or technical assistance. In between, it could actas an enabling contractor, mobilising the necessary resources to equip and contract other agencies- international, national, community-based - to implement the desired programmes.

Within the state, who should take responsibility? An emphasis upon literacy would suggest adepartment of education, while an emphasis on livelihoods would point to a departmentconcerned with occupational training. Another option would suggest an independentfoundation, partially funded and accountable to the state and enabled to seek financial andother assistance from wider sources, as well as to contract with implementing agencies at national,regional and even local levels.

responsibility for literacy being shared by more thanone line ministry - with a lack of structures for co-ordinating between them. Decentralisation providesthe opportunity for engendering cross-sectoralworking at a deeper and more manageable level.National programmes could be encouraged toprovide the frameworks within which locally-responsive initiatives, including relevant materials,can be developed. World Bank research suggests thatthe quality of adult education programmes has beenshown to be the determining factor in their efficiencyand effectiveness, whether implemented by stateagencies, voluntary agencies or jointly.Considerations of the role of the state is thereforeextremely important. DFID (working with others)could profitably enable states to form, strengthen andhold in place both their own agencies and voluntaryand community agencies from national to local levels,to design and deliver appropriate literacyprogrammes.

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5.9 Adequate, targeted funding iscrucial

Lack of funding has undermined many pastinitiatives. The NFE budget in the countries discussedhas often been less than 1% of the total educationbudget: with low unit costs reflected in low rates ofreturn. Specific attention to sustainable budgets isimperative. Twin-track approaches of UPE/EFA andadult literacy programmes (especially 16-24) arecrucial to stemming the massive pool of globalilliteracy and sustaining literacy gains in the long run.Extra resources are needed for literacy if and whereit is a development priority. In some contexts morecross-sectoral funding could be justified on the basisthat literacy has an impact in a number of sectors -health, economic, livelihoods etc. This implies a needto support the conceptualisation of literacy strategyand policy within a country’s broader framework forpoverty reduction.

6.0 Literacy and the IDTs

Two key questions in the background note asked:how can enhanced literacy for 16-24 year old femalesassist the achievement of the IDTs? and can we achievesuccess by specifically targeting women?

There is no specific IDT for literacy, but acommitment was made at the Dakar Global Forumfor Education to achieving a 50% improvement oflevels of adult literacy, especially for women in the16-24 age group. This indicator is linked closely tomany IDTs.

There is a growing body of evidence for the key roleof literacy in reaching the IDTs. Empirical researchevidence being collated by the World Bank showsthat substantial numbers of learners in literacyprogrammes make gains in the areas summarised inbox 7 below, which relates these effects to specificIDTs. ‘Empowerment’ cuts across them all.

Box 7

Literacy and the IDTs

● EDUCATION IDT: are more likely to send their children to and keep them in school, and tomonitor their progress; and participate in school management

● HEALTH IDT: show increased likelihood of altering their health and nutritional practices to thebenefit of their families; and of accessing health services

● HEALTH IDT: show greater tendencies to being influenced in reducing their norms of familysize

● ECONOMIC WELL-BEING IDT: have greater potential of entering into more productivelivelihoods

● GOOD GOVERNANCE IDT: participate more actively in community and political affairs

● ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IDT: show enhanced awareness of and actiontowards the protection of the environment; including participation in decision-making on use ofnatural resources

● GENDER IDT: contribution towards redressing gender imbalances - confidence, status

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The above effects provide compelling evidence ofsome inter-relationships between Literacy and someIDTs and poverty reduction; and the many positiveoutcomes that can emerge from well-targeted andwell-designed literacy interventions. A more detailedportrayal, prepared for the Secretary of State as anoutcome of the conference process, is contained atAnnex 3 and provides a useful platform for DFIDconsideration of these critical intersections.

Importantly, some gains are specific to women. Forexample:

● participation in decision-making● household influence on girls’ participation in

primary education● the influence upon women’s knowledge of

health and sanitation practices that showimprovements in the home; and in the healthstatus of children

● mothers who learn to read medicine bottlesare more likely to visit clinics and to embracenew health and hygiene practices in the home

● influence upon contraception; and utilisationof family planning services

● greater confidence and autonomy in familiesand communities

● better able to bargain for household resources.

It is also increasingly accepted that literacy has thepotential to assist in the prevention and spread ofHIV/AIDS via the dissemination of information,notwithstanding the paradoxically high mortality ofteachers through AIDS. There appear to be noempirical data about how literacy/illiteracy effects thespread of AIDS or combats it. Illiteracy, however, isstressed as a major problem in some national HIV/AIDS action plans.

However, on the critical question: can success beachieved specifically by targeting women? theconference was extremely cautious, arguing that

greater female empowerment was likely to emergewithin programmes with a genderised focus targetedat men and women together.

Literacy: a priority in reducing poverty?

To what extent, then, can literacy be considered apriority in reducing poverty? As the report indicates,evidence of success and impact of previousinterventions is mixed.

There are more than one billion poor people in theworld and a similar number of illiterate people (anda similar number of hungry people). We do not knowthat these are the same but the overlap of these groupsis likely to be very large. Illiteracy is both a symptomand a cause of poverty. It is a symptom in that poorpeople have insufficient access to basic education andthe opportunities that derive from it. It is a cause inthat illiterate people have limited access to take upeconomic opportunities that arise; it may cause themto have no voice in local decision-making; and maycause them to be and feel marginalised. In contrast,evidence and experience suggest that being literateenables people to have access to information; to maketheir own choices and decisions about their lives; andto take advantage of economic and socialopportunities that arise. Some of the most strikinggains made through literacy programmes relate tothe links between literacy and empowerment, socialparticipation and the redressing of gender imbalances.

7.0 Extending the Concept:Literacy and Livelihoods

A key question and challenge for the conference was:how can we extend existing concepts and understandingof literacy? A conscious endeavour was made to seek

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synergies between the two concepts of ‘literacy’ andof ‘livelihoods’.

Why a new ‘literacy for livelihoods’ approach?

Poverty is multi-dimensional, comprising aspectssuch as health, economic and educationalopportunities and self-esteem. There are complexlinkages between illiteracy, poverty, vulnerability andsocial exclusion. Yet in the past, old-style ‘literacy forliteracy’s sake’ approaches have dominated the agendaand led to unitary literacy projects that have failed toconsider people’s actual literacy needs and demandswithin their daily lives; and have not been linked toother dimensions of poverty such as health,vulnerability and social exclusion. They have alsofailed to address the social and political context ofliteracy. A fundamental issue is not so much ‘what isthe meaning of literacy?’ but the extent to whichilliterate people suffer social and economic exclusion.

The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA)

The SLA comprises a set of main principles of bestpractice and a framework in order to help understandand analyse people’s livelihoods.

Many of the lessons learned which emerged withinthe conference as important issues for ‘best practice’for literacy programmes in the future cohered withthe underlying principles of the SLA such as beingpeople-focused, holistic, building on people’sstrengths, dynamic and sustainable. The SLframework can provide a useful tool for helping locateliteracy within people’s livelihoods, in relation to theirassets, the livelihood strategies which they pursue andthe wider environment in which they operate. It wasacknowledged that there was the need to modify theframework to different contexts.

Literacy skills, as we have seen, not only contributeto people’s economic opportunities and financialcapital. They can also contribute to people’s self-esteem and confidence to participate in public fora.Being literate often encourages people to build ‘socialcapital’ - to participate in groups and networks whichthey otherwise would not do. Thus literacy is part ofhuman capital. The skills, knowledge and ability tolabour which enable people to pursue livelihoodstrategies can also generate financial and social capital.

People’s assets are often interchangeable. For example,people may use their social capital to substitute fortheir own lack of literacy skills, as shown in the Indianexample below.

Box 8

The asset of literacy

One gotti member (an indigenous system ofcommunity assembly in Andra Pradesh) observedthat “Palm oil is an important product here andone youth in every five households can climb treesto tap the oil. One in five is enough. It is notnecessary for everybody to have the skill. The sameis true of literacy. As long as we have enoughliterate people in the village we will manage”.

People’s livelihoods are not static but changeaccording to their circumstances. These are often notonly at the local level but at the policy andinstitutional level such as agricultural pricing policies,transport policies or land tenure regulations. Peopleadapt to these changes and often alter their livelihoodsstrategies. For example, in China, with changingeconomic circumstances, rural to urban migrationincreased which excluded people from continuing toparticipate in literacy programmes in rural areaswhich they were involved in - although they soughtthe advantages of literacy programmes in the urbanareas to which they moved.

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Vulnerability is another key issue. The prevalence ofHIV/AIDS has had repercussions on literacyprogrammes in that it has affected teacher supply.Natural disasters may cause the destruction of schoolsand other buildings in which literacy programmesare taught - and literacy may become a low prioritywhen people are trying to rebuild their lives. Thusshocks and trends may deplete people’s assets andability to participate in literacy programmes.

Central to the SLA is the way that programmesshould fully involve people and respect their views.The conference discussed how literacy programmescould be designed to be commensurate with the needsand goals of people, identified by themselves. It canbe difficult for women to see education as a tool forbettering their lives unless they are given concretehelp to make an economic difference.

When literacy components are embedded within theprocess of wider livelihoods programmes, they reflectan identified need. For the development practitionerthis means that needs analysis must be rigorous andthat people must be allowed to define their ownoutcomes.

Embedding literacy within wider programmes hasimplications for the ways of working. It requires morecross-sectoral working towards common aims. TheSLA provides a useful platform by offering commonprinciples and a framework which enables differentsectors to locate themselves within the wider picture,and define their roles within literacy for livelihoodsprogrammes.

8.0 Future Directions for DFIDStrategy

The conference identified a range of areas in whichDFID work could be enhanced to maximiseapproaches to literacy. Building on the lessonslearned, this would require new ways of working, inorder to maximise effectiveness across a range ofsectors.

8.1 Institutional implications

A lack of a DFID institutional commitment for‘literacy’ is a major constraint. Greater commitmentis required for cross-sectoral working, whilecontinuing to learn from the expertise of specialistadvisory groups. This will require enhanced cross-disciplinary team-working and more fluid internalorganisational structures. Budgets need to be givengreater scope for cross-sectoral application. The focusshould be on wider goals of development and povertyelimination, not on sectoral competition and

Box 9

Literacy and identified needs

In India, the experience with land literacy andwatershed management during the post-literacystage provides valuable lessons. The shift from‘alphabet literacy’ to ‘land literacy’ involvedresource mapping - a mass movement includingextensive participation of local people, scientists,economists and government officials to map landand water resources and the pattern of theirutilisation. The turnout in the land literacy andwatershed management programme wasoverwhelming because of people’s participation inthe processes of micro-planning and villagemapping and because issues of land use and watertouched the lives of the people.

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programme ownership. Thinking could be furtherdeveloped on how to encourage and support cross-sectoral ways of working in contexts where sector-wide approaches are being developed. In somecontexts it may be possible to support inter-ministerial programmes, building alliances atdifferent levels and between different sectors.A serious commitment to attacking illiteracy mightrequire an Imfundo-type unit and levels of resourcing.

8.2 Knowledge management

The emergent Literacy for Livelihoods concept willcontinue to be developed and disseminated. Greaterattention is required for learning about, and buildingupon, examples of good practice. This requiressharing of lessons between literacy programmes. It isnecessary to collate and synthesise existing researchin a number of different areas such as literacy andlivelihoods, literacy and health, literacy and HIV /AIDS among others. Such an exercise will render itpossible to identify gaps in information and tocommission further research. A lack of rigorous pastevaluation on the impact of literacy upon livelihoodshas also hindered progress; there exists nocomprehensive body of experience and researchwhich provides empirical information of the ways inwhich literacy interacts with people’s assets, agendasand initiatives to reduce vulnerability and exclusion.Impact assessments require a broader approach,contextualised within livelihood strategies.

8.3 Working with others

The conference reported here was deliberately focusedupon DFID learning from (mainly) its ownexperience in this field. The World Bank, UNICEF,UNAIDS, USAID and other agencies have similarlynoted that adult education programmes in health,

agriculture, forestry and livelihoods can generatecontinuous learning, when reinforced by the skillsof literacy. DFID should seek to work with colleagueagencies (as well as governments) to encourage thedevelopment of appropriate programmes aimed atenabling the poor to enhance their livelihoods, livesand well-being. More specifically, DFID might seekto partner World Bank in ongoing research on theeffects and impact of literacy.

9.0 DFID: recommendedaction points

As a response to the conference, further explorationof the concept of Literacy for Livelihoods is nowtaking place at regional and country level. Forexample, DFID-India will build upon these ideas inthe re-conceptualisation of its Literacy forEmpowerment concept. DFID-Pakistan willsimilarly explore the ideas in developing its Literacy,Livelihoods and Poverty Alleviation concept. DFID-Nepal will use a review of the Community LiteracyProject to broaden the CLP concept and expose itwithin a wider national audience. DFID-Bangladeshis undertaking significant work in influencing animproved design of major government and multi-donor literacy and skills development programmesfrom a livelihoods perspective. All of these provideearly opportunities to seek cross-sectoral synergiesin programme review, design and implementation;and for literacy to be seen as an asset to enable newlivelihoods opportunities to be created and taken up.

Action Points recommended by the conference arecontained in Box 10. It is recommended that DFIDChief Advisers and their professional groups carrythem forward.

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10.0 Conclusions

Over and above the successful debate on lessons,literacies and livelihoods, there were substantialprofessional gains for the participants and for the

organisation. These related to focusing on the poorand strengthening our ways of working to improveour effectiveness in poverty reduction.

Developing Concepts

The SLA provided a very useful tool to initiate debateand help understanding. It successfully assisted theshift from the (loose) link between literacy andlivelihoods towards a closer focus on the role and valueof the wider dimensions of literacy in the livelihoodsof the poor. This both guided practitioners intodifferent ways of viewing fundamental developmentissues and provided a perspective that underpinnedemergent ideas to overcome the constraints associatedwith conventional approaches to literacy, with all theirattendant problems of uptake. This assisted the keyunderstanding of the importance of linking literacyinitiatives to ongoing activities that the poor have aninterest in undertaking or are already doing.

Learning, Sharing Information and Broadeningthe Knowledge Base

The series of focused presentations and debateenabled colleagues from a broad range of disciplinesand roles to understand the complexities of relativelysimple concepts like ‘literacy’. This enabled a uniqueopportunity for alternative perspectives on a broadset of inter-related issues on ‘development’. DFIDadvisers and other development specialists fromSustainable Livelihoods, Education, SocialDevelopment and Health Professional Groups gaineda deeper understanding of the complex linkagesbetween poverty and illiteracy; and between enhancedlivelihoods, confidence in literacy skills andcommunication and empowerment of the poor. As aresult, major areas have been identified in which wecould build upon our current initiatives and developfurther ways of working that will capitalise upon ouractions across a broad range of areas.

Box 10

Action points for DFID

1. More work on the literacy dimensions ofthe SLA for use as a holistic frameworkincorporating human development morestrongly into the livelihoods framework

2. Develop a DFID position paper, sent outfor consultation, on a literacy forlivelihoods strategy

3. Design more effective joint indicators forliteracy and other sectors. Commission areview of existing literature andidentification of gaps, to bring the conceptinto the knowledge management andresearch strategy

4. Seek opportunities to link literacyinitiatives to on-going programmes thatalready address some livelihood need

5. Consider opportunities to support newinterventions in which literacy is linkedwith livelihoods strategies to achieveprogress on a number of IDTs

6. Establish a virtual discussion forum on theLivelihoods Connect site:www.livelihoods.org

7. Consider focused follow up regional/cross-sectoral meetings

8. Consider holding a DFID Literacy forLivelihoods meeting with externalpartners on International Literacy Day,8th September.

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The report has set out many of the lessons learnedfrom DFID’s involvement in literacy programmes inAsia. It has also suggested the benefits accruing fromeducation-with-literacy to a range of areas that affectthe lives of poor people. The report argues the priorityneed to embed literacy (appropriately defined anddesigned) in all livelihoods programmes as well as toincorporate literacy as an element in healthprogrammes inter alia. The conference demonstratedthe value of a new focus on literacy for livelihoods,but wished to be cautious about over-claiming the

likely impact. Such an approach requires furtherexploration and is likely to require additionalresources and commitment, if the IDTs and theirindicators are to be achieved.

The debate has led successfully to some positive ideasfor action that begin to see different opportunitiesfor incorporating literacy within a widerdevelopment process; and can realistically be takenforward by DFID in the global attack upon thescourge of illiteracy.

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APPENDIX 1

BACKGROUND NOTE

RATIONALE

There has been a relative lack of focus on Literary in the wider Education For All debate. However, theincidence of the literacy of females in the 16-24 age group is a key EFA indicator and is linked closely to manyIDTs.

How can enhanced literacy for 16-24 females assist the achievement of the IDTs?

There has been a long tradition of literacy work in Asia. Although governments, DFID and other donors haveinvested substantial sums in programmes concerned with ‘literacy’ either directly through educationalinterventions; or indirectly through human resource development in the fields of health, natural resources andlivelihoods, for example. However, little is know about the effects of those investments and there has beenlittle attention directed to the lessons learned.

Why have the returns on donor support for programmes of literacy been so limited?

There exists wide experience associated with endeavours to implement programmes offering literacy specificallyfor women. The development of literacy programmes for women has received considerable prominence innational and international development strategies. Literacy has been conceived as providing access to basicreading and writing; as a means of empowerment; as an entry point for wider programmes seeking to alleviateor eradicate poverty; and as an additional skill for improved lives or livelihoods. Programmes have beendesigned to attract the full participation of women in a wide range of activities, although there is littleconsensus on their impact.

Can we achieve success by specifically targeting women?

Throughout Asia, there is evidence of a wide variety of methods, materials and content - all associated withthe wide concept of ‘Literacy’. The approaches range across a wide spectrum of goals - as a platform forincome generation and economic improvement; as a means of empowerment; as a basis for generating socialcapital; as a means to improve health and impact upon morbidity and mortality; as a means of impactingupon the environment and the community at large. Many are characterised by a broad approach to inculcating‘skills for development’. In Asia, there has been a strong tradition of literacy for empowerment and for nation-building.

The broad array of intentions has led to a high degree of politicisation of the concept of ‘Literacy’ and this has

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impacted upon would-be government and NGO providers and the nature of much of the provision. It has alsoimpacted upon perceptions of (alleged) ‘achievement’ and post-literacy programmes.

How to meet the post-literacy challenge? is as important as reconceptualising the challenge to provide effectiveinitial literacy. Whilst the target of the discussion will be how to enhance literacy, specifically for women in the16-24 year age group, the influence of ineffective schooling as a contributor to the pool of illiteracy cannot beignored - and the meeting will investigate the experience in Asia about the impacts and trade-off betweenliteracy and formal education.

What outcomes can we expect from literacy programmes? And how can we judge their success?

The diversity of programmes, it may be argued, reflects the diversity of individual sponsoring agencies -governmental, non-governmental or international. There is rarely close co-ordination or linkage betweenprogrammes; and there is a lack of appropriate institutional and funding arrangements for literacy programmes.Together with a lack of clarity over the goals and purposes of the programmes, this has a major impact upontheir potential for sustainability.

What are effective entry points for literacy programmes? What are effective institutional arrangements?

Critical review and analysis of the programmes rarely takes place. Evidence of impact in limited. As part of itssupport to the government of Nepal, DFID-N has commissioned work, based in part on the above rationale.It seeks to draw lessons from recent experience in order to achieve a better focus and impact in any futuresupport. Although narrower in focus it complements more global work in the World Bank’s review of AdultBasic Education.

What are the major lessons from existing research on literacy?

The meeting is intended to give further impetus to this concept and to add wider conceptualisation to it withperspectives from Health, Livelihoods and Social Development. It also intends to draw lessons from (specifically- but not only) DFID’s experience in the Asia region and to learn from its current portfolios in this domain,drawing on wider sectoral and cross-cutting interests and initiatives. It will also seek to draw lessons fromresearch undertaken by ESCOR inter alia.

Literacy for What? How can we extend existing concepts and understanding of ‘Literacy’?

PURPOSE

To seek ways to meet the 16-24 IDT Literacy target in Asia through a new approach to Literacy for Livelihoods.

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APPENDIX 2

KEY CHALLENGES

1. Clarify understanding of concept of Literacy

2. Clarify language dimensions of Literacy debate

3. Identify major lessons from DFID experience

4. How (and what) to scale up

5. Determine ‘real state of literacy attainments’ and indicators of learning achievement

6. Clarify role of State

7. Identify key parameters for future interventions

8. Clarify strategy to ensure integration of school-based and adult education initiatives targeted at eradicatingilliteracy

9. Clarify understanding of how adults learn

10. Improve conceptualisation of approaches to literacy and adult education, including Sustainable LivelihoodsApproach

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APPENDIX 3

LITERACY AND LIVELIHOODS

Evidence shows that at least substantial numbers of participants of literacy programmes:

1. are considerably more likely to send and keep their children in school and monitor their progress.● people who attend an adult literacy class are more likely to report that they discuss schoolwork with

their children and that they check the children’s homework (Uganda, Nepal and many others)● children are more likely to be punctual, regular attendees and appear in better health, when their parents

/ older siblings have attended adult literacy classes (Bangladesh and Ghana)(Education IDT)

2. show increased likelihood to alter their health and nutritional practices to the benefit of theirfamilies

● women’s hygiene practices show improvements in the home along with the health status of their children(Nepal, India, Kenya, Uganda, Nicaragua and others)

● reduced infant mortality (Nicaragua, Ghana)● improved family care - such as digging latrines and keeping them clean, digging a rubbish pit, boiling

water, washing hands, covering foods etc.(Health IDT)

3. show greater tendencies to being influenced in reducing their norms of family size● women who have participated in a literacy programme are more likely to use and discuss contraception

(Kenya, India)● women are more likely to attend and make use of local family planning services (Mali, India, El Salvador)

(Health IDT)

4. have greater likelihood and possibilities to enter into more productive livelihoods:● micro-entrepreneurs fare better in the marketplace with basic literacy and numeracy skills (a wide body

of evidence from Africa)● individuals feel themselves to be less vulnerable, in particular the advantage of ‘not being cheated’

(Nigeria, India, Nicaragua)● greater productivity is shown among farmers and small crop-growers (much African / South Asian

evidence)● increased cash generation takes place through making more productive use of existing resources (Uganda,

Bangladesh, El Salvador, Africa)● increased access to information and markets (Africa)

(Economic well-being IDT )

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5. participate more strongly in community and political affairs● increases in voting and in participation in elections and local associations among participants in adult

literacy classes (Kenya, Nepal, India, El Salvador)(Governance IDT)

6. show enhanced awareness of and action towards the protection of the environment● community action taking place to prevent deforestation and soil erosion ( El Salvador, Malawi, Mali,

South Africa)● discussions about and initiatives on crop diversification (Bangladesh, Uganda)● increased use of organic fertilisers and pesticides (El Salvador, Nicaragua)

(Environmental Sustainability IDT)

7. Literacy contributes towards the redressing of gender imbalances● women show enhanced confidence and autonomy within their families and their communities ( India,

Malawi, Nepal, South Africa, Ghana)● women in particular show greater levels of confidence and report being better able to bargain for

resources within households (Uganda, Bangladesh, Ghana)● greater self-esteem and confidence in speaking up at public meetings (Namibia, Uganda and many

others)● women who participate in literacy education show increased confidence in discussing issues such as

how to keep men from drinking, how to prevent men from beating their wives, in taking the bus.(Nepal, Burkina Faso and India)(Gender IDT)

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APPENDIX 4

LIST OF CORE PARTICIPANTS

NAME DESIGNATION

Acharya, Susan Dr Consultant, Didi Bahini

Banham, Louise Assistant Education Adviser, DFIDBBetts, Julia Assistant Education Adviser, DFIDBickersteth, Sam Senior Livelihoods Adviser, DFIDNBines, Hazel Dr Senior Education Adviser, DFIDPCawthera, Andy DFID Education Adviser, World BankChitrakar, Roshan Dr Project Director, CLPNClark, Susanne APO SLSOClarke, David Senior Education Adviser, DFIDCroxton, Simon Sustainable Livelihoods Adviser, DFIDICurrey, Methab Dr Deputy Chief, Health & Population AdviserJackson, Chris Economic Adviser, DFIDNJena, Vandana Ms Literacy Co-ordinator, DFIDIKelly, Terry Dr Senior Education Adviser, DFIDBKoirala, Vidaya Nath Dr Consultant, Didi BahiniLillis, Kevin Dr Senior Education Adviser, DFIDNMcGill, Sue Head of Finance , DFIDNManandhar, Sajana Assistant Conference SecretaryMathews, Mr Jagan Director General, Department of Literacy & Education, DelhiMeyers, Cliff Dr Chief, Child Protection and Education, UNICEF-NepalMilner, Sue Education Sector Manager, DFID ChinaMorris, Carol Dr International Consultant, British Council, PakistanNeil, Peter Project Co-ordinator, NUKCFPO’Dwyer, Michael Dr Senior Health Adviser, DFIDNOxenham, John Dr Senior Sector Specialist, World BankPopkins, Jillian Social Development Adviser, DFID ChinaSadeque, Zahir Dr Social Scientist, ICIMODSeel, Amanda Education Sector Manager, DFIDBTownsend, Felicity Senior Education Adviser, DFIDITurton, Cate Livelihoods ConsultantWaltham, Mark Dr Senior Education Adviser, DFIDWinter, Frances Social Development Adviser, DFIDN