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R O B E R T E . T R E Y B A L
LIQUID EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICE
Extractive reactioniemouing product from a reaction
mixture as it f o r m s i e c e i v e s major attention.
delves into reaction details and mechanisms
Signgcant research
ndustrial application of liquid extraction has moved I ahead
rapidly in several areas, most notably in the field of petroleum
refining. It is particularly useful for separating aromatic
hydrpcarbons from catalytically reformed naphthas. These naphthas
yield benzene, toluene, and xylene. With the American petrochemical
industry rapidly reaching an annual production capacity of 600
million gallons of benzene, liquid extraction has become a major
separation process.
Most of the new installations for aromatic hydrocarbons use the
Udex process, a diethylene glycol extraction of the aromatics from
the reformed naphthas. Catalytic dealkylation of toluene and xylene
to produce benzene, a process which has become increasingly
important, also requires concentration of the aromatic
hydrocarbons. Extraction has become the major method for doing
this.
Isobutylene will be concentrated by selective solvent extraction
in a process recently licensed by an American fum from France
rather than by conventional sulfuric acid treatment. The solvent
has not been publicly identified. A new plant for propane
deasphalting uses three 70-foot tall RDC extractors, possibly the
largest such devices ever built.
In the nonpetroleum organic chemical field, the most noteworthy
news is the industrial extraction of acetic and formic acids from
pulp-mill black liquor. Methyl ethyl ketone is the solvent. The
extractor is very large, 100 feet tall, and of special design.
Details have not heen disclosed.
In the inorganic chemical industry, interest in the butanol
extraction of phosphoric acid remains high, as an important means
of producing a concentrated product for fertilizer manufacture. New
extraction processes have been announced by the Oak Ridge National
Lab- oratory for separating beryllium from its ores, for separa-
tion of yttrium-cerium, strontium-9kalcium, and for the production
of technetium-99. Niobium-tantalum extraction separations are now
routine, carried out by several firms.
(Continued on page 56)
V O L 5 4 NO. 5 M A Y 1 9 6 2 5 5
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In the review of the unit operations aspects of extrac- tion
which follows, the literature search ended about December 1, 1961.
I t should be understood that the reduced number of literature
citations in no way re- flects the activity in this field, which on
the contrary has continued to increase steadily for many years.
EQU I PM ENT
Mixer-Settlers. When a radioactive solute such as uranyl nitrate
is present in an aqueous liquid which is agitated with an organic
liquid containing a scintillant, the a-particles generate light
within a very short dis- tance from the interface, and this can be
used to measure the interfacial area (5A). The results do not agree
with those of previous work. This might conceivably be due to
surface effects caused by the dissolved solutes. Church and Shinnar
(6A, 40-4) have continued their theoretical studies of the behavior
of liquid dispersions in agitated vessles, using the concept of
local isotropy to establish conditions for drop breakup and
coalescence. The pres- ence or absence of coalescence was
demonstrated by the spread, or lack of spread, of color from a
small batch of colored dispersed-phase particles added to an
uncolored dispersion. Coalescence in agitated dispersions was also
demonstrated by observing the difference in size of droplets in
different parts of the vessel (48A). Drop size was measured by
light scattering. Drops become larger as the distance from the
agitating impeller in- creased. This was particularly true for
systems of low interfacial tension and large differences in the
liquid viscosities. Coalescence and redispersion of water mixed
with benzene, as measured by a chemical reaction tech- nique, was
negligible (32A).
Drop sizes characteristic of air-agitated two-liquid dispersions
were also studied (45A). Practical applica- tion in uranium
extraction is suggested (2A). In con- nection with his studies of
extractive chemical reactions, Trambouze measured the time for the
dispersed-phase holdup in a continuously operated agitated vessel
to reach steady state (9B). A design method which relates drop size
to operating variables does not require geo- metric and dynamic
similarity for scale up (17A).
AUTHOR Robert E. Treybal i s Professor of Chemical Engineering
at lVew York University and has authored many highly regarded books
on liquid extraction dealing with both theory and practice. H e has
authored IG1ECs Liquid Extrac- tion reuiew since 7951.
Earlier work on the interfacial area developed by passing two
immiscible liquids through an orifice has been extended (30A4) to
cover a wide range of pipe sizes, liquid properties, and flow
rates. The degree of dispersion in such situations can be related
to the rate of energy dissipation per unit mass (41A). Another
study of orifice dispersions (7A) was particularly con- cerned with
the development of light-transmission appa- ratus for
characterizing the dispersions.
An estimate of the effective diffusivity for drops of kerosine
dispersed in water, with butyl amine as extracted solute (344) for
marine propellers and spiral turbines as agitators, produced values
averaging about the same as the molecular diffusivity, indicating
noncirculating drops. For flat-blade turbines and the same chemical
system, the effective diffusivity averages two to three times the
molecular value. Reasons for the difference remain obscure.
The relative efficiencies of mixing for various mixer designs in
a pump-mix mixer-settler can be determined from the over-all rate
of heat (rather than mass) transfer between the mixed liquids (9A),
although the data cannot be readily converted to solute extraction
rates. A more detailed report (39A) of an earlier publication on
uranium mixer-settler extraction is now available. In recovering
uranium from ore leach liquors, it is desirable to be able to
extract the unclarified liquors directly, thus saving the cost of
clarification. Unfortunately the slime particles stabilize the
emulsion which forms. This can be prevented by adding small amounts
of hydrophilic polycationic materials, specifications for which
have been disclosed (1 6A). An excellently detailed process report
on bench-scale mixer-settler extraction of uranium is also
available (42A).
Several studies have been published of mixer-settlers which do
not use the conventional stirred vessel as a mixer, In the
Fenske-Long extractor, mixing is done by reciprocating perforated
plates. Scale-up for such extractors is demonstrated (29A), even up
to a 15-foot diameter tower, a 6-inch slice of which was operated.
Somewhat larger mixing intensities are required in the large scale
for the same efficiencies. In this report, a transfer unit is
defined in terms of a driving force based, not on interfacial
compositions, but rather on the bulk equilibrium concentrations
reached by the effluent liquids if the stage efficiency were 1 0 0
~ o .
The spouted mixer-settler, consisting of a jet of heavy liquid
squirted upward into a bulk of light liquid, allows mixing and
settling to occur in the same vessel (19A). High stage efficiencies
are attainable. Packed towers operated with cocurrent flow of the
liquids are a form of line mixer, the packing substituting for an
orifice or nozzle (26A). A small device of this sort was demon-
strated to lead to high stage efficiencies.
Several new mixer-settler extractors have been de- scribed which
are variants of the conventional designs (24.4, 49A). One (31,4) is
air-pulsed (not air agitated), which makes it particularly useful
for radioactive solu- tions.
56 I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T
R Y
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A review of the status of design methods for mixers (47A)
emphasized the many factors which still require research.
Application of the holdup-slip velocity characteristics of
fluidized solids to liquid-liquid systems has been extended for
spray towers to continuous counter- current flow (3A). The concept
is restricted, however, to nonflooded conditions. This makes it
possible to com- pute dispersed-phase holdup and interfacial area
in such towers at all useful rates of flow.
Expressions for the over-all mass-transfer coefficient for
single drops, arranged in the usual fashion as products of a
variety of dimensionless groups raised to empirically determined
exponents, were applied to single-drop ex- tractions of the lower
fatty acids between benzene and water (27A). The Sherwood number
here becomes the Kirpechev No. These are to be descriptive of spray
tower extractions, but use of the distribution coefficient as one
of the dimensionless numbers to ex- press the role of the
individual-phase coefficients is likely to reduce the general
utility of the expressions. Experi- ments with a small (2.5-inch
diameter) spray tower (37A) showed heights of transfer units to be
2 to 5 . 5 times those obtainable in packed towers. An effect of
direction of extraction was ascribed to differences in interfacial
area, Drop coalescence, which results in variations in drop-rise
velocities, in effect produced a dispersed- phase backmixing.
Experiments with butanol-water in a smaller tower (1A) showed both
continuous- and dis- persed-phase volumetric coefficients to be
essentially in- dependent of continuous phase flow rates, which
agrees generally with other experiences.
Spray columns are reasonably efficient, nonfouling heat
exchangers for two immiscible liquids if direct con- tact is
permissible. Their low cost makes them attrac- tive for sea-water
desalting processes (50A). Some new data from 4-inch diameter
columns operated with sea water and hydrocarbon oils confirm the
fact that heat- transfer coefficients are good, especially with low
viscos- ity oils.
Packed Towers. Some new, and some old, holdup data from small
packed towers were correlated empiri- cally by an expression
related to flooding in such towers (18A). But there seems to be
little improvement over the simpler, slip-characteristic velocity
methods of Pratt. The latter were successfully utilized, in
modified form, for a variety of systems in towers, 2 to 12 inches
in diameter (43A).
New mass-transfer data from small (1.88-inch diameter) columns
were offered (38A). The packings were smaller than the critical
size. In somewhat smaller columns (23A), over-all area-based mass-
transfer coefficients for toluene-heptane-diethylene gly- col, a
simplified Udex-process system, were essentially independent of
flow rates. This agrees reasonably well with other experiences.
Further, the same area coefficient was obtained as with gentle
mechanical stirring (12C). The area coefficient is also essentially
constant for the two-component system, toluene-
Spray Towers.
C i r c l e No. 12 on Readers' Service Card '401. 5 4 NO. 5 M A
Y 1 9 6 2 57
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For liquid extraction, computers prove practical in mass and
heat transfer studies . .. , ... . .. ..... .
'i. _..:_
packings for liquid extraction were described (28A).
Rotating-Disk Columns. Dispused-phase holdup, meas-
ured by a radioactive tracer technique for toluene-water in
columns of several internal geometries (25A) generally confinned
the earlier F'ratt slip-characteristic velocity relationship. Some
modification results hom a wider range of geometric configurations.
An empirical cor- rection to the slip velocity relationship is
necessary for small differences in disk and rotor diameters. The
characteristic velocity is not a constanf a t high peripheral
speeds of the rotor.
A description of Shell Oil's installation of two 8-foot diameter
RDC's for propane deasphalting has been made available (46A). A
study of the importance of relative wettabdity of the stator and
rotor surfaces developed that these should be preferentially wetted
by the continuous phase for best performance, much as in packed
towers (1OA). Addition of a surface-active agent to reduce the sue
of the dispersed water drops was also useful, but this technique
would have to be used cautiously, because rates of extraction are
frequently retarded by such agents. In a modification of the stand-
ard design, the agitated liquids flow from the main section of the
column to a chamber protected from the action of the rotating disks
for countercurrent flow from one compartment to the next (33A).
Here the dispersed liquid has opportunity to coalesce before being
dispersed. This arrangement could presumably reduce back- mixing
considerably.
Recommendations for estimat- ing the interface level for o v d o
w of the dispersed phase, allowing for pressure drop through the
plates and down- comers, have been outlined in some detail
(35A).
Pulsed Columns. The electrical conductivity of a liquid-liquid
dispersion is a measure of the dispersed- phase holdup, provided
the drops are small and uni- formly spherical (11A). This permits
the measurement of holdup in a pulsed column without disturbing its
operation (12A). The variation in holdup with pulse frequency, flow
rates, and with vertical position in the column was determined in
this way.
Up to amplitudes of 25 mm. and frequencies of 240 cycles per
minute, the efficiency of phenol extraction horn several organic
solvents was proportional to the product of frequency and amplitude
(20A). In the extraction of uranyl nitrate, the interfacial tension
and density differences as influenced by the concentration of
tributyl phosphate in the hydrocarbon solvent are important; a
concentration of 20 to 30% by volume seems best (13A). With the
system, methylisobutyl ketone-acetic acid-water, plates of
polyethylene with ketone continuous provided the best extraction
rates in a 2-inch diameter column (44A). Stainless steel
Pafmafcd Plote Towers.
58 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
. . . . .
plates, with either phase continuous. were much less effective.
Transfer i f the acid from ketone to water provides better rates
than transfer in the opposite direction.
In pulsed packed columns, with Raschig rings sup- ported on
perforated metal plates, uranium extracted from nitric acid into a
hydrocarbon solution of tributyl phosphate, there was no effect of
column diameter in the range 10 to 20 cm. (22A). Mass-transfer
rates were fairly constant with increased pulse frequency, but
increased with pulse amplitude. For a phase ratio of unity, either
phase may be dispersed without ap- preciable influence on the
mass-transfer rate. For a ratio of four, larger rates were obtained
with the majority (organic) phase dispersed (21A).
A new method of pulsing, periodically introducing compressed air
into the liquid flow, has been described (36A). Air consumption
depends on the frequency and amplitude of pulsing and the pressure
in the pulse line. General methods for design of pulse columns were
reviewed (EA).
Other. Work on the injector column previously mentioned in these
reviews continues in the Soviet Union (15A), with the measurement
of end effects which increase with rate of flow of the solvent.
A very complete review of equipment and its charac- teristics,
as well as of the principles of liquid extraction, particularly as
applied to the processing of nuclear reactor fuels, is available in
an excellent new bwk (14A).
CALCULATION MnHODS
In computing the number of stages required in a fractional
extraction, graphical procedures can handle two distributed solutes
even when their distributions are interdependent. In the latter
case a trial and error pro- cedure is needed. When a large number
of distributed components are present, hand calculations become so
tedious as to be impracticable, even for cases where equilibrium
distribution can be expressed mathe- matically. High-speed digital
computers, however, can handle these, and a program for separating
metal nitrates with tributyl phosphate has been developed (6B).
Some hitherto unrealized and as yet uncalculable conditions
evidently govern the minimum solvent ratios in such cases. A
digital computer was also used to study the dynamic characteristics
of a pulsed extractor (lB), and the application of analog computers
to stage calcula- tions has been demonstrated (3B). A computer was
also used to develop the cost-response characteristics and the
optimum conditions for a process involving antibiotic extraction
from the data of a Za-fractional design ofexperiments (5B).
(Conrimmi on page 60)
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Cinli NO. 504 on Readers' Service Cud
VOL. 5 4 NO. 5 M A Y 1 9 6 2 59
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Research in liquid extraction
delves deeper into
In countercurrent extraction with ternary systems, where there
is appreciable chaige in the mutual snlu- bility of the solvents
with changing solute concentration, all three components are
actively involved in interphase mass transfer. The concentration
profiles for such a case have been examined by computation (2B).
The number of transfer units actually required may differ
considerably from those calculated by ignoring this phe- nomenon.
RafIinate reflux in any case of simple counter- current extraction
is without question useless (8B).
Extractive reaction, where yield of a chemical reac- tion is
increased by simultaneous extraction of one of the products, has
been relatively neglected by those con- cerned with either kinetics
or extraction, but no longer. Trambouze, and Piret (9E11B) have
developed methods for computing such cases where reaction rate
controls and mass transfer are rapid, allowing for reaction to mcur
in one or both phases, for a variety of flowsheets. Some
experiments in pulsed packed and perforated- plate columns on the
hydrolysis of acetic anhydride in the presence of benzene confirmed
the methods (11B). When--mass-transfer rates are important, varying
the ratio of liquids in an agitated extractor-reactor by re-
cycling one of the phases may be useful (9B). When the reagents are
initially present each in the separate phases, the location of the
reaction zone in one or the other phase depends upon the relative
rates of mass transfer and reaction, a mathematical study of which
is provided by Scriven (7B). A practical application is given by
Latourette and others (4B) in an excellent laboratory study of the
epoxidation of an oil in a small packed column, operated
countercurrently.
EXPERIMENTAL FUNDAMENTALS
In recent years the realization that a direct application of the
two-resistance theory of Whitman to liquid extraction, with the
gathering of mass-transfer coeffi- cients from typical equipment
types, is far too great a simplification of the problem before us
has gradually but inexorably become apparent. At first it was
thought that if the mass-transfer coefficients could be expressed
on an area rather than on a volume basis, the major difficulties
would be solved. But it is increasingly clear that other phenomena,
such as the respective d e s of molecular and eddy diffusion,
interfacial turbulence, and interfacial mass-transfer resistance,
even in those systems which are not chemically reacting are of
major
60 I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING C H E M I S T R Y
importance. Wetted wall towen (19C) and disk columns (17C), so
useful in gas-liquid studies, are used, but generally these offer
difficulty in operation and in controlling the degree of
turbulence. They have been largely replaced by transfer cells,
which are gently stirred or otherwise agitated vessels where the
inter- facial area is controlled and measurable.
Experiments in this type ofcell by McManamey (13C), using two
partially soluble liquids, were designed to reconcile the
observations of J. B. Lewis that the mass- transfer coefficient, k,
is independent of molecular dif- fusivity, D, and those of Cordon
and Sherwwd that k varies as Do. in similar equipment, But k was
found proportional to D a 9 so the question remains essentially
unanswered. I t was suggested that the design of the vessel may
influence the result. In similar experiments (13C) involving the
transfer of metal nitrates from water to isobutyl alcohol, an
appreciable interfacial resistance resulting from solvation of the
solute was observed. Transfer in the opposite direction was
enhanced by interfacial turbulence. In the transfer of iodine
between aqueous KI and carbon tetrachloride, where the equi-
librium 18- = I - + 1% is important, the initial transfer rate
depends only on the concentration of 11, and is free of interfacial
diffusional resistance (21C). Inter- facial turbulence is
eliminated by using liquids in wn- centration equilibrium. Transfer
rates may then be measured by substituting a radioactive isotope of
the equilibrated solute in one of the phases and measuring its rate
of transfer. Acetic acid containing radioactive carbon was
transferred between two liquids between which the total acetic acid
distribution was the equi- librium value (4C). The over-all
mass-transfer coeffi- cient then was observed to pass through a
minimum as total concentration increased, and this was ascribed
(but not proved to be related) to solvation of the solute on
transfer and the effect of concentration on the
In the extraction of toluene from solution in diethylene glycol
into heptane (12C), the mass-transfer resistance in the heptane
phase is negligible, but an important inter- facial resistance
evidently exists. The constancy of the mass-transfer coefficient in
the glycol solution, regardless of the toluene concentration and
consequent viscosity, indicated that the viscosity corresponding to
the solu- bility concentration controlled. Interfacial turbulence
at nonequilibrium concentrations was evident.
Interfacial resistance was small when a jet of water passed
through butanol (18C) and a surfactant had essentially no effect. A
technique based on the Bruins- Cohen device for measuring
diffusivity, where the amount of diffusion between two phases could
be compared with that assuming the absence of interfacial
resistance, revealed an appreciable amount of the latter in the
transfer of acetic acid between toluene and water (2OC). In this
case, the interfacial resistance increased markedly with increased
concentration of a surfactant a t the interface, as measured by
decreased interfacial tension. Others have observed no direct
relation between these
(&rimed on poga 62)
diffUSivity.
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V O L . 5 4 NO. 5 M A Y 1 9 6 2 61
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variabies, so that the role of surfactants is not clear.
Interfacial turbulence, which may at times lead to strong surface
disturbance (3C), may influence mass-transfer rates through an
induced rate of surface renewal (14C). Kafarov has provided a
review of some of these phe- nomena (1OC). Surface adsorption,
which may or may not influence transfer rates, depending upon the
cir- cumstances, can evidently lead on occasion to false
equilibrium distribution data also (1 C) when separatory- funnel
shake-outs are done so vigorously as to lead to very large
interfacial area.
In the case of extraction from drops formed from jets of an
immiscible liquid, the apparent effective diffusivity within the
drops (considering them as equiva- lent to rigid spheres of
higher-than-normal diffusivity) may be very large (16C). But it is
difficult a t the present time to decide how much of this effect is
apparent as a result of interfacial turbulence and how much due to
orderly and expected circulation within the drops. Intermittently
produced jets provide laryer mass- transfer rates than jets in
continuous flow (1 5C). This no doubt contributes in part to the
effectiveness of pulse columns.
The continuous-phase film coefficient for heat trans- fer
between single liquid drops moving through a liquid can be
determined from measured over-all rates pro- vided a drop-surface
temperature can be computed (6C). This was done for three different
postulated internal drop motions (completely mixed, viscous
circulation, and stagnant), and the measured data was fitted to an
expression involving drop viscosity and interfacial tension as well
as the usual continuous-phase properties. This is useful for
nonoscillating drops (which appear to resemble completely mixed
drops) whose viscosity does not exceed that of the continuous
phase. The results may be applied to mass transfer cases, at least
in the absence of interfacial phenomena.
The work of Garner (8C) has shown that oscillations of the drop,
and particularly the wake, have important influence on the effect
of Reynolds and Schmidt numbers on the outside coefficient. A
demonstration of the applicability of the Kronig-Brink relation for
transfer within circulating drops was also provided.
A mathematical study of the influence of internal circulation of
nonoscillating drops on the continuous- phase coefficient in the
absence of natural convection (2C) showed that at Peclet numbers of
IO4, circulation may increase the coefficient by as much as
threefold. But the effect is negligible at Peclet numbers below
about 10. Actually, natural convection at low Peclet numbers may
exert by far the predominating influence. In the extraction of
acetic and butyric acids from solvent drops into aqueous base
solutions (7C) , the concentration of the base may or may not
influence the rate, depending upon the system.
Photographs of settling liquid drops have shown that the shift
of the boundary-layer separation, related to the internal
circulation, is the principal cause for their greater terminal
velocity as compared with solid spheres (5C). The internal
circulation, however, and
the terminal velocity are retarded by minute amounts of
surface-active agents. Some additional new data are also available
(9C). Kintner has shared his considerable experience in
photographing moving drops by offering complete details of the
techniques (1 lC) , including recommendations for best lighting,
reflectors, camera f-stop values, and the like.
LITERATURE CITED
Equipment
(14) Astarita, G., Chim. e ind. (Milan) 43, 10 (1961). (2A)
Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd., Brit. Pat. 860,428 (Feb. 8,
(3A) Bayaert, B. O., Lapidus, L., Elgin, J. C., A . I . Ch. E.
Journal
(4A) BrounshteYn, B. I., Bykova, L. G., PokorskiY, V. N.,
others,
(5A) Chester, C. V., Newman, J. S., U. S. Atomic Energy
Comm.,
(6A) Church, J. M., Shinnar, R., IND. ENG. CHEM. 53, 479
(7A) Cingel, J. A., Knudsen, J. G., Landsberg, A,, Faruqui, A.
A,
(SA) Damiani, L., Doria, A,, Fattore, V., Energia nudeare
(Milan)
(9A) Davis, A. T., Colven, T. J., A . I. Ch. E. Journal 7, 72
(1961). (10A) Davis, J. T., Ritchie, I. M., Southward, D. C.,
Groupe
recherches prod. superficiellement actifs, Colloq., 5e, p. 61,
Paris 1959.
(11A) Defives, D., Reed, C., Schneider, A,, GBnie chim. 84, 120
(1 960).
(12A) Defives, D., Schneider, A., Zbid., 85, 246 (1961). (13A)
Durandet, J., Talmont, X., Bull. inform. sci. et tech. (Paris)
(14A) Fiagg. J. F. (ed.), Chemical Processing of Reactor
Fuels,
(15A) Gclperin, N. I., Assmus, M. G., Khim. Prom. 1961, p. 269.
(I6A) Goren, M. B. (to Kerr-McGee Oil Industries, Inc.), U. S.
(17A) Hills, B. A, , Brit. Chem. Enp. 6 , 104 (1961). (18A)
Johnson, A. I., Levergne, E. A. L., Can. J . Chem. Eng. 39,
(19A) Johnston, T. R., Robinson, C. I V . , Cpstcin, N.,
Zbid.,
(20A) Kagan, S. Z. , Aerov, M. E., Volkova, T. S.,
Vostrikova,
(21A) Karpacheva, S. M., Rodionov, E. P., Popova, G. M.,
Ibid..
(22A) Karpacheva, S. M., Rozen, A. M., Vasilev, V. A,, Khim.
(23A) Kishinevskii, M. K., Mochalova, L. A., Zhur. Priklad.
(24A) Kotkas, R. E., Russ. Pat. 131,355 (Sept. 10, 1960). (25A)
Kung, E., Beckmann, R. B., A . Z. Ch. E. Journal 7, 319
(26A) Leacock, J. A., Churchill, S. W., Zbid., 7, 196 (1961).
(27A) Lileeva, A. K., Smirnov, N. I . , Zhur. Priklad. Khim.
34,
1158, 1361 (1961). (28A) Logsdail, D. H. (to United Kingdom
Atomic Energy
Authority), Brit. Pat. 818,272 (Aug. 12, 1959). (29A) Long, R.
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