Linguistics and Literature Papers Example: Paper Through Ages by Ummul Khoiriyah

8/13/2019 Linguistics and Literature Papers Example: Paper Through Ages by Ummul Khoiriyah

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PAPER THROUGH

AGES

- Ummul Khoiriyah


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is not surprising when we are in college and we have to create a paper and submit it to the

lecturer in order to fulfill such assignment. Well, I am a student of English Literature in State

University of Surabaya, and this is my first time experiencing how difficult making a paper

is. When I think about making any kind of paper either it is concerning on literature or

linguistics, it is hard for me thinking the ideas. I wonder whether there is such a person like

me feeling the same thing. In fact, after having a hard time of thinking and writing, it is really

satisfying enough finishing all of that burden. I do not know that a language will be so

complicated, until I am experiencing it deeply. How the theories are made and how they have been explored are mysteries for me. I think I am going out of my mind.

Then, my purpose of making such kind of this writing is perhaps this can be helpful for

everyone. Frankly speaking, may this can be such kind of reference for those who are

experiencing the same as what happened to me. In this writing, I collect all of my papers,

start from the area of linguistics to literature. Remember, you can use the theory in this

writing or use the same idea and the same method without copying the whole content of my

paper eventhough you are hopeless. When you are doing it, it means you have cheated and

lied toward your own self. I believe everyone has a great ideas, but the ideas are not going

well as in quotation of “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously” (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams,

2011, p. 122). To be honest, I get the ideas of making all of my papers after reading many

works and references. Opening your mind can make you awake!

At last, I would like to thank God for giving me those green ideas. Not being forgotten, I

would like to thank all of those who have helped me in making papers, my college friends.

To my parents, I love you.

PS: There is a paper in linguistics section that is not absolutely mine. It is a collaboration between Tiara

and I.

Thursday, January, 9 2014

Ummul Khoiriyah


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“This section contains of two titles of linguistics study” –


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THE LANGUAGE USED BY AMERICAN MALE AND FEMALE

RAPPERS

Ummul Khoiriyah

English Literature ‘11

Faculty of Languages and Arts

State University of Surabaya

ABSTRACT

The language used by American male and female rappers are considered as non-

standard or vernacular as they come from different social variety. The term of vernacular is

related to language that has different linguistics features with the standard one. The

purposes of this study are describing types of language used by American male and female

rappers and finding characteristics or factors influencing their language choice. The

linguistics features are divided into four: phonological, morphological, syntactical, and

lexical features. In phonological features, there are loss of interdental fricatives; realization

of final /ŋ/, the velar nasal, as the alveolar nasal /n/; clusters ending in /z/ and /s/ variation;

and /r/ deletion. In morphological features, there are absence of possesive –s marking and

absence of third person singular –s marking. In syntactical features, there are the existence

of invariant or habitual BE; the use of both negatio and negative concord; absence of

auxiliary DO; the use of completive DONE; the existence of zero copula; and then the use

of single auxiliary for both plural and singular subjects. The words used by American

rappers lexically different with meaning in dictionary. Those lexicons or words can be

categorized as slang or taboo words. Factors or characteristics of the language used by

American rappers are the existence of different linguistics features and the use of language

as an aspect of solidarity. Both male and female rappers speak the same speech style.

Language they use represents their identity and solidarity. Standard English is only used informal context.

Keywords: Vernacular, Linguistics Features; Language Variation

1. INTRODUCTION Every single speech communities has their own language which also has

different features of linguistics. It means that eventhough people speak the same

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language, the will us it differently. The differences can be seen from how the sound

is produced; how the word is organized; how the sentence is structured; and how

the word is used ( sometimes the meaning of the same word is different among

them). The use of language is also different through ages and gender. Adult and

teenager share different vocabularies, teenagers use their own words reflects their

identity and solidarity that adult can not understand. Meanwhile, the differences of

language use between men and women are in the lexicon or vocabulary and

pronunciation. We can see language phenomena are various since language is

changing over time depends on the context and the user.

In United States, people from different interests share different lexicon.

They speak the same English, but they are quite different in the way of using it. For

example, the language between rappers and workers are different. Rappers will use

the term of non-standard English in their community while workers share the term

of the standard one since they are considered as educated people. There are of

course some factors influencing language choice of speaker in a certain language

whether it is culture or even the addressee – to whom a speaker gets interacting

with.

Here, the writer interests in analyzing the language used by American male

and female rappers as long as their language is considered as non-standard English.

As the fact appears that standard and non-standard English share different features,

the writer describes the differences of linguistics features appear, start from

phonological features, morphological features, syntactical features, and lexical

features. The writer also tries to find kind of language American male and female

rappers use whether it is slang or taboo. At last, the writer will try to find

characteristics or factors influencing the language use between those rappers,

moreover men and women are basically differed when they speak a language.

Theories used in this study are the theories of Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams (2011),

Holmes (1992), Wardhaugh (2006), and Yule (2010). The instruments of data

analysis are included.

2. THEORITICAL BACKGROUND In this section, the writer provides theories used in this study. The writer

uses the theory of social factors and dimension as this study describes factors


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influencing language choice of American male and female rappers. Then, theory of

language variation is used as it is related to language use in social varieties.

2.1. Social Factors and Dimension

There are some factors influencing language choice of a speaker. They are:

the participants (who is speaking and who is the speaker speaking to?); the setting

or social context of the interaction (where is the speaker speaking?); the topic (what

is being talked about?); and the function (why is the speaker speaking?) (Holmes,

1992, pp. 11-12). The relevant factors in understanding a particular communicative

events achieves its objectives is considered as ethnography of communicative

events. The factors are suggested in a form of acronyms “SPEAKING” (Setting

and Scene; Participants; Ends; Act Sequence; K ey; Instrumentalities; Norms of

interaction and interpretation; and Genre). Here, setting and scene refer to time and

place of a speaker gets communication. They will automatically change their

formality according to time and place of communication. Participants deal with

various combination of speaker-listener, adressor-addressee, or sender-receiver.

Ends refer to speaker and addressee’s goal in participating such speech event. Act

sequence deals with the form of what is being talked about. Key represents tone,

manner, and spirit a speech is delivered. It can include posture, gesture, behavior or

even deportment in a speech event. Instrumentalities are channels of interaction

whether it is in form of written or spoken, formal or non-formal, etc. Norms of

interaction and interpretation are the specific behavior and properties in an

interaction that include speaker-adressee-others (those who do not participate in

speech event) views of the interaction, such as loudness and gaze return. The last is

genre that is related to types of utterance being used (Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 247-

248).

There are also four dimensions of analyzing factors influencing language

choice above. They are social distance, status scale, formality scale, and the

referential and affective function scales. Social distance concerns to the

relationship between speaker and addressee. Whether the relationship between

speaker and adressee is intimate (high solidarity) or distant (low solidarity) affects

the language choice of the speaker him/herself. The status between speaker and

addressee in superior (high status) or in subordinate (low status) is the explanationof status scale that influences a speaker’s language. For example, the language use


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between a teacher and school principal. Formality scale is also important in

assessing a speech event, it relates to the formality setting that occurs in a

communication, for example, the formal language that is used in ritual service or in

church. High information content or low information content in referential scale

and low affective content or high affective content in affective scale basically serve

information of an interaction. They are related to how speaker is feeling during the

communication takes place (Holmes, 1992, pp. 12-14).

2.2. Language Variation

Language vary in many ways. Speakers of a language will have different

dialects of the language. It is related to whether the dialects occur in regional or

social variation (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 135). Language refers to a single linguistics

group of norms, and dialect refers to one of the norms (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 28).

Regional dialect is language variation of different regions of speakers in the same

language (Yule, 2010, pp. 241-242). Meanwhile, social dialect concerns with

speakers in towns and cities (Yule, 2010, p. 254). Regional dialcts involve features

of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar that are different according to

geographical area of the speaker. Social dialects involve features that are different

according to the social group of the speaker (Holmes, 1992, p. 142).

The language variation includes the form of vernacular or standard form.

Standard language is actually based on an existing dialect of the language

(Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 42). Non-standard or vernacular form of language is

characterization of any non-standard spoken version of a language used by lower

status group, it is considered non-standard because it makes differences from the

standard one (Yule, 2010, p. 261). In United States, Standard American English

(SAE) is a dialect of many Americans nearly speak. It may have social functions,

but in fact, nobody speaks SAE. The term of SAE is used in most language

teaching environment only (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 440).

Here, the term of gender (men and women) in language is involved. In some

cases, the form of language of women are more conservative than those used by

men (Finegan, 1999, p. 407). In English, there are lexical differences between men

and women, there are also more subtle unnoticed differences (Finegan, 1999, p.

409). Women’s greater use of standard speech form reflects their sensitivity tocontextual form. Standard speech form is used in more formal contexts. It depicts


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social distance (Holmes, 1992, p. 178). In conclusion, women can speak vernacular

speech form as men the social distance is in high solidarity or intimate.

2.2.1. English Vernacular

It is difficult defining other dialects without contrasting them with the

standard, but there is nothing inferior about the non-standard form. Some

sociolinguists use vernacular as an alternative to non-standard. Vernacular tends to

be used at home and informal context. It is generally valued by the users, especially

as meaning of solidarity and affective expression (Holmes, 1992, pp. 145-146).

Vernacular is used in a number of ways, it has not been standardised and does not

have official status (Holmes, 1992, p. 80).

In the United States, African American English (AAE) or Black English has

distinctive features that do not occur in the grammar. Its differences act as a symbol

of ethnicity (Holmes, 1992, pp. 193-194). AAE is a group of closely related

dialects also known as Black English, Inner City English (ICE) or Ebonics (a term

that also has other meaning and connotations) (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011,

p. 443). The form of AAE that has been most studied is usually described as

African American Vernacular English (AAVE) (Yule, 2010, p. 261). AAVE shares

several characteristics with Creole English language-forms. It has pronunciation,

grammatical structures, and vocabulary in common with various West African

languages (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English).

All in all, we can say that it has different phonological; morphological; syntactical;

and lexical features with SAE. Those differences can be seen from the explanation

as written below:

a. Phonological FeaturesThose deals with phonological environment. They are related to the production

of sound segments. We can see it from r-deletion, consonant cluster reduction,

diphtong reduction, or even loss of interdental fricatives (Fromkin, Rodman, &

Hyams, 2011, pp. 443-444).

b. Morphological FeaturesMorphology is the study of the structure of words and the component of

grammar that includes the rules of word formation. Morphological knowledge

deals with morphemes and the rules of combining them (Fromkin, Rodman, &Hyams, 2011, p. 83). The examples of this difference occur in most common

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use of words which have absence of plural –s marking such as four girl – four

girls; absence of possesive –s marking such as mama house – mama’s house;

and absence of third person singular –s marking such as she get – she gets.

c. Syntactical FeaturesThis difference is related to the rules of sentence formation and the component

of mental grammar that represents speaker’s knowledge of the structure of

phrases and sentences. There are use different syntactical features between SAE

and AAVE. They are: use of multiple negatives or negative concord such as he

don’t know nothing ; deletion of ‘be’ (zero copula) such as he nice; habitual ‘be’

such as John be happy; and ‘there’ replacement (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams,

2011, pp. 445-446).

d. Lexical FeaturesLexical category is general term for the word-level syntactic categories of noun,

adjective, verb, and adverb. These are categories of content and function words.

While lexicon is the component of the grammar containing speakers’

knowledge about morphemes and words; a speaker’s mental dictionary. AAVE

shares much of its lexicon with other varieties of English. Some of the

vocabularies etymology are often difficult to trace; in many cases, the

postulated etymologies are not recognized by linguists or dictionary

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English). For

example, the existence of the word “jigga” that does not exist in dictionary.

Sometimes, the same words of AAVE and SAE have different lexical meaning.

2.2.2. Slang

Slang or colloquial speech describes words that are used among younger

speakers and other social groups with special interests in everyday communication

(Yule, 2010, p. 259). It is one of informal style that occurs frequently. People use

and recognize slang well. The use of slang has produced a new word by combining

old word into a new meaning in a language. Slang also results entirely new words

with new meanings (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 470).

2.2.3. Taboo

Taboo is a tongan word meaning “forbidden”. Taboo is the term ofunacceptable words in a certain language. It is considered unacceptable as long as

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the word is offensive (swear words) or obscene (profanity). Words relating to sex,

sex organs, and natural bodily functions are part of the set of taboo words in many

cultures. There is no grammatical reason of why a word is considered as taboo, but

it is clear that there are sociolinguistics reason of it (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams,

2011, pp. 471-473).

3. RESEARCH METHOD The writer uses qualitative method of research in this study. The method is

used because it is suitable since the goal of this study are describing types of

language used by both American male and female rappers and finding the

characteristics. The source of the data is three songs of each three male rappers and

three songs of each three female rappers. The rappers are 50 Cent (Candy Shop, In

Da Club, and Many Men); Jay Z (99 Problems, Empire State of Mind , and Hard

Knock Life); Eminem ( Lose Yourself , Not Afraid , and Till I Collapse); Lauryn Hill

( Doo Woop That Thing , Everything Is Everything , and Final Hour ); Lil’ Kim ( Big

Momma Thang , No Time, and Queen Bitch); and Missy Elliot ( Beep Me 911, She’s

A Bitch, and Queen Bitch). The writer uses the lyrics of the whole 18 rap songs to

find features of linguistics this community uses, including phonological features;

morphological features; syntactical features; and then lexical features.

The main instrument of this data analysis is the writer herself since this

study does not involve direct participant (using non-participant observation for the

data collection technique) by asking them to interact. The writer takes a big role in

using the lyrics in order to find the poof of non-standard English existence among

them. Besides, the writer also uses online slang dictionary (cited

onlineslangdictionary.com) and the third edition of Cambridge Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary to provide translation of lexicon (slang or taboo words) they have.

The way the writer uses in this analysis are: 1. Identifying the data, finding

the non-standard English words; 2. Classifying the data, differentiating the non-

standard English words rappers have in different features of linguistics; 3.

Analyzing the data; 4. Describing factors of language used by them; 5. Cocluding ,

includes finding the result of the study.


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4. FINDING AND DISCUSSION In this section, the writer provides data analysis of the language used by

American male and female rappers. Since the language they use has linguistics

features difference with SAE (Standard American English), the data analysis will

be grouped into 4: phonological features, morphological features, syntactical

features, and lexical features. There is also other findings of this study deals with

their lexicons are slang and taboo words. The characteristics of their language

choice will be explained in discussion section.

4.1. FINDING

The writer does not provide the whole lyrics consist of different features of

linguistics between the language used by American male and female rappers with

SAE in data analysis. The writer only uses lyrics represent the different linguistics

features between them as long as the rappers share the same words and they often

use the same changes in the form of the words.

4.1.1. Phonological Features

Phonological features deals with the production of the sound segments in a

language. Here, the writer provides data that have different production of sound

segments with SAE.

1. let 'em hate then watch the money pile up (50 Cent – Candy Shop)

2. You can try and read my lyrics off of this paper before I lay 'em (Eminem

– Not Afraid)

In 1 to 2, there is no existence of the sound /ð/. 50 Cent and Eminem use the same

word of “em” in the use of the word”them”. Actually the word “them” should be

pronounced as /ðem/, but they simply omit the sound /ð/.

3. Twenty four carats nigga that's when I'm fuckin' wit' the average nigga

(Lil’ Kim – Big Momma Thang)

In 3, “wit” is the form of “with”. “with” should be pronounced as /wɪð/, but in 3,

the sound of /ð/ is absented. As long as the word is ended by /ð/, they will usually

omit it.


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4. you da best (Lil’ Kim – No Time)

5. Why not, break it down like dat (Missy Elliot – The Rain)

The word “da” in 4 is derived from the word “the”. Here, “the” should be

pronounced as /ðə/, but the rapper simply replaces /ð/ with /d/. This case also

happens in 5. The word “dat” is derived from the word “that”. In SAE, “that”

should be pronounced as /ðæt/, but the rapper replaces /ð/ with /d/. All of cases in 1

to 5 are the cases of loss of interdental fricatives.

6. Locked down in the ten by fo' (Jay Z – Hard Knock Life)

7. Nuttin' make a woman feel betta (Lil’ Kim – No Time)

8. Get ya friend and ya girl and them

9. Girl, get yo mind checked (Missy Elliot – Beep Me 911)

10. See I got mo' cheese (Missy Elliot – She’s A Bitch)

In 6 to 10, there is the same case of r-deletion. “fo” is a new form of “four”, “betta”

is a new form of “better”, “ya” and “yo” are new forms of “your”, and “mo” is a

new form of “more”. In 6, 8, 9, and 10, the only reason of /r/ is deleted is because

there is a rounded vowel before /r/, /ɔ/.

- “fo” (four) should be pronounced as /fɔːr/

- “yo” (your) should be pronounced as /jɔː r /

- “mo” (more) should be pronounced as /mɔːr/

11. I'm into havin' sex, I ain't into makin' love (50 Cent – In Da Club)

12. Just lettin' you know that you're not alone (Eminem – Not Afraid)

13. This is your moment and every sin'le minute you spend (Eminem – Till

I Collapse)

14. If you havin' girl problems I feel bad for you son (Jay Z – 99 Problems)

11 to 14 are considered as the case of realization of final /ŋ/, the velar nasal, as the

alveolar nasal /n/. The words “havin”, “makin”, “lettin”, and sin’le” have velar


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nasal sound segment either in the end of the word or in the center of the word. This

realization occur in function or content morpheme with two syllables, having

consists of two syllables.

15. Now these pussy niggaz putting money on my head

16. niggaz keep pulling techs on me (50 Cent – Many Men)

15 and 16 show that there is clusters ending in both /z/ and /s/ variation. The word

“niggaz” is derived from “niggers”. There is consonant cluster existence of –rs that

has been changed into /z/. Then the word “techs” is derived from the word

“technology” that has experienced back-clipping process as “tech”. The rapper adds

/s/ after consonant cluster –ch. In fact, the consonant cluster is pronounced weakly,while /s/ is pronounced strongly.

4.1.2. Morphological Features

1. it come to this

2. she like it from behind (50 Cent – Candy Shop)

3. If the roof on fire, let the motherfucker burn (50 Cent – In Da Club)

4. Everybody ride her just like a bus route (Jay Z – Empire State Of Mind)

Our grammatical knowledge will simply recognize the addition of –s or –es in verb

after third person singular existence in a sentence. The rappers do not use this

addition when they organize sentences with singular term. They treat the verb as the

verb they use in plural form.

- it comes ..

- she likes ..

- let the motherfucker burns ..

5. Baby mama drama's screaming on and too much for me to wanna

(Eminem – Lose Yourself)

6. Shit, I made the Yankee hat more famous than a Yankee can (Jay Z –

Empire State Of Mind)

7. Don't discuss the baby mother business (Lauryn Hill – Final Hour)

8. it's a big momma thang (Lil’ Kim – Big Momma Thang)


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The case in 5 to 8 is the case of the absence of possessive –s marking. The use of

additional –s actually represents the possessive use in a sentence. In fact, the

rappers do not apply it at all.

- Baby mama’s drama

- Yankee’s hat

- Baby’s mother business

- Big momma’s thang

4.1.3. Syntactical Features

1. If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho (50 Cent – Candy Shop)

2. They know where we fuckin' be (50 Cent – In Da Club)

3. Nigga, I be spiked out (Jay Z – Empire State Of Mind)

4. Look at what you be in (Lauryn Hill – Doo Woop That Thing)

In 1 to 4, there is the case of invariant or habitual BE existence. People will

automatically use any auxiliaries when they organize nominal sentence, such as am,

is, are, was, were, etc. There is no such kind of this application in language they

use.

- If you are a nympho ..

- where we are ..

- .. I am spiked out

- Look at what you are in

The case in 2 is special as it uses the addition of “fucking” before another word.

Rappers tend to use addition of swearing or fucking word before they use a certain

word.

5. I ain't finished teaching you 'bout how sprung I got ya (50 Cent – Candy

Shop)

6. I'm the diamond in the dirt, that ain't been found (50 Cent – Many Men)

7. Look nigga, I done came up, and I ain't changed (50 Cent – In Da Club)

There is the existence of negation and completive DONE in lyrics 5 to 7. We will

use auxiliaries in forming negative form of verbal sentence. The rappers do not use

this rule in their language used. Here, they also use only DONE in signalingcompletion or statinng activity that has been finished in the past.


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- I have not finished ..

- that has not been found

- .. I have done ..

8. how you think you're really going to pretend? (Lauryn Hill – Doo Woop

That Thing)

9. Who made these rules? (Lauryn Hill – Everything Is Everything)

10. How you like it baby? (Lil’ Kim – No Time)

11. Why you played on me? (Missy Elliot – Beep Me 911)

12. who got the keys to the jeep? (Missy Elliot – The Rain)

In 8 to 12, there is absence of auxiliary DO in interrogative sentences. In present

tense, the rappers do not use DO, they only use question words that is followed by

infinitive verb; while in past tense, they only use question words that is followed by

irregular or regular verb.

- how do you think ..

- Who did make ..

- How do you like ..

- Why did you play ..

- who did get ..

13. Like you wasn't down and you called him again? (Lauryn Hill – Doo

Woop That Thing)

14. I thought we was cool, why you want me to die homie? (50 Cent –

Many Men)

15. it don't matter he's dope (Eminem – Lose Yourself)

16. Well you was doin fifty-five in the fifty-four (Jay Z – 99 Problems)

17. Maybe, they was right 'cause I feel like a fool (Missy Elliot – Beep Me

911)

Here (13 to 17), the writer finds the use of one auxiliary for all subjects (plural and

singular). Actually, the use of auxiliary depends on the subject whether it is plural

or singular, but the rappers do not use this rule at all.

- .. you were not ..

- .. we were cool ..

- it does not ..

- .. they were ..18. He don't say nothing back (50 Cent – Many Men)


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19. You ain't never heard a sound like this before (50 Cent – Candy Shop)

20. Lord I don't cry no more (50 Cent – Many Men)

21. These hoes don't want him no more (Eminem – Lose Yourself)

There is multiple negation or double negatives or negative concord in 18 to 21. It

often appears in the language used by American male and female rappers. After

using negative form in a sentence, we simply use kind of possitive words after all.

- He does not say anything

- You have not heard or You have never heard

- I no more cry or I don’t cry

- These hoes don’t want him

There are many alternative sentences in interpreting sentence with negative concord

as long as there are no both of negative forms in one sentence.

22. The pretty face men claiming that they be the "big men." (Lauryn Hill

– Doo Woop That Thing)

23. they sayin,"50 you hot" (50 Cent – In Da Club)

24. My practice extending across the atlas (Lauryn Hill – Everything Is

Everything)

25. Why you cheatin' on me? (Missy Elliot – Beep Me 911)

In 22 to 25, there is the case of zero copula (absence of is and are). The use of

copula depens on the subject.

- The pretty face men are claiming - They are saying - My practice is extending - Why are you cheating

4.1.4. Lexical Features

Lexical features deals with the meaning of the words that have been used in

a language. Here, the writer provides lexicons of the language used by American

male and female rappers that do not exist in dictionary. Sometimes, there are words

that exist in the dictionary, but they are totally different in the meaning. The more

complete data is provided in the appendix.


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No.

Song

Title Rapper Lyric Meaning

1

Candy

Shop

50 Cent

If you be a nympho, I'll

be a nympho nymphomaniac

2

Wanna show me how

you work it baby? Acronym of want to

3 it come to this shit used in negatives to mean 'anything'

4

how erotic it is to watch

you in thongs?

underpants resembling a G-string;

worn by women especially under

very tight pants

5Had me thinking 'boutthat ass after I'm gone

used by men to refer to sexual

activity, or to women considered

only as sex objects

6

Long as she ain't

stopping, homie I ain't

stopping A good friend

7

In Da

Club

Go shawty, it's your

birthday An addressee to someone

8

We gonna party like it's

your birthday Acronym of going to

9

And you know we don't

give a fuck

to treat someone badly by wasting

their time or causing them problems

10

So come gimme a hug, if

you're into gettin' rubbed Acronym of hive me

11

When I pull up out front,

you see the Benz on dubs Refers to a car

12

Niggaz heard I fuck with

Dre Nigger; An addressee to a black

13

When you sell like

Eminem, and the hoes,

they wanna fuck

A derogatory; offensive term for

women

14

But homie ain't nuttin'

changed hold down, G's

up Nothing

15

I want them to love me

like they love Pac

An addressee to a famous superstar,

Tupac.


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16

But holla in New York

them niggaz'll tell ya Greeting

17

Her girlfriend willin' to

get bi and they ready to

go Bisexual

18

You that faggot-ass nigga

tryin' to pull me back A homosexual man

19 I wink my eye at ya bitch an unkind or unpleasant woman

20

If the roof on fire, let the

motherfucker burn

an extremely insulting name for

someone you hate or for someone

who has made you angry

21

I'ma tell you what Banks

told me 'cause go 'head

switch the style up I'm going to

22

Many

Men

we gotta go get

something to eat Got to

23

damn what's taking

homie so long an expression of anger

24

Now these pussy niggaz

putting money on my

head

a woman's vagina; sex with a

woman

25

I know He protecting me,

but I still stay with my gat A gun

26

Psych says some bitch

dumb stupid and annoying

4.2. Other Findings

In this section, the writer provides other findings instead of different

linguistic features between the language used by the rappers and SAE. The writer

finds the lexicons they use (as listed in data of lexical features analysis) are

categorized in slang and taboo words as their existence and use depend on the user

context, not as listed in dictionary.


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4.2.1. Slang

As long as the language the rappers use do not listed in dictionary, it means

that they have their own vocabularies that have certain meaning. The words that are

listed here sometimes listed in dictionary, but the meaning are different at all. The

meaning and the complete data of the words are provided in the appendix.

1. If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho

2. Wanna show me how you work it baby?

3. Long as she ain't stopping, homie I ain't stopping (50 Cent – Candy Shop)

4. Go shawty, it's your birthday

5. So come gimme a hug, if you're into gettin' rubbed

6. When I pull up out front, you see the Benz on dubs (50 Cent – In Da

Club)

7. we gotta go get something to eat

8. I know He protecting me, but I still stay with my gat (50 Cent – Many

Men)

9. I'm from the hood stupid (Jay Z – 99 Problems)

10. I'm up at Bed-Stuy, home of that boy Biggie (Jay Z – Empire State Of

Mind)

11. Let's take the dough and stay real jiggy

12. Flow infinitely like the memory of my nigga biggie, baby (Jay Z – Hard

Knock Life)

13. I began this flippin' in the ghetto on a dirty mattress (Lauryn Hill –

Everything Is Everything)

14. Like I'm deuce (Lauryn Hill – Final Hour)

15. Don'tcha like the way I roll and play wit' my bushy (Lil’ Kim – Big

Momma Thang)

16. Just sip some Cristal with these real niggaz (Lil’ Kim – No Time)

17. What cha'all gonna do, fellas? (Missy Elliot – Beep Me 911)

18. Im a supa fly (Missy Elliot – The Rain)

Here, some of the words are also categorized as taboo words or unacceptable words

such as nympho.


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4.2.2. Taboo

All of slang words the rappers use are also listed as taboo words. The reason

of it is the use of the words are considered offensive and the meaning of the words

are related to sexual terms. In this sub-section, the writer provides all of the lyrics

that consist taboo words. From the whole 18 rap songs, the writer finds 20 taboo

words as listed below. The meaning of those words are provided in the appendix.

1. If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho

2. it come to this shit

3. how erotic it is to watch you in thongs? (50 Cent – Candy Shop)

4. And you know we don't give a fuck

5. Niggaz heard I fuck with Dre

6. When you sell like Eminem, and the hoes, they wanna fuck

7. You that faggot-ass nigga tryin' to pull me back

8. I wink my eye at ya bitch

9. If the roof on fire, let the motherfucker burn (50 Cent – In Da Club)

10. damn what's taking homie so long

11. Now these pussy niggaz putting money on my head

12. Psych says some bitch dumb (50 Cent Many Men)13. these goddamn food stamps don't buy diapers (Eminem – Lose

Yourself)

14. you can kiss my whole asshole

15. So advertisers can give 'em more cash for ads, fuckers

16. Am I under arrest or should I guess some mo'? (Jay Z – 99 Problems)

17. Take it in the butt, yeah, yazz wha

18. Mafia also deadens all the bullshit (Lil’ Kim – Big Momma Thang)

19. Let me grab your ta-ta's, do the cha-cha

20. No licky licky, fuck the dicky dicky (Lil’ Kim – No Time)

4.3. DISCUSSION

Based on the findings above, the writer concludes that there are four

different linguistics features: phonological, morphological, syntactical, and lexical

features; and the lexicons used by American male and female rappers are


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categorized as slang and taboo words. In this section, the writer provides

characteristics or factors influencing their language use.

4.3.1. The Existence of Different Linguistics Features

The characteristic that makes the language used by American male and

female rappers different with SAE is, there is the existence of different linguistics

features. Usually, they have their own features and rules in their language use. This

represents that they automatically show their different culture. In another word,

they tend to show their identity by using a language with different linguistics

features as listed in standard form. As language becomes an identity, it will affect

the use of the language itself.

4.3.2. The Use of Language As An Aspect Of Solidarity

As we know, rap community consist of gender both male and female. The

writer does not find any differences when both male and female rappers use their

each languages. Women speak as same as men do. The vocabularies and

pronounciation are just the same. Standard form is only used in formal context.

Here, the social factors and dimensions take place. The only reason why they share

the same language and features is aspect of solidarity. They express their solidarity

toward others using language. Frankly speaking, they use the non-standard or

vernacular form to show that their relationship is intimate.

5. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the language used by American male and female rappers is

considered as non-standard or vernacular English. Their language is listed in

African American Vernacular English. There are four different linguistics features

between the language of American rappers and Standard American English. They

are phonological, morphological, syntactical, and lexical features. Phonological

features deals with the term of sound segments production. In the language of

American rappers, there are loss of interdental fricatives; realization of final /ŋ/, the

velar nasal, as the alveolar nasal /n/; clusters ending in /z/ and /s/ variation; and /r/

deletion. Morphological features deals with the term of grammatical knowledge. In

morphological features, there are absence of possesive –s marking and absence ofthird person singular –s marking. Syntactical features deals with the term of how a

http://../user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htmhttp://../user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htmhttp://../user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm


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phrase or a sentence is organized or structured. Here, there are the existence of

invariant or habitual BE; the use of both negatio and negative concord; absence of

auxiliary DO; the use of completive DONE; the existence of zero copula; and then

the use of single auxiliary for both plural and singular subjects. At last, lexical

features deals with the term of meaning of the word.

The words used by American rappers lexically different with meaning in

dictionary. Those lexicons or words can be categorized as slang or taboo words.

The words are categorized as taboo when they are offensive and related to sexual

terms. Factors or characteristics of the language used by American rappers are the

existence of different linguistics features and the use of language as an aspect of

solidarity. Both male and female rappers speak the same speech style. They use the

same vocabularies and pronunciation. Language they use represents their identity

and solidarity. Standard English is only used in formal context.

REFERENCES

African American Vernacular English. (n.d.). Retrieved January 3, 2014, from Wikipedia,

the free encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English

Feature (linguistics). (n.d.). Retrieved January 4, 2013, from Wikipedia, the free

encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_%28linguistics%29

Finegan, E. (1999). Language It's Structure and Use (3rd ed.). United States of America:

Heinle & Heinle, Thomson Learning.

Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2011). An Introduction to Language (9th ed.).

Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Holmes, J. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: Longman.

Introduction to American 'Black English' . (2013, April 6). Retrieved January 3, 2014, from

www15.uta.fi: http://www15.uta.fi/FAST/US1/REF/blackeng.html

Lexical Differences Between BE and SAE . (2010, May 2010). Retrieved January 3, 2014,

from http://www15.uta.fi/FAST/US1/REF/be-sae.html


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McDorman, R. E. (2012, October). Understanding African-American English (AAE): A

Course in Language Comprehension and Croos-Cultural Understanding for Advanced

English Language Learners in the United States. Retrieved January 3, 2014, from

RICHARDMCDORMAN.ORG: http://www.richardmcdorman.org/wp-

content/uploads/2012/10/Understanding-African-American-English_Richard-E-

McDorman.pdf

Profanity. (n.d.). Retrieved January 4, 2014, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profanity

Standard English. (n.d.). Retrieved January 4, 2014, from Wikipedia, the free

encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_English

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (5th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell

Publishing.

Yule, G. (2010). The Study of Language (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.


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Appendix I

Phonological Features of The Language Used by American Male and Female Rappers

No. Song Title Rapper Lyric Analysis

1 Candy Shop

50 Cent

let 'em hate then watch the money pile up Absence of [ð]2

In Da Club

I'm into havin' sex, I ain't into makin' love

Realization of final /ŋ/, the velar nasal, as the

alveolar nasal [n]

3 they sayin,"50 you hot"

4

Now shawty said she feelin' my style, she feelin'

my flow

5

Her girlfriend willin' to get bi and they ready to

go

6

Many Men

Now these pussy niggaz putting money on my

head

Clusters ending in /z/ and /s/ variation 7 niggaz keep pulling techs on me

8

Not Afraid

Eminem

Just lettin' you know that you're not alone


alveolar nasal [n]

9

You can try and read my lyrics off of this paper

before I lay 'em Absence of [ð]

10 I'm doin' this for me


alveolar nasal [n]

11 Till I Collapse

This is your moment and every sin'le minute you

spend

12 99 Problems

Jay Z

If you havin' girl problems I feel bad for you son

13 Hard Knock Life Locked down in the ten by fo' Dropping of /r/

14 Big Momma Thang Lil Kim

Twenty four carats nigga that's when I'm fuckin'

wit' the average nigga Absence of [ð]

http://c/Users/user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htmhttp://c/Users/user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm


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15

No Time

Nuttin' make a woman feel betta Dropping of /r/

16 you da best Replacement of /ð/ to /d/

17

Beep Me 911

Missy Elliot

Get ya friend and ya girl and them

Dropping of /r/

18 Girl, get yo mind checked

19

She's A Bitch

Talk mo' junk but won't look my way

20 See I got mo' cheese

21 The Rain Why not, break it down like dat Replacement of /ð/ to /d/


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Appendix IIMorphological Features of The Language Used by American Male and Female Rappers

No. Song Title Rapper

Lyric Normal Form Analysis1

Candy Shop

50 Cent

it come to this shit it comes to this

Absence of singular --s marking

2 she get to pulling on my zipper she gets to pull on my zipper

3 she like it from behind she likes it from behind

4 you should see the way she whine you should see the way she whines

5 In Da Club


motherfucker burn


motherfucker burns

6

Many Men

here he come here he comes

7

something special happen every

time

something special happens every

time

8

Lose

Yourself

Eminem

Baby mama drama's screaming on and too much for me to wanna Baby mama's drama is screaming

Absence of possesive --s marking9

Empire State

of Mind

Shit, I made the Yankee hat more

famous than a Yankee can Yankee's hat

10

Everybody ride her just like a bus

route

Everybody rides her just like a bus

route Absence of singular --s marking

11 Final HourLaurynHill

Don't discuss the baby motherbusiness baby's mother business

Absence of possesive --s marking12

Big Momma

Thang Lil Kim it's a big momma thang big momma's thang


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Appendix IIISyntactical Features of The Language Used by American Male and Female Rappers

No. Song Title Rapper Lyrics Normal Form Analysis

1

Candy Shop

50 Cent

If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho If you are a nympho Invariant (or habitual) 'be'

2

I ain't finished teaching you 'bout

how sprung I got ya I have not finished teaching The use of negation

3Wanna show me how you work it

baby?Do you want to show me how you

work it baby? Absence of auxiliary DO

4

You ain't never heard a sound like

this before

You have never heard a sound like

this before The use of negative concord

5

In Da Club

they sayin,"50 you hot" they are saying

Zero copula

6 my money on my mind my money is on my mind

7 Now shawty said she feelin' my style,

she feelin' my flow she is feeling

8

Her girlfriend willin' to get bi and

they ready to go

Her girlfriend is willing; they are

ready

9

Look nigga, I done came up, and I

ain't changed

Completive 'done'; the use of

negation

10 Nigga, you mad? are you mad? Zero copula

11 They know where we fuckin' be They know where we are Invariant (or habitual) 'be'

12

Many Men

And niggaz trying to take my life

away

Niggers are trying to take my life

away Zero copula

13 Lord I don't cry no more I don't cry The use of negative concord

14

Now these pussy niggaz putting

money on my head Niggers are putting money Zero copula

15 I'm the diamond in the dirt, that ain't that have not been found The use of negation


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been found

16

I thought we was cool, why you want

me to die homie? I thought we were cool

The use of single auxiliary for

every subject

17 He don't say nothing back

He doesn't say nothing back - He

doesn't say anything back


every subject+negative

concord

18

Lose Yourself

Eminem

His palms are sweaty, knees weak ,

arms are heavy knees are weak Zero copula

19 it don't matter he's dope it doesn't matter he's dope The use of single auxiliary for

every subject20 And hope it don't pass him And hope it doesn't pass him

21 These hoes don't want him no more The hoes don't want him The use of negative concord

22 the mood all changed the mood are all changed Zero copula

23 Not Afraid You said you was the king You said you were the king


every subject

24

99 Problems

Jay Z

You'd celebrate the minute you was

havin' dough

You'd celebrate the minute you were

havin' dough

25

Well you was doin fifty-five in the

fifty-four

Well you were doin fifty-five in the

fifty-four

26 Fiends on the floor Fiends are on the floor

Zero copula27 You crazy for this one Rick You are crazy

28

Empire State

of Mind

Nigga, I be spiked out I am spiked out Invariant (or habitual) 'be'

29

Welcome to the melting pot, corners

where we selling rock we are selling rock

Zero copula30

And if you with me, mom, I rub on

your tits if you are with me

31

Doo Woop

That Thing Lauryn Hill

how you think you're really going to

pretend?

how do you think you're really going

to pretend? Absence of auxiliary DO

32

Like you wasn't down and you called

him again?

Like you weren't down and did you

call him again?


every subject; Absence of

auxiliary DO

33 Look at what you be in what you are in Invariant (or habitual) 'be'


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34The pretty face men claiming that

they be the "big men."

The pretty face men are claimingthat they are the "big men."

Zero copula; Invariant (or

habitual) be

35

Everything Is

Everything

Who made these rules? Who did make these rules? Absence of auxiliary DO

36

My practice extending across the

atlas My practice is extending

Zero copula

37

Final Hour

Words so profuse Words are so profuse

38 Two people both equal Two people are both equal

39 Big Momma

Thang

Lil Kim

Work the shaft, brothers be battin'

me, and oh brothers are batting me Invariant (or habitual) 'be'

40 your tongues in the pussy your tongues are in the pussy Zero copula

41 No Time How you like it baby? How do you like it baby?

Absence of auxiliary DO42

Beep Me 911

Missy Elliot

Why you played on me? Why did you play on me?

43 Why you cheatin' on me? Why are you cheating on me? Zero copula

44

I thought you was the one but you just

a hit and run

I thought you were the one but you

just a hit and run


every subject

45

Maybe, they was right 'cause I feel

like a fool

Maybe, they were right 'cause I feel

like a fool

46 Now we talkin' we are talking Zero copula

47

The Rain

We so tight We are so tight

48 who got the keys to the jeep? who did get the keys to the jeep? Absence of auxiliary DO

49

Give them pounds, now look who it

be look who it is

Invariant (or habitual) 'be'

50 It be me, me, me and Timothy It is me

51

My finger waves be dazed, they fall

like humpty My finger waves are dazed


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Appendix IVLexical Features of The Language Used by American Male and Female Rappers

No. Song Title Rapper Lyric Meaning

Form

Slang Taboo

1

Candy Shop

50 Cent

If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho nymphomaniac √ √

2 Wanna show me how you work it baby? Acronym of want to √3 it come to this shit used in negatives to mean 'anything' √

4 how erotic it is to watch you in thongs?

underpants resembling a G-string; worn by women especially under very tight pants √ √

5 Had me thinking 'bout that ass after I'm gone

used by men to refer to sexual activity,or to women considered only as sexobjects √

6Long as she ain't stopping, homie I ain'tstopping A good friend √

7

In Da Club

Go shawty, it's your birthday An addressee to someone √8 We gonna party like it's your birthday Acronym of going to √

9 And you know we don't give a fuck to treat someone badly by wasting theirtime or causing them problems √

10 So come gimme a hug, if you're into gettin'rubbed Acronym of give me √

11When I pull up out front, you see the Benz ondubs Refers to a car √

12 Niggaz heard I fuck with Dre Nigger; An addressee to a black √ √

13When you sell like Eminem, and the hoes,they wanna fuck

A derogatory; offensive term forwomen √ √


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14But homie ain't nuttin' changed hold down,G's up Nothing √

15 I want them to love me like they love Pac An addressee to a famous superstar,Tupac. √

16 But holla in New York them niggaz'll tell ya Greeting √

17Her girlfriend willin' to get bi and they readyto go Bisexual √

18You that faggot-ass nigga tryin' to pull me back A homosexual man √ √

19 I wink my eye at ya bitch an unkind or unpleasant woman √

20 If the roof on fire, let the motherfucker burn

an extremely insulting name forsomeone you hate or for someone whohas made you angry √

21I'ma tell you what Banks told me 'cause go'head switch the style up I'm going to √

22

Many Men

we gotta go get something to eat Got to √23 damn what's taking homie so long an expression of anger √

24 Now these pussy niggaz putting money onmy head a woman's vagina; sex with a woman √ √

25I know He protecting me, but I still stay withmy gat A gun √

26 Psych says some bitch dumb stupid and annoying √ √

27 Lose YourselfEminem

these goddamn food stamps don't buy diapers

used to add emphasis to what is being

said √28 Till I Collapse

You pizzles forgot slizzle does not give afuck √

29

99 Problems Jay Z

I'm from the hood stupid The (Housing) Project √30 you can kiss my whole asshole arsehole √

31So advertisers can give 'em more cash for ads,fuckers stupid person √


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32 Got two choices y'all you all √

33Am I under arrest or should I guess somemo'?

shortened form of "homo", i.e. "ahomosexual person." √ √

34Empire Stateof Mind I'm up at Bed-Stuy, home of that boy Biggie

Bedford Stuyvesant, and area of centralBrooklyn. √

35

Hard KnockLife

Jigga, uh huh, uh huh, uh huh, yeah thing √36 Let's take the dough and stay real jiggy sexy √

37Flow infinitely like the memory of my nigga biggie, baby an important person √

38Everything IsEverything

Lauryn Hill

I began this flippin' in the ghetto on a dirtymattress √

39 Final Hour Like I'm deuce used in questions to express anger orsurprise √

40

Big MommaThang

Lil Kim

Take it in the butt, yeah, yazz wha bottom √ √

41Don'tcha like the way I roll and play wit' my bushy Don't you √

42 Mafia also deadens all the bullshit complete nonsense or something that isnot true √

43

No Time

Just sip some Cristal with these real niggaz a brand of expensive champagne √44 Let me grab your ta-ta's, do the cha-cha breast; vagina √ √45 No licky licky, fuck the dicky dicky oral sex √ √

46 Queen BitchFemale Don Dada has, no problems spittin'cream with my team the most respected √

47 Beep Me 911

Missy Elliot

What cha'all gonna do, fellas? you all; friend √

48 She's A BitchWhatchu know about Timothy? Lemme know what do you; let me √

49 The Rain Im a supa fly high level of fly √

50 Supa dupa fly An extreme level of fly. √


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WORD FORMATION OF LANGUAGE USED BY INDONESIAN

FASHION BLOGGERS

Tiara Dwi Arini1, Ummul Khoiriyah

2

English Literature ‘11

Faculty of Languages and Arts

State University of Surabaya

ABSTRACT

Fashion bloggers share their everyday outfit, make up tutorial, or even a good

fashion info to look up in a blog. Most of Indonesian fashion bloggers use English as a

major language in their blog posts; those who are not expert enough using English, use

non-standard form of Bahasa Indonesia while mixing it with English. The words they used

are considered as colloquial words. This study uses qualitative method in order to describe

types and characteristics of word formation occur in the language used by them. There are

70 words found in some fashion bloggers’ blogs that are categorized in 8 types of word

formation. They are borrowing, compounding, prefix, blending, clipping, acronyms,

coinage, and onomatopoeia. Those word formation processes are divided into three: the

word formation caused by phonological, morphological, and another processes. The

characteristics that influence are the adaptation of Indonesian phonological system and

the tendency of English usage. Both of the authors conclude that this is a phenomenon of

language contact.

Keywords: Colloquial Words, Word Formation, Indonesian Fashion Bloggers

1. INTRODUCTION Nowadays, people start to implement the term of fashion through media;

they try developing it better than previously. The term of fashion spreads away over

countries. They should choose the way to communicate each other, using what

language and when it is applied. Eventhough language contact occurs in direct

conversation, still, people will use words as same as words they use in directinteraction when they communicate via internet.


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In Indonesia, the trend of fashion is also happening. Most of people,

especially for women, tend to express their interest in fashion by using a blog

showing their fashion existence. They consider language they use. Some of them

who know English, try to use it as a major language in their blog eventhough they

are not L2 learners; they just derive English from school or they imitate and even

adapt each other’s words. The purpose of the English usage is to become

worldwide. The remaining that are not expert enough in English, only use the non-

standard form of Bahasa Indonesia while mixing them with English words other

commonly use.

People who use blog as their medium to convey their fashion interest are

called by Fashion Bloggers. Usually, they will post everyday outfit, make up

tutorial, or even a good fashion info to look up. Indonesian fashion bloggers mostly

come from a well-educated environment; they can be a fashion designer, a fashion

consultant, and fashionistas (mostly collegian). They learn English by

communication. Using English is not only a prestige, but also a key. By using

English, they can cooperate each other creating a new fashion concept.

Their words can be categorized as colloquial words. Eventhough they use

English as a major language in their blog or their conversation; still, there are terms

of Bahasa Indonesia influence it, such as the change of sound segments. Those who

still use Bahasa Indonesia also experience the same; because they mix their

language (Indonesia – English), the change of word’s structure exists. The word

formation occurs in their language will be interesting to analyze as they often

borrow words from English and there are mixing words exist. The words of the

language used by Indonesian fashion bloggers can be caused by phonological,

morphological, and another processes of transferring words.

Here, both of the authors are interested in analyzing the language used by

Indonesian fashion bloggers in order to describe what types of word formation

occur beyond it and to find what characteristics exist in their language usage. Both

of the authors use their blogs as an instrument to find kind of borrowed or mixed

words to identify as the authors can not interact with those bloggers directly. The

authors use theories of Katamba (2005) and Yule (2010) in the analysis. Other

instruments are included.


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2. THEORITICAL BACKGROUND In this section, the authors give brief background of theory uses in this

study. The authors use “language contact” with a reason that this phenomenon of

new words created happens when they communicate each other. The authors also

uses “articulatory phonetics” because the words created are different in the sound

segments. At last, there will be “word formation” because the aim of this study is to

describe types of word formation occurs.

2.1 LANGUAGE CONTACT As people in the world live together, they will be involved in such contact.

They will automatically use a system in order to communicate each other. The

system used is called by ‘language’ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language).

People will acquire and apply language in their everyday communication. The fact

that people speak in different languages as they live in different region, makes the

language contact occurs when they are getting interaction (Thomason, 2001, p. 1).

The result of this communication is borrowing or mixing language

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_contact).

Usually, language contact occurs in direct interaction between speakers. Aspeaker with more than one language will influence another, moreover recipient

speaker comes from different speech community. The usage of a word that has

been acquired from the conversation will be adapted to their original language.

That is why, there will be a new word created (Thomason, 2001, pp. 3-5). Here,

speech communities have different dialect, language, and variety. They have

different interest of speech characteristics (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 119).

When two speakers from different two languages communicate each other,

there will be not only a borrowing happens, but also the structure of the word will

be fully changed. It is because of the word they hear are being transferred from first

speaker’s language to another speaker’s language. The example of this

phenomenon is Asia Minor Greek that has many borrowing words from Turkish.

Those borrowing words have different structure from the original one. The

transferring process are including area of phonology, morphology, syntax, and even

lexical semantics. They adapt the word to their original language sound, word, andsentence structure (Thomason, 2001, p. 11).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_contact


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2.2 ARTICULATORY PHONETICS Phonetics is the study of speech sound, while articulatory phonetics is the

study of how the sound is pronounced or produced (Yule, 2010, p. 26). Here, the

term of articulatory phonetics is devided into consonants and vowels. Both of

consonants and vowels do not refer to the letter, but they are type of sounds

(Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 235). Mostly, the change of new words are

different in vowels rather than consonants. Consonants are produced by closuring

the vocal tract blocks air comes from the lungs (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams,

2011, p. 235).Vowels are produced without blocking the airflow from the lungs out

of the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 246). The production of

vowels are differed by the position of tongue and lips. English has many vowels as

we can see in: peat, pit, pet, pate, pat, put, putt, poke, pot, part, and port (Finegan,

1999, p. 90).

Figure 3. English Vowels Chart (Yule, 2010, p. 34).

Figure 4. Indonesian Vowels Chart

http://blog.aanugraha.web.id/ipa-indonesian-vowels-chart/

Front Front Central Back

i

High u

ɪ ʊe ə o

ɛ ɔ

ʌ

Low æ a ɑ

http://blog.aanugraha.web.id/ipa-indonesian-vowels-chart/http://blog.aanugraha.web.id/ipa-indonesian-vowels-chart/


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2.3 WORD FORMATION Word formation is a word creation. Sometimes, it deals with semantics. A

new word that has been created has the different meaning from the original one

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formation). In the term of language contact, the

borrowing or mixing words will have not only a change in meaning, but also a

change of word structure. The change exists since the recipient speakers adapt the

new word into their own language. Here, the word formation is caused by

phonological, morphological, and another processes. In phonological process, a

new word is created by adapting recipient speakers’ phonological system. In

morphological process, a new word is created by adapting word structure of

recipient speakers’ language. The last, a new word is categorized happens because

of a process that can not be in both of phonological (sound system) and

morphological processes (word structure). There are some types of word formation

that will be explained in this study. They are borrowing, compounding, affixation,

blending, clipping, acronyms, coinage, and onomatopoeia.

2.3.1 Borrowing Borrowing is taking a new word from another language (Yule, 2010,

p. 54). The process of borrowing are categorized into two: direct and

indirect borrowing. If the word is borrowed as it is, without any

changes; it is called by direct borrowing. The example of direct

borrowing is the use of word “omelette” in English. “Omelette” is

actually French. In another case, the word that is borrowed has some

different structure of word, because of morphological process when the

word is transferred; this term is called by indirect borrowing. The

simplest example of indirect borrowing is the word “coffee”; kahveh

(Turkish) > kahva (Arabic) > koffie (Dutch) > coffee (English)

(Katamba, 2005, p. 133).

2.3.2 CompoundingCompounding is the process of combining two words into a single

fom of word. The two separate word are combined without changes. For

example, the word “book” and “case” are combined into “bookcase” in

English (Yule, 2010, p. 55). Compounding in English results noun in

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formation


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common. As we can see in blueprint, red tape, White House, soft-ball,

new year , etc (Katamba, 2005, p. 50).

2.3.3 AffixationAny morphemes that added into a root is called by affixes. The

addition of the morpheme can be before or after the root. Affix that is

put before the base is called by prefix; while affix that is put after the

base is called by suffix. Some words contain of affix that is added inside

it, this kind of affix is called by infix (Katamba, 2005, pp. 38-39). We

can find prefix as in the word “mislead”, the prefis is “mis-“. In the

word “disrespectful”, we can find both of prefix and suffix. The prefix

is “dis-“, and the suffix is “-ful” (Yule, 2010, p. 59).

2.3.4 BlendingThe process of combining two separate words in English also

happens in blending. Here, blending and compounding are different one

another. If compounding joins two words without any changes, blending

only combines a front part of a word then joins it to the end of another

word. The example of this process is the word “gasohol” that comes

from “gasoline” and “alcohol” (Yule, 2010, p. 55).

2.3.5 Clipping Clipping is a kind of reduction, it happens when a word that has

more than one syllable is reduced in order to make it shorter. The

example of clipping is the word “facsimile” that becomes a new word

“fax” (Yule, 2010, p. 56). According to Katamba, clipping is divided

into fore-clipping and back clipping. Fore-clipping happens when a

front part of a word is reduced, for example a word “bus” that comes

from the word “omnibus”. While back-clipping is the process of back

part of the word reduction, the example is the word “lab” that has an

original word “laboratory” (Katamba, 2005, p. 125).

2.3.6 AcronymsWhen a new word comes from initial letters of a set of other words, it is

included in the process of acronyms. Usually, acronyms are pronouncedas new single word as we can see in the word “zip” (zone improvement

Blends are hybrid words. They are compounds made in anunorthodox by joining chunks of word-forms belonging to two

distinct lexemes. (Katamba, 2005, p. 128).


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plan) (Yule, 2010, p. 58). In another case, the shortened new words can

not be pronounced as a word, they have to be pronounced in each letter.

This term is called by abbreviations. We can see the example of this

abbreviation in “LA” as Los Angeles (Katamba, 2005, p. 127). To

Finegan, the term of this kind of shortening is not called by

abbreviations, but an initialism (Finegan, 1999, p. 50).

2.3.7 CoinageCoinage is the invention of totally new words. Trademark or the

name of commercial product is included in coinage. “Google” is the

example of this process. When the new words come from a name of

person or place, it is called by eponyms. This process can be seen from

the word “Atlas”. “Atlas” is the name of fictitious character, the today it

is used for the name of a book map (Yule, 2010, pp. 53-54).

2.3.8 OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia is a word that mirrors its meaning. Often, people will

use a word like “bang!”; the word actually represents its aspect of

meaning. People use that word in order to imitate the sound of a noise (a

shoot of gun). So, onomatopoeic words are used when a person wants to

imitate a kind of sound. We can see another example of this process in

the word of “miaow”. It is actually the sound produced by a cat. People

use onomatopoeic words to refer an animal or a noise (Katamba, 2005,

pp. 27-28).

3. RESEARCH METHOD Both of the authors use qualitative method of research in this study. The

method is used because it is suitable since the goal of this study is to describe types

of word formation and find the characteristics. The source of the data is blogs that

Indonesian fashion bloggers commonly use to interact or communicate or even

share their fashion style. Blog is considered as textual form because it contains of

posts (writings of the bloggers). The authors find 70 colloquial words in some

blogs.

The main instrument of this data analysis is both of authors themselves.

Since this study does not involve a direct participant (using non-participantobservation for the data collection technique) by asking them to interact, the


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authors take a big role in using the blogs in order to find the proof of colloquial

words exist among them. Besides, the authors also use the third edition of

Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary to provide transcript of the original

words in English that Indonesian fashion bloggers commonly borrow or mix. The

authors also use second edition of A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary

by Alan M. Stevens and A. Ed. Schmidgall-Tellings to identify the non-standard

form of Bahasa Indonesia that most of Indonesian fashion bloggers use.

The way that the authors use in this analysis are: 1. Identifying the data,

finding the colloquial words; 2. Classifying the data into some types of word

formation; 3. Analyzing the data into phonological, morphological, or another

processes of word formation; 4. Describing factors that influence the word

formation processes; 5. Cocluding , includes finding the result of the study.

4. FINDING AND DISCUSSION In this section, the authors will explain all of eight types of word formation

processes occur in the language used by Indonesian fashion bloggers. They are

borrowing, compounding, prefix, blending, clipping, acronyms, coinage and

onomatopoeia. The authors also provide the characteristics of their word formation

processes.

4.1. FINDING

4.1.1 BorrowingIn borrowing, Indonesian fashion bloggers seem adopt the words from

English while adapt them in Bahasa Indonesia. This kind of word formation results

some change in both of consonants and vowels. The change is categorized into

three types: substitution, addition, and deletion. Borrowing is included as word

formation caused by phonological process; it deals with the adaptation of

Indonesian phonological system or relates to how the sound is pronounced.

a. Substitution Substitution is the change or replacement of consonants or vowels in the

new words that have been created. From the whole 19 words that are categorized in

borrowing, the authors consider some of them experience the process ofsubstitution.


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No Word. Meaning Vowel Consonant

1

apdet Update

/ʌ/ /a//apdet/ /ʌpdeɪt/

3hai Hi

/ɪ/ /i//hai/ /haɪ/

6

komen comment

/ɒ/ or

/ɑ/ /ɔ//kɔmen/

/kɒm.ent/ or

/kɑ.ment/

7

mai My

/ɪ/ /i//mai/ /maɪ/

8det Dad

/æ/ /e/ /d/ /t//det/ /dæd/

9

poto Photo

/əʊ/ or

/oʊ/ /o/ /f/ /p//poto/

/fəʊ.təʊ/ or

/foʊ.t ̬oʊ/

11

oren Orange

/ɪ/ /e//ɔren/ /ɒr.ɪndʒ/ or /ɔr-/

12

leptop Laptop /æ/ /e/

/leptɔp/ /ˌlæp.tɒp/ or /-tɑp/

/ɒ/ or

/ɑ/ /ɔ/

13

repiew Review

/ɪ/ /e/ /v/ /p//repiew/ /rɪˈvjuː/

14

OHEMJI O.M.G /əʊ/ or

/oʊ/ /o//ohemji/ /əʊ or oʊ. em. dʒi/

15

okei Okay

/əʊ/ or

/oʊ/ /o/

/okei/ /ˌə ʊ ˈkeɪ/ or /oʊ-/ /ɪ/ /i/

16

simpel Simple

/ɪ/ /i//simpəl/ /ˈsɪm.pl ̩/

17

opsional Optional

/ɒ/ or

/ɑ/ /ɔ/

/ʃ/ /s//ɔpsiɔnal/ /ɒp.ʃ ə n. ə l/ or /ɑp-/ /ə/ /a/

18 lipstik Lipstick /ɪ/ /i/


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/lipstik/ /ˈlɪp.stɪk/

19

absen Absent /æ/ /a/

/absen/ /ˈæb.s ə nt/ /ə/ /e/

There are 15 words have replacement of consonants or vowels or even both

of them. Bahasa Indonesia has 5 letters represent vowels (a, i, u, e, o), but it has

eight distinct sounds. They are /a/, /i/, /u/ /e/, /ə/, /o/, and /ɔ/. That is why, when

Indonesian fashion bloggers face various kind of vowels sound in English, they

seem hard to convert them as well. They still use vowels sound of Bahasa

Indonesia. it can be seen from word “apdet”, “hai”, “komen”, “det”, “poto”, “oren”,

“opsional”, and “absen”. There are 9 changes of English vowels when Indonesian

fashion bloggers borrow those words.

In the word “apdet” that comes from “update”, vowel /ʌ/ is changed into /a/.

It happens because Bahasa Indonesia has no various sound of letter a. So, when

Indonesian adopt the word, they will imitate the vowels sound just the way they

have. The second is the word “hai” that comes from the word “hi”. The vowel that

is changed is /ɪ/. Letter i in Bahasa Indonesia also has no various kind of sound

rather than /i/. The word “komen” from “comment”, has the change of /ɒ/ or /ɑ/

into /ɔ/. They use the vowel of /ɔ/ because letter o has two various sound, /o/ and

/ɔ/, and /ɔ/ is suitable to pronounce “comment” when they acquire it. The fourth is

the change of /æ/ into /e/ in the word “det” that comes from “dad”. In bahasa

Indonesia, the sound /æ/ is similar to the sound of /e/. Letter e has two various

sound, /e/ and /ə/. It is impossible from them to pronounce /ə/ as /e/, because it is

not close and the sound is quite different. The fifth is the change of sound /əʊ/ or

/oʊ/ into /o/ in the word “poto”. Then we have other changes of vowels such as /ɪ/

into /e/ (oren from orange); /ə/ into /a/ (of “nal” in the word “opsional” that comes

from “optional”); /æ/ into /a/ and /ə/ into /e/ (absen from absent). All of the changes

in vowels happen because vowels sound in Bahasa Indonesia are not as many as

English have.

Besides the replacement of vowels, some word in the table also have

replacement of consonants. It can be seen from the word “det”, “poto”, “repiew”,

and “opsional”. There are 4 changes of consonants sound. In the word “det” from

“dad”, Indonesian fashion bloggers simply change /d/ into /t/. /f/ is substituted into

/p/ in the word “poto” that comes from “photo”. The third is the substitution of /v/


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into /p/ in the word “repiew” from “review”. Then we have other changes of

consonant such as /ʃ/ into /s/ (opsional from optional). Here, we can see that they

simply use the easier sound in articulating a word. /t/, /p/, and /s/ are simpler to

pronounce rather than /d/, /f/, /v/, and /ʃ/.

b. AdditionAddition is a process of inserting a new sound in the new words created.

Commonly, Indonesian fashion bloggers add more vowels than consonants in their

colloquial words. It can happen because the words in English that they borrow

sometimes contain of consonant clusters, so that they need putting a vowel between

those consonants in order to articulate it easier.

No. Word Meaning Vowel Consonant

2

gugling -

gugel googling – google

/ə//gugəl/ /gu.gl ̩/

5

emol mall

/ə//əmɔl/ /mɔl/ or /mɑl/

10 betewe Btw /e/

13

repiew Review /i/

/w//repiew/ /rɪˈvjuː/ /e/

14

OHEMJI O.M.G

/h//ohemji/ /əʊ or oʊ. em. dʒi/

17

opsional Optional /i/

/ɔpsiɔnal/

/ɒp.ʃ ə n. ə l/ or

/ɑp-/ /ɔ/

From the table, we can see that there are 6 words that are included in

addition. There are some words contain of vowels or consonants in addition or even

both of them. The sound /ə/ appears in both words “gugling” (gugel) and “mol”

(emol). The sound /ə/ appears in “gugel” because in the original word (google),

there are consonant clusters exist based on the transcript, that is why /ə/ appears in

the middle of the consonant clusters. While /ə/ in “emol” exists because /m/ is

bilabial then they tend to sound it as it is easier for them. /e/ exists in both of“betewe” and “repiew”. The next is /i/ “opsional” and “repiew”, and /ɔ/ in


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“opsional”. Besides the addition of vowels sound, there is the addition of

consonants sound as shown in the table, they are /w/ and /h/.

c. DeletionDeletion is reduction of vowels or consonants or both of them in a new

word that has been adopted. There are 7 words have the process of deletion as

tabled below:

No Words Meaning Vowel Consonant

1

apdet Update

/ɪ//apdet/ /ʌpdeɪt/

4

tren Trend

/d//tren/ /trend/

6

komen comment

/t//kɔmen/

/kɒm.ent/ or

/kɑ.ment/

11

oren Orange

/dʒ//ɔren/ /ɒr.ɪndʒ/ or /ɔr-/

13

repiew Review

/u/ /j//repiew/ /rɪˈvjuː/

17

opsional Optional

/ə//ɔpsiɔnal/ /ɒp.ʃ ə n. ə l/ or /ɑp-/

19

absen Absent

/t//absen/ /ˈæb.s ə nt/

The segments of /d/ and /t/ in “tren” (from trend), “komen” (from

comment), “absen” (from absent) are omitted because the original words that are

derived in Bahasa Indonesia are voiceless. So, those sounds are not pronounced

when Indonesian fashion bloggers apply the words; the /n/ is more dominant. while

/dʒ/ in “oren” is deleted because most sounds in Bahasa Indonesia rarely use that

sound. Mostly, Indonesian will pronounce /dʒ/ as /j/. There are also segments of

vowels deleted, they are /ɪ/, /u/, and /ə/.


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4.1.2 Compounding

No. Word Meaning

1

Mekap make up

/mekap/ /ˈmeɪk.ʌp/

2 Catwalk Catwalk

Linguistics and Literature Papers Example: Paper Through Ages by Ummul Khoiriyah

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