Ling 122: English as a World Language Language Planning & Language Policy Reading: Wiley (Course Reader)

Ling 122: English as a World Ling 122: English as a World LanguageLanguage

Language Planning &

Language Policy

Reading: Wiley (Course Reader)

‘‘English for the Children’ (Prop 227)English for the Children’ (Prop 227)

DebateDebate Be it resolved thatBe it resolved that immigrant parents immigrant parents

in the US should encourage their in the US should encourage their children to learn the language of the children to learn the language of the land as fast as possible, and parents land as fast as possible, and parents should speak English with them at should speak English with them at home.home.

DefinitionsDefinitions

Language planning:Language planning: deliberate efforts to deliberate efforts to influence the behavior of others with influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of their language functional allocation of their language codescodes

Language policy:Language policy: official policies resulting official policies resulting from language planning and imposed in a from language planning and imposed in a deliberate attempt to influence language deliberate attempt to influence language behavior by means of official codesbehavior by means of official codes

Types of Language PlanningTypes of Language Planning Corpus planning:Corpus planning: activities such as activities such as

coining new terms, reforming spelling and coining new terms, reforming spelling and adopting a new script; adopting a new script; • the creation of new forms, the creation of new forms, • the modification of old ones, or the modification of old ones, or • the selection from alternative forms in the selection from alternative forms in

a spoken or written codea spoken or written code

Types of Language PlanningTypes of Language Planning Status Planning:Status Planning: the recognition by a the recognition by a

national government of the importance national government of the importance or position of one language in relation or position of one language in relation to others.to others.• The allocation of languages or language The allocation of languages or language

varieties to given functionsvarieties to given functions Medium of instructionMedium of instruction Official languageOfficial language Vehicle of mass communicationVehicle of mass communication Language of international communicationLanguage of international communication Etc.Etc.

Types of Language PlanningTypes of Language Planning

Acquisition Planning:Acquisition Planning: planning planning directed toward increasing the directed toward increasing the number of users – speakers, writers, number of users – speakers, writers, listeners, readers – of a languagelisteners, readers – of a language• Literacy educationLiteracy education• Second & foreign language education Second & foreign language education

effortsefforts

Language Planning as Problem SolvingLanguage Planning as Problem Solving Overt & covert goalsOvert & covert goals Linguistic goals Linguistic goals

• Promotion of mass literacyPromotion of mass literacy• Elimination of sexist languageElimination of sexist language• Need for technical termsNeed for technical terms

Non-linguistic goalsNon-linguistic goals• Consumer protectionConsumer protection• Scientific exchangeScientific exchange• National integrationNational integration• Political controlPolitical control• Economic developmentEconomic development• Creation of new elites or preservation of old onesCreation of new elites or preservation of old ones• Pacification or cooption of minority groupsPacification or cooption of minority groups• Mass mobilization of national or political movementsMass mobilization of national or political movements

Language Policy Language Policy & Planning in the U.S.& Planning in the U.S.

The founders of the U.S. chose not to The founders of the U.S. chose not to designate English as the official languagedesignate English as the official language• Dominance of English was self-evidentDominance of English was self-evident• Respect for linguistic diversity & minority Respect for linguistic diversity & minority

rightsrights• Support for minorities who supported the Support for minorities who supported the

revolutionrevolution English has functioned as if it were the English has functioned as if it were the

official languageofficial language

History of the Status of English in History of the Status of English in the U.S.the U.S.

British Colonial Period to 1789British Colonial Period to 1789• English dominant among European languagesEnglish dominant among European languages• Other immigrant languages tolerated Other immigrant languages tolerated

differentially differentially • English-only practices & English illiteracy English-only practices & English illiteracy

statues imposed on slavesstatues imposed on slaves• Native Americans viewed as separate & Native Americans viewed as separate &

subordinate nationssubordinate nations Missionaries attempted to promote EnglishMissionaries attempted to promote English 1775 – Continental Congress allocated funds for 1775 – Continental Congress allocated funds for

Indian education - pacificationIndian education - pacification

History of the Status of English in History of the Status of English in the U.S.the U.S.

1789 – 18801789 – 1880• Territorial expansion & annexation of Territorial expansion & annexation of

language-minority peopleslanguage-minority peoples• Great tolerance for use of European Great tolerance for use of European

immigrant languagesimmigrant languages• Compulsory illiteracy laws for African Compulsory illiteracy laws for African

Americans until 1865Americans until 1865• Pacification of Native Americans through Pacification of Native Americans through

educationeducation Some Native Americans (Cherokee) ran own Some Native Americans (Cherokee) ran own

schools & achieved high levels of NL literacy & schools & achieved high levels of NL literacy & biliteracybiliteracy

History of the Status of English in History of the Status of English in the U.S.the U.S.

1880 – 1930s1880 – 1930s• Height of US imperialism (Hawai’i, Philippines, Height of US imperialism (Hawai’i, Philippines,

Puerto Rico)Puerto Rico)• Attempts at language restrictionAttempts at language restriction• Height of immigration through 1920sHeight of immigration through 1920s• WWI: restrictions on use of German & other WWI: restrictions on use of German & other

European languages in schoolsEuropean languages in schools• Meyer v. Nebraska:Meyer v. Nebraska: SC ruled against an English- SC ruled against an English-

only restriction on the use of foreign languages only restriction on the use of foreign languages in Nebraska schools, but affirmed the state’s in Nebraska schools, but affirmed the state’s right to mandate that English be the common & right to mandate that English be the common & official language of instructionofficial language of instruction

History of the Status of English in History of the Status of English in the U.S.the U.S.

World War II – presentWorld War II – present• Civil rights movement influenced language Civil rights movement influenced language

policy – provisions made for other languages policy – provisions made for other languages in voting, educationin voting, education

• 1974 – 1974 – Lau v. NicholsLau v. Nichols – Supreme Court – Supreme Court acknowledged that school had to provide acknowledged that school had to provide proactive means of educationproactive means of education

Lau remediesLau remedies ESEA Title VII Bilingual Education ActESEA Title VII Bilingual Education Act

Bilingual Education TypesBilingual Education Types TransitionalTransitional

• Purpose: to transition to an all-English curriculumPurpose: to transition to an all-English curriculum MaintenanceMaintenance

• Purpose: to maintain & develop the first languagePurpose: to maintain & develop the first language EnrichmentEnrichment

• Purpose: to develop an appreciation for & fluency Purpose: to develop an appreciation for & fluency in the heritage languagein the heritage language

Two-way immersionTwo-way immersion• Purpose: to develop 2Purpose: to develop 2ndnd language proficiency language proficiency

among mainstream students & to maintain & among mainstream students & to maintain & develop first language proficiency among minority develop first language proficiency among minority students students

ESEA Title VII – ESEA Title VII – The Bilingual Education ActThe Bilingual Education Act

Grants to school districts for Grants to school districts for implementation of transitional bilingual implementation of transitional bilingual programs (basic grants)programs (basic grants)

Grants to IHEs for training teachersGrants to IHEs for training teachers Grants to materials development Grants to materials development

centers to produce bilingual teaching centers to produce bilingual teaching materialsmaterials

Grants to Bilingual Education Service Grants to Bilingual Education Service Centers to provide technical assistanceCenters to provide technical assistance

Problems with ESEA Title VIIProblems with ESEA Title VII

Conflicting goalsConflicting goals• Transitional v. maintenanceTransitional v. maintenance

Inconsistent implementationInconsistent implementation• In use of each languageIn use of each language• In qualification of teachers In qualification of teachers

Conflicting research resultsConflicting research results Political issuesPolitical issues

• Distribution of resourcesDistribution of resources• Notions of the role of government (local, Notions of the role of government (local,

state, federal) in educationstate, federal) in education

The English-Only Movement & The English-Only Movement & U.S. EnglishU.S. English

Since 1980s – reaction against linguistic Since 1980s – reaction against linguistic accommodationsaccommodations• 1981: S.I. Hayakawa introduced constitutional 1981: S.I. Hayakawa introduced constitutional

amendment to make English the official amendment to make English the official language of the U.S.language of the U.S.

• ‘‘U.S. English’ formed to raise funds to U.S. English’ formed to raise funds to promote English-Only amendments at both promote English-Only amendments at both state and national levelsstate and national levels

The English-Plus MovementThe English-Plus Movement

Founded in 1987Founded in 1987 To counteract the English-Only movementTo counteract the English-Only movement Purpose: to preserve and promote linguistic & Purpose: to preserve and promote linguistic &

cultural diversitycultural diversity Other critics of English-OnlyOther critics of English-Only

• TESOLTESOL• LSALSA• AAALAAAL• NEANEA• Teachers UnionsTeachers Unions

Criticisms of English-OnlyCriticisms of English-Only English-Only Movement & U.S. EnglishEnglish-Only Movement & U.S. English

• Ignore the civil rights traditions in the USIgnore the civil rights traditions in the US• Fail to promote the integration of language-Fail to promote the integration of language-

minority childrenminority children• Neglect the need for American business to Neglect the need for American business to

communicate with foreign marketscommunicate with foreign markets• Restrict government’s ability to reach all Restrict government’s ability to reach all

citizenscitizens• Attempt to disenfranchise minority citizensAttempt to disenfranchise minority citizens• Promote divisiveness and hostility toward Promote divisiveness and hostility toward

those whose 1those whose 1stst language is not English language is not English

California PropositionsCalifornia Propositions 1986: Proposition 63 declared English 1986: Proposition 63 declared English

as sole official language of Californiaas sole official language of California Propsition 187 attempted to limit Propsition 187 attempted to limit

benefits for undocumented immigrantsbenefits for undocumented immigrants Proposition 209 sought to end Proposition 209 sought to end

affirmative action programs for affirmative action programs for underrepresented minoritiesunderrepresented minorities

1998: ‘English for the Children’ (Prop 1998: ‘English for the Children’ (Prop 227)227)

‘‘English for the Children’ (Prop 227)English for the Children’ (Prop 227) RationaleRationale

• English is the language of opportunity – English is the language of opportunity – dominates science, business, technologydominates science, business, technology

• Immigrant parents want their children to Immigrant parents want their children to learn Englishlearn English

• Schools have a moral obligation to teach Schools have a moral obligation to teach EnglishEnglish

• For the previous two decades, CA school have For the previous two decades, CA school have performed poorly in educating immigrant performed poorly in educating immigrant children, - high drop-out rateschildren, - high drop-out rates

• Young children acquire 2Young children acquire 2ndnd languages easily languages easily

‘‘English for the Children’ (Prop 227)English for the Children’ (Prop 227)

Since 227, several issues have posed Since 227, several issues have posed major challenges for schools & parents:major challenges for schools & parents:• It imposes English-Only instruction which is It imposes English-Only instruction which is

normally 180 days of specially designed normally 180 days of specially designed instruction in Englishinstruction in English

• It doesn’t allow bilingual education, unless It doesn’t allow bilingual education, unless language-minority parents request a waiver language-minority parents request a waiver from English-only instruction and request from English-only instruction and request bilingual educationbilingual education

But still no guarantee they will receive itBut still no guarantee they will receive it

Some Current Language Policy Some Current Language Policy Issues in the U.S.Issues in the U.S.

To what extent can / should room be made for To what extent can / should room be made for the existence of other languages?the existence of other languages?

How are language minorities advantaged or How are language minorities advantaged or disadvantaged by policies involving language disadvantaged by policies involving language rights, accommodations, or restrictions?rights, accommodations, or restrictions?

What are the advantages / disadvantages of What are the advantages / disadvantages of intergenerational language shift to English? intergenerational language shift to English?

How is the monolingual language majority How is the monolingual language majority affected by these language policies?affected by these language policies?

What kinds of language policies would assist What kinds of language policies would assist the English-speaking majority?the English-speaking majority?