1 Linear and Quadratic Approximations Back in Topic 4.6 (from Calculus AB), we learned that if a function is differentiable at a point c then it can be approximated near c by its tangent line, which we called the linear approximation to f at the point c. Furthermore, we rewrote the point-slope version of that line, − () = ′ ()( − ) as () = () + ′ ()( − ). Because this linear approximation is a first-degree polynomial of x, we can name it 1 (): 1 () = () + ′ ()( − ). This polynomial has some important properties. 1.) It matches the function f in value at x = c. P 1 (c) = f (c) + ¢ f (c)(c - c) = f ( c) 2.) It matches the slope of the function f in value at x = c. P 1 ¢ (c) = 0 + ¢ f ( c)(1) = ¢ f (c) The problem is that linear approximations don’t always work so well when the graph of f has a great deal of “curvature” near c. To fix this problem, we can create a quadratic approximating polynomial by adding one new term to the linear polynomial. We can denote the new polynomial 2 () and it would look like 2 () = () + ′ ()( − ) + ( − ) 2 Notice that we will need to find the value of the coefficient a. To determine a and to ensure that 2 () is a good approximation for f near the point c we require that 2 () agree with f in value, slope and concavity at c. In other words, 2 () must satisfy the conditions: P 2 ( c) = f ( c) + ¢ f ( c)( c - c) + a( c - c) 2 = f ( c) P 2 ¢ ( x ) = 0 + ¢ f ( c)(1) + 2a( x - c) ® P 2 ¢ ( c) = ¢ f ( c) + 2a( c - c) = ¢ f ( c) P 2 ¢¢ ( x ) = 2a ® P 2 ¢¢ ( c) = 2a must be equivalent to ¢¢ f ( c) ® a = 1 2 ¢¢ f ( c) Therefore, the resulting quadratic approximating polynomial is 2 () = () + ′ ()( − ) + ′′ () 2 ( − ) 2 LIM AP CALCULUS BC 3 Topic: 10.11 Finding Taylor Polynomial Approximations of Functions 2 Learning Objectives LIM-8.A: Represent a function at a point as a Taylor polynomial. LIM-8.B: Approximate function values using a Taylor polynomial. For over 300 years, mathematicians have been able to compute transcendental values with an alarming degree of accuracy. For example, how do you think a 17 th century mathematician would be able to find (i) sin(0.2), (ii) ln(1.05), or (iii) 4 e without the convenience of a modern calculator?
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Linear and Quadratic Approximations Back in Topic 4.6 (from Calculus AB), we learned that if a function is differentiable at a point c then it can be approximated
near c by its tangent line, which we called the linear approximation to f at the point c. Furthermore, we rewrote the point-slope
version of that line, 𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓 ′(𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐) as
𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′(𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐).
Because this linear approximation is a first-degree polynomial of x, we can name it 𝑃1(𝑥):
𝑃1(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′(𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐).
This polynomial has some important properties.
1.) It matches the function f in value at x = c. P1(c) = f (c) + ¢f (c)(c- c) = f (c)
2.) It matches the slope of the function f in value at x = c. P1¢(c) = 0 + ¢f (c)(1) = ¢f (c)
The problem is that linear approximations don’t always work so well when the graph of f has a great deal of “curvature” near c.
To fix this problem, we can create a quadratic approximating polynomial by adding one new term to the linear polynomial. We
can denote the new polynomial 𝑃2(𝑥) and it would look like
𝑃2(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′(𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑐)2
Notice that we will need to find the value of the coefficient a. To determine a and to
ensure that 𝑃2(𝑥) is a good approximation for f near the point c we require that 𝑃2(𝑥)
agree with f in value, slope and concavity at c. In other words, 𝑃2(𝑥) must satisfy the
conditions:
P2(c) = f (c) + ¢f (c)(c - c) + a(c- c)2 = f (c)
P2¢(x) = 0 + ¢f (c)(1) + 2a(x - c) ® P
2¢(c) = ¢f (c) + 2a(c - c) = ¢f (c)
P2¢¢(x) = 2a ® P
2¢¢(c) = 2a must be equivalent to ¢¢f (c) ® a =
1
2¢¢f (c)
Therefore, the resulting quadratic approximating polynomial is
𝑃2(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′(𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐) +𝑓′′(𝑐)
2(𝑥 − 𝑐)2
LIM AP CALCULUS BC
3 Topic: 10.11 Finding Taylor Polynomial Approximations of Functions
2 Learning Objectives LIM-8.A: Represent a function at a point as a Taylor polynomial. LIM-8.B: Approximate function values using a Taylor polynomial.
For over 300 years, mathematicians have been able to compute transcendental values with an alarming
degree of accuracy. For example, how do you think a 17th century mathematician would be able to find
(i) sin(0.2), (ii) ln(1.05), or (iii) 4 e without the convenience of a modern calculator?
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Example 1: Linear and Quadratic Approximations for ln(x)
a. Find the linear approximation to
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 1. b. Find the quadratic approximation to
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 1.
c. Use these approximations to estimate the value of 𝑙𝑛( 1.05).
How do these approximations compare to the actual value of ln(1.05)?
The big question now is whether or not we can extend the idea of linear and quadratic polynomials that will
approximate functions to higher-degree polynomials that can perhaps to a better job of approximating functions.
Differentiation and Integration of Power Series All of the “founding fathers” of calculus, Newton, Leibniz, Euler, Lagrange, and the Bernoulli brothers used power series
extensively in their individual development of the subject.
Because of this, one can only wonder are power series continuous? Are they differentiable?
Can we integrate a power series?
THEOREM 10.13.2 PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS DEFINED BY POWER SERIES
If the function given by
has radius of convergence of R > 0, then, on the interval (c – R, c + R), f is differentiable (and
therefore continuous). Moreover, the derivative and antiderivative of f are as follows:
1.
2.
The radius of convergence of the series obtained by differentiating or integrating a power series is the same as that
of the original power series. The interval of convergence, however, may differ as a result of the behavior at the
endpoints.
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Example 4: Intervals of Convergence for f(x), f'(x), and ʃ f(x)dx
Consider the function given by 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑𝑥𝑛
𝑛= 𝑥 +
𝑥2
2+
𝑥3
3+ ⋯ .∞
𝑛=1 .
Find the interval of convergence for each of the following.
a. 𝒇(𝒙) b. 𝒇′(𝒙) c. ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
Activity:
1. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑𝑥𝑛
𝑛!
∞𝑛=0 , write out an expression that includes the first five terms of the series.
2. Find 𝑓 ′(𝑥) by differentiating the terms in the series above.
3. What do you notice about𝑓(𝑥) and𝑓 ′(𝑥)? Do you recognize this function?