Lilly Miami 2010

8/8/2019 Lilly Miami 2010

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Follow Where the Research Leads Us: What Brain

Research can tell us about Students Learning

Developed by Professor Terry Doyle

Ferris State University

www.learnercenteredteaching.com


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Slides available for download at:

www.learnercenteredteaching.com

LILLY Conference

Follow Where the Research Leads Us


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Presentation Outcomes

By the end of the presentation participants will:

1. have a better understanding of how fast theresearch into human learning is progressing.

2.have developed news ideas for applyingresearch findings to their courses.


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Folklore vs. Science

In A Celebration of Neurons by

University of Oregon Education

Professor Robert Sylwester in 1995.

He said : the

information upon which

we make our teachingdecisions is much closer

to folklore than science.


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What was Then

Guido Sarducci Five Minute University


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http://www.ted.com/speakers/aditi_shankarda

ss.html

What is Now


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It is a Comprehensive Blend

Antonio Damasio, head of the department of neurology atthe University of Iowa Medical Center

"The relation between brain systems and complex cognitionand behavior, can only be explained satisfactorily by acomprehensive blend of theories and facts related to all thelevels of organization of the nervous system, frommolecules, and cells and circuits, to large-scale systems and

physical and social environments. . . .

We must beware of explanations that rely on data from onesingle level, whatever the level may be."


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Brain Research

It is important to realize much of the research onthe brain as it relates to learning has been doneon animal models. The research that is done on

humans consist of the study of discrete tasks inisolation. (Dr. Janet Zadina, Neuroscientist and Educator)

However, this research can give us importantinsights into how humans learn which hassignificant implications for those of us that teach.


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What We Know about the Brain

Comes from biologist

who study brain tissue,

experimental

psychologist who studybehavior, cognitive

neuroscientist who

study how the first

relates to the secondand evolutionary

biologist. (Medina, 2008).


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A Brain Joke

What do we call a head

with a 100 billion

neurons missing?

A no brainer


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The Pace of Brain Research

Virtual reality helps researchers track how brain responds to surroundings

Brain scans may someday track child development

Consistent brain activity key to good memory

Sleeping Makes Memories Stronger

Women and men have virtually identical brains, scientist claims

Study: Exercise helps kids get better grades

Specific Brain Region Linked to Introspective Thoughts


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Digital Overload: Is Your Computer Frying Your Brain?

Re-engineering a brain

A Science First: Stem Cells Injected into Woman's Brain

Bionic implants melding man and machine

Good conversation can boost brain power, study finds

Beetroot juice good for brain

Glia:The Other Brain, The new frontier in brain science


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Electrical brain zap 'boosts math ability

Sleep Deprivation Changes Gene Expression in the Brain

Fingers spot typo ahead of the brain

Juggling = better brain power

Science Will Capture Your Dreams

Viva! Stem cells revive dying brains

Brain cells of rats used within experimental robots

Scientists discover how to 'switch off' pain of migraines


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Following the Research

Almost 40 years ago,Thomas Kuhn's seminalwork, The Structure ofScientific Revolutions,

described how societyresponds when there is asignificant shift in theprevailing paradigm.

Kuhn argued that such ashift is typically met withvehement denial andopposition.


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Brain Research and College Teaching

"If we ignore how the

student brain works, we

will risk student success

"Everything we do uses

our brain; let's learn more

about it and apply that

knowledge."

Leslie hart 1983." , Human Brain,

Human Learning


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The Human Brain

The human brain weighs three (3) pounds but

uses 20-25% of the bodies energy


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The Human Brain

The human brain has 100 billion neurons

(It does grow thousands of new cells daily)

www.enchantedlearning.com/.../gifs/Neuron.GIF


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The Human Brain

These 100 billion neurons

are capable of making40,000,000,000,000,000

(Forty quadrillion connections )

(James Ratey, Users Guide to the Brain, 2002)


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Learning is when Neurons Wire

Learning is a change

in the neuron-patterns of the

brain.(Ratey, 2002)

www.virtualgalen.com/.../ neurons-small.jpg


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Teachers Definition of Learning?

Learning is the ability to use information aftersignificant periods of disuse

andit is the ability to use the information to solveproblems that arise in a context different (if onlyslightly) from the context in which the information

was originally taught.

(Robert Bjork, Memories andMetamemories, 1994)


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Basic Finding from Brain Research as it

Impacts Human Learning

It is the one who does

the work who does thelearning


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What has Research Discovered they

We Might Use?


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Brain Research and Learning

Can we make better-

informed decisions

about teaching based

on what we havelearned about the

brain?

The answer is clearly

YES


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Findings about Rest and Memory

The researchers found thatduring rest, following alearning activity the areas ofthe brain were just as activeas they were when theywere learning the task

The greater the correlationbetween rest and learningthe greater the chance of

remembering the task inlater tests.

Dr Lila Davachi, NYU's Department ofPsychology and Center for Neural Science.


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Back to Back Classes

Should Students not

take Classes back to

back?

"Taking a coffee break

after class can actually

help you retain that

information you just

learned," Dr Lila Davachi


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The Brain and Learning

The human brain was

designed to solve

problems of survival in

outdoor, unstableenvironments while in

almost constant

motion.

( Dr. John Medina, Developmental Molecular

Biologist, University of Washington and Author

of Brain Rules)


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If educators had set

out to design a learning

environment that was

in complete oppositionto what the human

brain is good at they

would have designed

the schools of yesterdayand today.

(John Medina, Brain Rules, 2008)


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GRID Cells

British scientists at the UniversityCollege London (UCL) announce thatthey were recently able to identifysome of the most elusive structuresin the human brain, namely the gridcells.

These special formations are theones in charge of creating theinternal maps of our surroundingsthat we unconsciously use to getaround.

This was the first time such anannouncement was made, and, if itsconclusions are verified, it could beone of the greatest discoveries in thefield of brain sciences made in a longtime


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Neurogenesis

The functional relevance ofadult neurogenesis isuncertain, but there is someevidence that hippocampaladult neurogenesis isimportant for learning andmemory

However, the overall

findings that adultneurogenesis is importantfor any kind of learning areequivocal. Gould, E.; Beylin, A.; Tanapat, P.;Reeves, A.; Shors, T. J. (1999).


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Neuroscience has Become Main Stage

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

Nature Neuroscience

Journal of Computational Neuroscience

Journal of Medicine, Social Cognition andAffective Neuroscience

Behavioral Neuroscience

Journal of Neuroscience Nursing

Visual Neuroscience

Journal of Neuroscience Behavioral Health

Journal of Neuroscience Psychology andEconomics


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Social Conditions and the Brain

Social conditions influence ourbrain in ways we didn't knowbefore.

School behaviors are highlysocial experiences, whichbecome encoded through oursense of reward, acceptance,pain, pleasure, coherence,affinity, and stress.

Students are more affected byit than we thought.


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Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to rewire

and remap itself by means of

neuroplasticity is profound.

Schools can influence thisprocess.

Neuroscientists Michael

Merzenich and Paula Tallal

verified that when the correctskill-building protocol is used,

educators can make positive and

significant changes in our brains

in a short time.


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Gene Expression

The old-school view was that eitherenvironment or genes decided theoutcomes for a student.

We now know that there's a thirdoption: gene expression.

This is the capacity of our genes torespond to chronic or acuteenvironmental input.

This new understanding highlights anew vehicle for change in ourstudents.

(Neuroscientists Bruce Lipton and Ernest Rossi)


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Dendrite Growth

With in 20 minutes of

being exposed to new

learning the dendrites

in the brain begin togrow new cellular

material.

(Cognitive Neuroscientist Janet Zadina, 2010)


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Use it or Lose it

When new material is

not practiced the new

dendrite tissue is

reabsorbed to conserveresources.

(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)


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Learning Activates the Brains

Reward Pathways

Real life, meaningful,

and authentic learning

activates the reward

pathways in the brain

It is this pathway that

keeps us alive

(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)


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Reading in the Brain

Cause of Dyslexia

For 100 years believed

to be a problem with

the visual processing

parts of the brain.

Cause of Dyslexia

2009 French

Neuroscientist Stanislas

Dehaene proved it is a

problem with the

auditory processing

parts of the brain


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Memory and Similar Patterns

People are more likely toremember information if thepattern of activity in theirbrain is roughly the same witheach review,

The findings, published onlineSept. 9, 2010 in the journalScience, challenge the long-held belief that humans

remember more effectivelywhen they review informationin varying ways


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How Practice Makes Perfect

The question is how practice makesperfect, If you precisely reactivatethe same pattern each time, then youare going to remember better.

Xue cautioned that the study doesnot disprove the effect of variablecontexts in enhancing memory.

Restudy under similar context mightnot always lead to patternreinstatement, and at the same time,

variable contexts might enhancepattern reinstatement..

(Gui Xue,USC)


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We Use all our Senses

The traditional belief amongneuroscientists has been that thefive senses operate largely asindependent systems.

However, mounting data suggestinteractions between vision,hearing, smell, touch and tasteare the rule, rather than theexception, when it comes to howthe human brain processessensory information and thusperceives things.

(Aaron Seitz Journal Current Biology, 2006)


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Smell and Learning

Proust Effect is theunusual ability ofsmell to enhance

recallvoluntarymemory

Best results when

smells are congruentwith the situation

Brain Rules, p.212


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Multitasking Slows Learning

It is not possible to

multitask when it

comes to activitiesthat require the

brains attention


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unlike most skills,multitasking doesn't geteasier the more you do it.

frequent multitaskerswere even worse atmultitasking thaninfrequent multitaskers.

(2009 in the Proceedings of the

National Academy of Sciences, Nassand Colleagues)


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"It is cognitive work,"

Nass said. "It's a lot of

work to switch tasks.

It's much less work onthe brain to do one

thing and then a second

thing.2009 in the Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences,


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Sleep and Memory

. "Periods of slow-wavesleep are very long andproduce a recall andprobably amplification of

memory traces.

Ensuing episodes of REMsleep, which are very short,trigger the expression of

genes to store what wasprocessed during slow-wave sleep."

Sidarta Ribeiro, Duke University, 2004


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Sleep and Memory

The MRI scans are showing usthat brain regions shiftdramatically during sleep,

"When you're asleep, it seems as

though you are shifting memoryto more efficient storage regionswithin the brain. Consequently,when you awaken, memory taskscan be performed both morequickly and accurately and withless stress and anxiety."

Matthew Walker, PhD, director of BIDMC's Sleepand Neuroimaging Laboratory and AssistantProfessor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School,


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192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg

192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg

Cramming


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Vision Trumps All

Vision trumps all other senses


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Vision Trumps All

Humans pay a lot of attention to the size

of things and to things in motion.


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Progress is Vital

A feeling of making

progress is what allows

humans to deal with

tasks, especially taskswe dont necessarily

like to do.

(Dr. James Zull, 2002)


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Brain Based Education

How reputable is brain-basededucation?

Harvard University now has both

master's and doctoral degrees init.

Our mission is to build amovement in which cognitive

science and neuroscience areintegrated with education so thatwe train people to make thatintegration both in research andin practice.


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We actually are justbeginning to understandthe incredible complexityof the human brain.

However, there 12 thingswe do know about howthe brain processes

information and these aresignificant to yourstudents learning. (Dr. JohnMedina)


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Twelve Things We Know for sure about

the Human Brain

1. Exercise

significantly

enhances brainfunction


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Exercise and Learning

Exercise is the single

most important thing a

person can do to

improve their learning.

(John Ratey, 2008, Spark, The

Revolutionary New Science of

Exercise and the Brain)


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Exercise influences

learning directly, at

the cellular level,

improving the brains

potential to log in

and process newinformation.

Ratey, p35


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Newest Findings

Exercise increases

production of

neurotransmitters that help:1.Focus and attention

2.Motivation

3. Patience

4. Mood (more optimistic)

(Ratey, 2008)


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Exerciseenough to

sweat and 4-5 times a

week improves:

1. All brain systems

2. Executive functioning

3. Creativity

4. Learning

(Ratey, 2008)


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Exercise and BDNF

(Brain-derived neurotrophic factor )

Exercise produces BDNF

( Miracle Grow for the Brain)

(Ratey, 2008)


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BDNF

Improves brain health

Enhances the wiring of

neurons

Is a stress inoculator

Makes the brain cells

more resilient


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BDNF and Synapses

BDNF gives synapses

the tools they need to:

Take in

Process

Associate

Remember

Put in context

Information


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BDNF and Exercise

In particular BDNF seems to be important for

long term memories (John Ratey, 2008)


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Exercise and Brain Pathologies

Exercise reducessignificantly thepotential for the brainto succumb to certainpathologies

1. Alzheimers 50%

2. Dementia 60% 3. Depression 70%(Dr. John Medina, Brain Rules, 2008)


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The Brain is Social

2. Survival is accomplished

by working with other

brains

Groups of brains

almost always

outperform a single

brain


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The Brain is Social

Group work has

tremendous potential

to aid understanding

and learningif thegroups understand their

roles and what they are

trying to accomplish


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Brains are Wired Differently

3. All brains are

wired differently

Our experiences

make us different


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Brains are Wired Differently

It is these differences

that can make working

together in teams andgroups such a powerful

learning experience


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Memory

Memory

Repetition over timeand elaboration are

necessary for

memory formationand recall


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Listen to the Music

Do you know the lyrics to

songs that you did not try to

learn and do not want to

know the lyrics to?

YES


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Practice over Time

Practice, Use ,

Repetition, Review,

Reflection or any other

way we engage withnew learning over time

is a major key to its

recall


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Memories are Reconstructed

The more senses usedin learning and inpracticing what has

been learned( seeing, hearing,touch, taste andsmell) the more

pathways are availablefor reconstruction

(recall)


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Elaborations are the Key

For better or worse, our recollections are largely at the

mercy of our elaborations (Daniel Schacter author of the Seven Sinsof Memory)

El b i i h S d


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Elaboration is the Second

Major Key to Recall

Step One. Accuracy

Step Two: Reflection

Step Three: Review

Step Four: Mapping

Step Five: Recoding


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Reflection

Reflection expands connections,

understanding and insights.

Women

earn only

81% of

what men

earn

Is this true

incompanies

headed by

womenI knew this

was true in

other

countries

but the

U.S

I wonder if

there are

inequities in

pay for men

of color


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Keys to Review

Daily is Best


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Concept Mapping and Review

A concept map simply represents visually (easiestthing for the brain to learn, Zull, 2002)the important concepts

and ideas being studied and how they relate to one another.

www.universityhighschool.org/webquest/Element...


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Practice Includes Recoding

Recoding is the simple

process of translating

the new knowledge into

your own words.

Examples include

paraphrasing,

summarizing andannotating


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Why Students Forget

Review helps to limit the 3 Sins of Memory that

commonly occur among students.

1. Blocking information stored but cant be

accessed (Schacter, 2001)

2. Misattribution attributing a memory to the

wrong situation or source (Zola, 2002)

3. Transience memory lost over time 65% of a

lecture is lost in the first hour (Schacter, 2001)


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Keeping Memories

The best way to minimize memory decay is to useelaborative rehearsal strategies

Visualizing Singing

Writing

Semantic Mapping

Drawing Pictures Symbolizing

Mnemonics.


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Emotions and Memory

Research shows

learners recall

information that is

emotional more easilythan information that is

factual or neutral in

nature. (Zull, 2002)

Theimagepartwithrelationship IDrId2wasnotfound in thefile.

Theimage

partwithrelationship IDrId3wasnotfound in thefile.


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Which of the following slides

would be easier to recall after

two weeks?


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Slide One

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/...


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Slide Two

www.operationsudan.org/images/darfur_child_st...


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Emotion and Memory

Emotional arousal organizes and coordinates

brain activity (Bloom, Beal & Kupfer 2003)

When the amygdala detects emotions, it

essentially boosts activity in the areas of thebrain that form memories (S. Hamann & Emony, UN.)


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20 Ounces of Coke

74 grams of sugar or 2.7 oz


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A Burger King Whopper

47 grams of fat


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Stress

Stress

Stress

diminishes/

harms brainfunction


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Multimedia Exposure and Learning

Cognitive Psychologist

Richard Mayer

1. students learn betterfrom words and

pictures than from

words alone


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Temporal Congruity Principle

Students learn better

when words andpictures are presented

simultaneously rather

then successively


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Spatial Congruity Principle

Students learn better

when words andpictures are near to

each other on the page

rather than far from

each other.


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Coherence Principle

Students learn betterwhen extraneous

material is excluded


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Modality Principle Students learn better from animation and narration

than from animation and screen text

Mens and Womens Brains are


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Men s and Women s Brains are

Different

11. There are

differences in the brains

of men and women


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The Brain was Designed to Learn

12. The brain was meant to explore and learn


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The Brains Needs

The brain needs to

function effectively:

1. Exercise

2. Sleep 3. Oxygen

4. Hydration

5. Food (glucose)

d


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Patterns and Learning


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Which of the following

slides is easier toremember and WHY?


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SLIDE ONE

`4915802979


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Slide Two

(491) 580-2979

l d


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Slide One

NRAFBINBCUSAMTV

l d


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Slide Two

NRA NBC FBI USA MTV

hi h i i ?


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Which is easier?

Counting backwards from 100

OR

Reciting the alphabet backwards

P d L i


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The brain is a pattern seeking device that

relates whole concepts to one another and

looks for similarities, differences, or

relationships between them. (Ratey, 2002, pg.5)

Sociology Psychology

Patterns that Aid Learning--


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Patterns that Aid Learning

Mapping

www.noticebored.com/assets/images/NB_inductio...www.eyezberg.com/.../bline_charts.png

R di b k


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Reading a textbook

90% of the time the 1st sentence

of a paragraph is the Main Idea of

the paragraph

R di P tt


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Reading Patterns

Lists

Sequences

Definitions

Cause and Effect

Similarity and

Difference

Spatial Order

Si il it d Diff


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Similarity and Difference

The most common pattern used in schools is

similarity and difference.

Information Learned in a Complete


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p

Pattern

When information is learned as part of a whole (a complete

pattern) it becomes easier to recall.

Zulls Natural

Learning Cycle

E l B b ll


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Example-- Baseball

Who are the two

players that play infront of the Right

Fielder?



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P tt d L i


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However, if all a person did was memorize the names

in order 1-9 trouble!!!

Q ti


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Questions

1. What are the most common patterns found

in your course content?

2. What patterns of presenting information to

students have you found to be most effective?

3. Are there information patterns you find

students struggle to recognize or understand?

References


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References

Bjork, R. A. (1994) Memory and Metamemory consideration in the training of human beings. In J.Metcalfe & A. Shimamura

(Eds) Metacognition: Knowing about Knowing pp. 185-205. Cambridge, MA MIT Press.Bloom, Benjamin S. (Ed). (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The

classification of Educational Goals. Handbook I. Cognitive Domain (pp. 201-207). New York: McKay.

Caine, Renate; Caine, Geoffrey.Education on The Edge of Possibility. Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development, 1997.

Damasio, A. R. (1994).Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, NY,Grosset/Putnam

Diamond, Marion. (1988).Enriching Heredity: The Impact of the Environment on the Brain.New York,NY: Free Press.

Damasio AR: Fundamental Feelings. Nature 413:781, 2001.

.D. O. Hebb,1949 monograph, The Organization of Behavior

Dweck, Carol. Mindset The New Psychology of Success, 2006 random House, NY

References


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References

Medina, John, Brain Rules, Pear Press, 2008

Sylwester, R. A Celebration of Neurons An Educators Guide to the Human Brain, ASCD:1995

Sprenger, M. Learning and Memory The Brain in Action by, ASCD, 1999

.How People Learn by National Research Council editor John Bransford, National Research Council, 2000

Goldberg, E. The Executive Brain Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Mind ,Oxford University Press: 2001

Ratey, J. MD. Spark: The New Science of Exercise and the Brain, 2008, Little Brown

Ratey, J. MD :A Users Guide to the Brain, Pantheon Books: New York, 2001

Zull, James. The Art of Changing the Brain.2002, Stylus: Virginia

Weimer, Maryellen. Learner-Centered Teaching. Jossey-Bass, 2002

Sousa, David. How the Brain Learns(Corwin Press, Inc., 1998),

Long-Lasting Novelty-Induced Neuronal Reverberation during Slow-Wave Sleep in Multiple ForebrainAreasSidarta Ribeiro,Damien Gervasoni, Ernesto S.Soares, Yi Zhou, Shih-Chieh Lin, Janaina Pantoja, Michael Lavine, Miguel A. L. Nicolelis , 2004

(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack, Russell A. 2006. Modulation of competing memory systems by distraction. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103: 11778-11783.)

3 Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. Isolation of a Central Bottleneck of Information Processing with Time-Resolved fMRI. Neuron.52 (6): 1109-1120


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1. John T. Bruer, "Education and the Brain: A Bridge Too Far," Educational Researcher, November 1997, pp. 1-13; idem, "In Search of . . . Brain-BasedEducation," Phi Delta Kappan, May 1999, pp. 648-57; and idem, "Points of View: On the Implications of Neuroscience Research for Science Teachingand Learning: Are There Any?," CBELife Science Education, vol. 5, 2006, pp. 445-61.

2. Bruer, "In Search of," p. 655.

3. Leslie A. Hart, Human Brain,Human Learning (New York: Longman, 1983). 4. Howard Gardner, Frames ofMind: The Theory ofMultiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Renata N. Caine and Geoffrey Caine,Making

Connections:Teaching and the Human Brain (Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991); David A. Sousa, Howthe Brain Learns, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin, 2005); and Eric Jensen, Teaching with the Brain in Mind, 2nd ed. (Alexandria, Va.: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2005).

5. Conor Liston, "An Interview with Antonio R. Damasio,"The Harvard Brain, Spring 2001, p. 2, emphasis added.

6. Gerd Kempermann, Laurenz Wiskott, and Fred Gage, "Functional Significance of Adult Neurogenesis," Current Opinion in Neurobiology, April 2004,pp. 186-91.

7. Marco Iacoboni et al., "Grasping the Intentions of Others with One's Own Mirror Neuron System," PLoS Biology, 22 February 2005, available athttp://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030079.

8. Michael Kilgard and Michael Merzenich, "Cortical Map Reorganization Enabled by Nucleus Basalis Activity," Science, vol. 279, 1998, pp. 1714-18;Henry W. Mahncke et al., "Memory Enhancement in Healthy Older Adults Using a Brain Plasticity-Based Training Program: A Randomized, ControlledStudy," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 15 August 2006, pp. 12523-28; and Elise Temple et al., "Neural Deficits in Children withDyslexia Ameliorated by Behavioral Remediation: Evidence from Functional MRI," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 4 March 2003,pp. 2860-65.

9. Bruce McEwen and John Wingfield, "The Concept of Allostasis in Biology and Biomedicine,"Hormone Behavior, January 2003, pp. 2-15. 10. Bruce Lipton, The Biology of Belief(Santa Rosa, Calif.: Mountain of Love Publishing, 2005); and Ernest Rossi, The Psychobiology of Gene Expression

(New York: Norton, 2002).

11. Temple et al. (learning to read); HweeLing Lee et al., "Anatomical Traces of Vocabulary Acquisition in the Adolescent Brain," Journal ofNeuroscience, 31 January 2007, pp. 1184-89 (learning vocabulary); Bogdon Draganski et al., "Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Brain StructureChanges During Extensive Learning," Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 26, 2006, pp. 6314-17 (studying for tests); and Christien Gaser and GottfriedSchlaug, "Brain Structures Differ Between Musicians and Non-Musicians,"Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 23, 2003, pp. 9240-45 (learning to play amusical instrument).

.


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12. Panaqiotis G. Simos et al., "Dyslexia-Specific Brain Activation Profile Becomes Normal Following Successful Remedial Training," Neurology, April 2002, pp. 1203-13. 13. Nancy Brener, John O. G. Billy, and William R. Grady, "Assessment of Factors Affecting the Validity of Self-Reported Health-Risk Behavior Among Adolescents: Evidence from the

Scientific Literature," Journal of AdolescentHealth, vol. 33, 2003, pp. 436-57.

14. Henriette van Praag et al., "Running Enhances Neurogenesis, Learning and Long-Term Potentiation in Mice," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 96, 1999, pp.13427-31; and Ana C. Pereira et al., "An In Vivo Correlate of Exercise-Induced Neurogenesis in the Adult Dentate Gyrus," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 104, 2007,pp. 5638-43.

15. Grace S. Griesbach et al., "Voluntary Exercise Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Brain-Deriv ed Neurotrophic Factor Upregulation and Recovery of Function," Neuroscience , vol. 125,2006, pp. 129-39.

16. Tracey J. Shors et al., "Neurogenesis in the Adult Is Involved in the Formation of Trace Memories," Nature, vol. 410, 2001, pp. 372-76; and Yasuji Kitabatake et al., "Adult Neurogenesisand Hippocampal Memory Function: New Cells, More Plasticity, New Memories?," Neurosurgery Clinics North America, January 2007, pp. 105-13.

17. L. Sanji Nandam et al., "5-ht(7), Neurogenesis and Antidepressants: A Promising Therapeutic Axis for Treating Depression," ClinicalExperiments in Pharmacology and Physiology, May-June 2007, pp. 546-51.

18. Gitanjali Saluja et al., "Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Depressive Symptoms Among Young Adolescents,"Archives of Pediatric and AdolescentMedicine, August 2004, pp. 760-65.

19. Astrid Bjornebekk et al., "The Antidepressant Effec t of Running Is Associated with Increased Hippocampal Cell Proliferation," InternationalJournal of Neuropsychopharmacology,September 2005, pp. 357-68.

20. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). 21. Bruer, "In Search of."

22. Ibid., p. 657.

23. Chunliu Zhan and Marlene R. Miller, "Excess Length of Stay, Charges, and Mortality Attributable to Medical Injuries During Hospitalization," Journal of the American MedicalAssociation, October 2003, pp. 1868-74.

24. Bruer, "In Search of."

25. Bruer, "Points of View: On the Implications of Neuroscience," p. 104. 26. Temple et al., op. cit.

27. Michael Posner and Mary Klevjord Rothbart,Educating the Human Brain (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2006); Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia (NewYork: Random House, 2004); and Helen Nevills and Pat Wolfe, Building the Reading Brain (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin, 2005).

28. Julia Hanna, "Mind, Brain, & Education: Linking Biology, Neuroscience, & Educational Practice," Harvard Graduate School ofEducation News, 1 June 2005, available atwww.gse.harvard.edu/news/features/mbe06012005.html

Gould, E.; Beylin, A.; Tanapat, P.; Reeves, A.; Shors, T. J. (1999). "Learning enhances adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal formation". Nature neuroscience 2 (3): 260265.doi:10.1038/6365. PMID 10195219. e


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