lifestyle chemistry - Pearsonpearson.com.au/media/445120/seniorscience2.pdf · 4 Senior Science 2 FIGURE 1.2 Chemicals from around the home. TABLE 1.1 The properties and uses of a

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lifestyle chemistry

1Take a walk through your kitchen, bathroom and laundry and note the wide range ofcommercial products that clean and protect all kinds of surfaces from the porcelainbathtub to the skin of your face. Each cleaning or protective agent is specificallydesigned to suit a particular surface material or fabric.

The variety of consumer products we use in our everyday lives is a result of the explo-sion in knowledge over the past 50 years of many chemical substances and their inter-actions. Development of the petroleum industry was accelerated during the SecondWorld War due to the need to develop substitutes for raw materials such as cotton andrubber. The need to control disease and ease pain among wounded soldiers and civilians stimulated new branches of medicine and the pharmaceutical industry.

Our understanding of chemicals and their interactions has led to the developmentof chemical technology. Accurate control of chemical processes allows industry to produce cosmetics and pharmaceuticals under precisely controlled conditions so thatchemicals are produced that serve a specific purpose and have few side effects.

The challenge for the chemical industry is to leave as few unwanted effects on theenvironment as the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries have managed for thehuman body. Part of that challenge is fulfilled by the production of biodegradabledetergents and cleaners that release minimal phosphates into our waterways.

This chapter will examine the variety of chemical substances in common use in house-holds, the way they work and their effects on humans and the environment.

O u t c o m e s This chapter contributes to the following HSC course outcomes:H2 applies the processes that are used to test and validate models, theories and laws, to

investigationsH4 assesses the impacts of applications of science on society and the environmentH6 describes uses of the Earth’s resourcesH7 identifies effects of internal and external environmental changes on the human bodyH8 relates the properties of chemicals to their useH9 relates the structure of body organs and systems to their functionH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation planH12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in investigations.H13 uses terminology and reporting styles appropriately and successfully to communicate

information and understandingH14 assesses the validity of conclusions from gathered data and informationH15 explains why an investigation is best undertaken individually or by a team.H16 justifies positive value about the attitudes towards both the living and non-living

components of the environment, eithical behaviour and a desire for a critical evaluationof the consequences of the applications of science.

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mixtures

Lifestylechemistry

drugssolvents

wateralcohol

polarmolecule

external internal

vitamins

fat-soluble

water-soluble

digestivesystem

pH solubilityfactors

surfacetension

surfactantsmeniscus

molecularstructure

solutions

suspension

colloidsmicelles

functions

cleaningproducts

householdbody

hygiene

emulsions

oil-in-water

water-in-oil

detergent soap cleansers shampoo hair

skin

structure

chemicalbalance

+ pH

microflorafunctionstructure

Mind map—Lifestyle chemistry

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Lifestyle chemistry 3

SECTION OUTCOMESSuccessful completion of this section will allow you to:• recognise that a wide range of substances are used

as part of food, hygiene, entertainment and healthmaintenance

• analyse information to identify the chemicals usedin everyday living and outline any precautionsneeded in the use and handling of these chemicals

• recall that most consumer products are mixtures inthe form of either solutions, suspensions or colloidsand distinguish the properties of each

• identify examples of suspensions and colloids andoutline the advantages of using mixtures in thatform for each case

• produce a range of suspensions and colloidscommonly used by consumers

• demonstrate different properties of solutions,suspensions and emulsions

• explain surface tension in terms of the forcesexperienced by particles at the surface of a liquidand describe the effect of surfactants on surfacetension

• demonstrate the effect of surface tension throughinvestigations of natural phenomena.

Daily chemicals

Chemicals in everyday life1.1

FIGURE 1.1

Chemicals contribute to our enjoyment of life. Imagine life withoutsoap! Every day we use a vast array of chemicals in our food, for ourhygiene, to maintain our health, to protect and enhance our bodies, aswell as to clean and preserve our homes and possessions. Each sub-stance we use has its own purpose. What is it about ‘creamingcleansers’ that makes them useful for cleaning the bath and basin buta disaster on the bathroom mirror? Why don’t we just use dish-washing liquid to clean our faces? What would happen to our carswithout the right combination of oils and lubricants to keep theengine parts running smoothly?

The chemical properties of any substance must suit its purpose andshould cause no other side effects. It is especially important that thechemical behaviours of materials we apply to our skin or take orally arecompatible with our own body chemistry.

The chemical properties ofhousehold products suit thepurposes they are designed for.

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FIGURE 1.2

Chemicals from around the home.

TABLE 1.1 The properties and uses of a number of chemicals used in everyday life.

Possible ingredients Major function Examples

Cleaners

solvents dissolve and disperse soils water, alcohols, hydrocarbons (petroleum fractions)

alkalis remove oils and fats sodium carbonate, caustic soda

surfactants wet surfaces and emulsify fats and oils detergents

builders reduce hardness, especially in heavy soils phosphate, carbonate silicate and citrate salts

abrasives remove soil by friction Feldspar, clays, silicates

Degreasers

strong alkalis clean machinery of oil, grease, metal caustic soda

chlorinated hydrocarbons fragments trichloroethylene, chloroform

detergent/emulsifiers heavy duty detergents

citrus-based solvents proprietary brands

Lubricants

liquid hydrocarbons prevent contact between two moving solid greases and oils (usually with additives) surfaces to reduce friction, wear,

graphite (finely powdered overheating and rust used in lockscarbon)

air or gas hovercraft

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TABLE 1.1 The properties and uses of a number of chemicals used in everyday life (continued).

Possible ingredients Major function Examples

Pesticides

heavy metal compounds kill a variety of animal pests, especially copper and arsenic compounds

chlorinated hydrocarbons insects, spiders, rats and mice dieldrin, chlordane lindane

organophosphates ‘malathiol’

plant-based natural pyrrethrinsinsecticides

Solvents

water clean materials or surfaces or remove

alcohols impurities from other solvents, dissolve methylated spirits

chlorinated hydrocarbonsstains

dry-cleaning fluid

aromatic hydrocarbons floor sealants

oils oil-based paint

Metal cleaners

strong alkalis remove corrosion from metals ammonia

acids lemon juice

Body soaps and cleansers

soap clean the skin without drying or damaging it

oil/water emulsions cleansing cream

Toothpaste

suspension of solid polish tooth enamel alcohols can be glycerol, sorbitol or polishing agent in propylene glycolaqueous polyalcohols

fluorides kill bacteria that cause tooth decay sodium fluoride or amine fluoride

other bactericides kill bacteria ‘triclosan’ in Colgate

abrasives clean teeth by friction silica, gypsum

Deodorant

aqueous aluminium prevent perspiration by forming a hydroxide most are aluminium-basedcompounds gel that blocks sweat glands

tea tree oil, other plant kill most bacteria and fungi in armpits alternative to aluminium-basedoils

Antiseptics

bactericides kill bacteria most antiseptics contain both

fungicides kill fungi

solvent and suspending alcohols and sodium carboxy methyl cellulose antiseptic creams or ointmentsagents

Moisturiser

oil/water or water/oil slow water loss; replenish water lost from skinemulsions

Lipstick

castor oil, waxes keep lipstick solid in tube beeswax, carnauba wax

ester reduce stickiness

colours colour lips evenly

Cosm

etic

sB

ody

hygi

ene

chem

ical

s

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Most household chemical substances are not in the form of pure sub-stances, but are mixtures. These mixtures can be solutions, suspen-sions or colloids.

Look at Table 1.1 and answer the followingquestions.1 What is the purpose of a degreaser?2 What types of substance are used as metal

cleaners? Why?3 What are pesticides used for? List the types of

substances that may be used as pesticides.4 Some chloro-aluminium compounds form a

water-repellent gel when applied to the skin. Inwhat body hygiene product is this propertyuseful?

5 Visit a supermarket, hardware store or plantnursery and obtain samples of cleaning productsfor different uses in the home, or copy down theproduct ingredients from the labels. Draw up atable that lists the ingredients and their uses.Compare the major ingredients found inhousehold cleaners, laundry and dishwashingcleaners and body cleaning products.

6 While using safer substitute chemicals for mostpurposes around the home has eliminatedmany health and safety hazards, there are stilla number of products that require specialhandling when used. Find out the correcthandling procedures and any precautions thatneed to be taken when using the following:• weed sprays• polyurethane coating for floors• insecticide spray for plants• epoxy resins• cockroach baits • dry-cleaning fluid• oil-based paints• dishwasher powders• maldison or ‘malathion’ (used for ‘nits’ in

hair and scalp).

Chemicals come in mixtures

solute

particles ofmedium

suspendedparticles

particles ofmedium

colloidparticles

a solution

b suspension c colloid

particles ofmedium

FIGURE 1.3

(a) Particles in solution. (b) In a suspension,particles are larger than those in a colloid andare unevenly spread through the liquidmedium. (c) In a colloid, particles are smallerand more evenly distributed throughout theliquid medium.

Activity 1.1Everyday chemicals

Mixtures can be solutions,suspensions or colloids.

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SolutionsA solution occurs when two substances completely mix with eachother so that one part of the mixture is the same as any other part ofthe mixture—that is, the mixture is uniform or homogeneous. Asolution consists of a solute completely dissolved in a solvent. Thethree most common types of solutions are solid in liquid, liquid inliquid, and gas in liquid. Seawater, tea (without milk) and soft drinksare three common examples of solutions. The particles of solute in asolution are tiny and cannot be filtered out. Solutions are clear—theyallow light to pass through without scattering, and you cannot see thedissolved particles.

SuspensionsA suspension is a mixture of fine particles suspended in a liquid. Aftera time these particles settle out of the medium in which they are sus-pended to form two distinct layers or ‘phases’. Flavoured milks, manymedicines and paints are examples of suspensions. The particleswithin a suspension are large in comparison with those in a solution.These particles may be filtered out using normal laboratory-gradefilter paper. Since the particles within a suspension are not distrib-uted evenly throughout the medium, it is a heterogeneous mixture.

ColloidsA colloid is a mixture in which the particles of one part of the mix-ture remain suspended among the particles of the other for a longperiod of time. Colloids are a very useful means of storing and deliv-ering a substance to its target surface—such as using a sunscreen lotionto spread the protective UV filters evenly over the skin. Colloids mayalso be used to deliver drugs to a targeted site in the human body.

The particle size of a colloid is in between that of a solution and asuspension. One way in which a suspension of solid in liquid may be dis-tinguished from a colloid of solid in liquid is to attempt filtration usingfine filtration paper. The dispersed particles in a colloid cannot be fil-tered out, whereas the particles in a suspension can. In this respect, acolloid is like a solution. Yet the particles in a colloid are much largerthan those in a solution. In fact, when a light beam shines through a col-loidal liquid, the beam’s path can be clearly seen because colloid parti-cles are large enough to cause light to scatter. The effect of lightscattering by a colloid is called the Tyndall effect.

Solutions contain dissolvedparticles that are uniformlydistributed.

Suspensions contain particlesthat separate into phases after atime.

The particles in a colloid remainsuspended for extended periodsof long time.

FIGURE 1.4

Examples of (a) a solution, (b) a suspen-sion and (c) a colloid

Senior Science 2 7

a b c

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AimTo compare the properties of solutions, suspensionsand colloids.

Materials• 3 × 250 mL clear jars with lids labelled A, B and C

and containing the following:A: 200 mL nickel chloride solution (0.5 M) oranother green salt solutionB: 180 mL water, 15mL clear vegetable oil, 5 mLgreen dishwashing detergent C: 200 mL water mixed with finely powdered greenchalk

• slide projector• filtration apparatus• fine filter paper• safety glasses

Method1 Prepare the mixtures A, B and C. Ensure that each

is thoroughly mixed before using at each stage inthe experimental procedure.

2 Shake each mixture thoroughly and place in a rowin front of the slide projector.

3 Turn on the projector and note whether you canobserve the beam of light passing through eachmixture.

4 Fold a fine filter paper and place it in a filter funnelattached to a retort stand over a beaker.

5 Pour each mixture in turn through a fresh filter paper.6 Observe any residue in the filter paper and the

colour of the filtrate (the liquid dripping into thebeaker).

7 Record your observations in an appropriate form.

Discussion1 Identify each of the mixtures A, B and C as a

solution, colloid or suspension and state yourreasons for each identification.

2 Explain why you can observe a beam of light insuspensions and colloids but not in solutions.

3 Why is it not possible to obtain a residue when youfilter a colloidal suspension?

FIGURE 1.5

The Tyndall effect. Light is scattered by suspensions and colloids, but not by solutions. Can you identify which is which in this photo?

Solutions, suspensions and colloidsInvestigation 1.1

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EmulsifiersA suspension of two liquids can be converted into an emulsion withthe aid of an emulsifier—a substance that improves the ability of aliquid to disperse within another liquid. For example, bile—an emulsifier made in the gall bladder—reduces the size of fat dropletsin the human intestine so that they can mix thoroughly in the wateryenvironment. When the fat droplets are small, enzymes can breakdown the fat into fatty acids. These fatty acids can then pass easilythrough the walls of the intestine into the lymphatic system.

Detergents contain emulsifying agents that help disperse oil andgrease from soiled items into a water medium. The oil and grease arethen removed from the surface along with the water. The yolk of an eggalso contains emulsifiers, so eggs are used in many sauces to disperse oilswithin a watery or vinegar medium. This principle is used in the makingof mayonnaise, hollandaise sauce and béarnaise sauce.

Types of colloidThere are many types of colloids, depending on the type of particleand the medium in which the particles are suspended. The suspendedparticles and the medium may be solid, liquid or gas. An emulsion isa type of colloid that is used in everyday products—it is a colloid oftiny liquid droplets suspended in another liquid. An oil-in-water(O/W) emulsion, like cream or mayonnaise, contains droplets of oilsdispersed in a water medium. A water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion, likebutter, contains water droplets dispersed in an oil medium. In foamfire extinguishers, gaseous carbon dioxide is trapped in bubbles ofwater and protein polymer film forming a gas-in-liquid colloid.

Table 1.2 shows some further examples of colloid types.

TABLE 1.2 Colloids.

Colloid type Dispersed particle Medium Examples

emulsions: oil-in-water oil (liquid) water (liquid) milk, antiseptic ointment, creamliquid-in- waterliquid water-inwater oil butter, oil-based ointments

oil

foam: gas-in-liquid gas liquid shaving foam, hair mousse

sol or gel solid liquid paints, toothpaste, jelly

aerosol liquid or solid gas smog, fly spray, aerosol deodorants

Find out why certain household products are in theform of a solution, suspension or colloid.1 Collect ten commonly used preparations from

around your home.2 Identify whether each product is in the form of a

solution, suspension or colloid.

3 Use the information provided on the label or usethe library and Internet to find out why eachproduct is a solution, suspension or colloid.

4 Present your information in a way that clearlyoutlines the advantages of each mixture being inthis form.

Activity 1.2Solution, suspension or colloid?

An emulsion is a liquid-in-liquidcolloid.

An emulsifier mixes twoimmiscible liquids.

grease

detergentparticles

small droplet ofgrease in

water emulsion

FIGURE 1.6

Particles of grease are removed from a surface and held in a water emulsion bydetergent particles.

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Making sauceInvestigation 1.2

Aim• To investigate and compare the effect of egg yolk in

forming the emulsions of mayonnaise andhollandaise sauce.

• To compare the properties of vinegar, saladdressing, mayonnaise and hollandaise sauce

Safety warningThis experiment should be carried out in a kitchen ifyou wish to taste the results.

Materials• metal bowl• measuring spoons• measuring cups• 2 × 250 mL jars with lids• wire whisk• saucepan• stove topSalad dressing• 1⁄3 cup vinegar• 2⁄3 cup oilMayonnaise (Part A)• 1 g (1⁄4 teaspoon) sugar• 110 g (1⁄2 cup) vegetable oil• 1 g (1⁄4 teaspoon) salt• 2 g (1⁄2 teaspoon) prepared mustard• 2 egg yolks• 50 g (1⁄4 cup) vinegarMayonnaise (Part B)• as for Part A, but omit egg yolksHollandaise sauce (Part A)• 1⁄4 teaspoon salt• 15 mL lemon juice• 3 egg yolks• 30 g (2 tablespoons) cold butter Hollandaise sauce (Part B)• as for Part A, but omit egg yolks

MethodSalad dressing1 Pour the vinegar and oil into separate jars.

Observe and note the appearance and consistencyof each.

2 Pour the vinegar into the oil and allow to settle.Note what happens.

3 Put the lid on the jar and shake the oil and vinegarmixture vigorously for 30 seconds.

4 Observe the mixture for 1 minute and note whathappens.

Mayonnaise (Part A)1 Mix the dry ingredients and mustard. 2 Beat the egg yolks. 3 Add the dry ingredients to the egg yolk and mix

well. 4 Add half the vinegar gradually and beat well. 5 Add about 1 tablespoon of oil, a few drops at a

time, beating vigorously after each addition. 6 Add about 2 tablespoons of oil, a teaspoon at a

time, beating vigorously after each addition. 7 Beat in the remaining vinegar. 8 Add the remaining oil, a tablespoon at a time,

beating vigorously after each addition.Mayonnaise (Part B)1 Repeat all steps in Part A, excluding the egg yolks.

Hollandaise sauce (Part A)1 Beat the egg yolks with a wire whisk in a saucepan

for a minute or two until they thicken slightly andturn lemon-coloured.

2 Whisk in the salt, lemon juice, and half of thebutter.

3 Set over moderately low heat and whiskcontinuously, removing pan from the heat now andthen to make sure the yolks aren’t cooking toofast.

4 When the mixture clings to the wires of the whiskand you can see the bottom of the pan betweenthe strokes, remove from heat.

5 Stir in the rest of the butter.Hollandaise sauce (Part B)1 Whisk the salt, lemon juice, and half of the butter

in a saucepan.2 Set over moderately low heat and whisk

continuously for 5 minutes. 3 Remove from heat and stir in the rest of the butter.

Discussion1 Compare the consistency of the sauces you

prepared—with egg yolks and without egg yolks.What effect does the egg yolk have on theconsistency of each sauce?

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The image of a falling raindrop is familiar to you. Have you ever wondered why a drop of water forms a rounded shape? Have younoticed insects such as pond skaters or water striders that can walk onthe surface of a pond? Surface tension is responsible for these twoobservations.

Within a liquid there are forces of attraction holding the moleculestogether. The strength of these forces varies from liquid to liquid. Theyact over short distances in all directions and hold molecules closetogether, drawing the liquid into a spherical shape.

At the surface of a liquid—the interface between liquid and air—theforces don’t act equally in all directions. Molecules at the surface are heldstrongly by the molecules below and beside them, but not by the mole-cules of the air above them. So at the surface of the liquid there is anunbalanced force pulling molecules inwards to the liquid. This producessurface tension. The surface tension of water is greater than the surfacetension of most other liquids because of the strong bonds that existbetween water molecules.

2 What substance in egg yolk allows an oil-in-wateremulsion to form? What substance helps form awater-in-oil emulsion?

3 Salad dressing is a simple mixture of oil andvinegar with herbs and other added flavours. Whymust it be shaken immediately before adding to asalad?

4 Compare vinegar, salad dressing and your twosauces for the following properties: appearance,consistency, texture and flavour. What differencedoes the presence of the oil medium make to theflavour? How does the presence of beaten egg yolkaffect the texture, consistency and flavour?

Surface tension

FIGURE 1.7

(a) Vinegar and olive oil (top), salad dressing (containing oil and vinegar) before and after shaking (bottom). (b) Mayonnaise requires theaddition of an emulsifier.

Surface tension is the result ofstrong forces between moleculesin a liquid, pulling them inward.

a b

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A drop of liquid tends to form the shape that requires the leastenergy to maintain. A sphere has the smallest surface area for any givenvolume of liquid. In a sphere, the minimum number of molecules areexposed at the surface and the unbalanced force at the interface is min-imised. This is why water drops form spheres.

The inward force at the surface of water causes the uppermost layerof water molecules to form a type of ‘skin’. Water striders and otherinsects can walk on this skin without sinking. They have pads on theirfeet that repel water, forming a dimple on the surface. They are able tomove forward by pushing back on the water’s surface, but withoutbreaking the surface.

12 Senior Science 2

FIGURE 1.8

(a) Surface tension gives a raindrop itsshape. (b) A pond skater can walk on theskin-like surface of water.

w Did you know?In a space vehicle where there is nogravity, water drops are perfectlyspherical.

overall downwardsforce of attractionon surface particles

no overall force

FIGURE 1.9

The forces of attraction on particles at the surface and in the body of a liquid.

FIGURE 1.10

Surface tension causes water to form bub-bles as the water molecules draw togetherover a volume of air.

a

b

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The meniscusA meniscus (plural: menisci) is the shape that the surface of a liquidtakes in a tube. The shape of a meniscus depends on two things—thetype of liquid and the material the tube is made of. When water ispoured into a glass tube, the meniscus at the surface of the water isconcave—it curves upwards where it meets the sides of the glass.Glass contains electrically charged particles on its surface, to whichwater is highly attracted. We call the forces of attraction of water forglass adhesive forces. The adhesive forces between water and glass aregreater than the cohesive forces that hold water molecules together.So water ‘sticks’ to glass better than water sticks to itself.

A liquid such as mercury, which has very high internal cohesiveforces, forms a convex meniscus—it curves downwards at the edges. Theforces of cohesion within mercury are much greater than the forces ofadhesion between mercury and glass.

Drops and surfacesInvestigation 1.3

glass

water

FIGURE 1.11

A meniscus: water rises up the sides of aglass container due to the attractionbetween water particles and glass.

The shape a liquid takes when a small amount isdropped onto a material gives us an indication of thesurface tension of the liquid and the surface tensionof the material.

AimTo examine the differences in the shape of liquiddrops on a variety of materials.

Materials• sheet of glass• sheet of Perspex• sheet of plastic (e.g. overhead projector slide)• sheet of copper• 5 wax-coated microscope slides• dropper • alcohol (methylated spirits)• oil• water• detergent• milk

Method1 Lay the five sheets of surface material (glass,

Perspex, plastic, copper, one of the waxed slides)side by side.

2 Place five drops of water onto each material.Observe and note the shape of each drop.

3 Rotate each material until the drops join.4 Pour the liquid off the surface.5 Lay the five waxed slides side by side.6 Draw up an appropriate table of results to record

the differences in the shape of each drop, thebehaviour of the water when each sheet is rotated,and the behaviour of water when poured.

7 Place a different drop of each liquid (alcohol, oil,water, detergent, milk) on each slide. Observe theshape of each drop. Draw up a table of results.

Discussion1 On which surface did water form the most spherical

drop?2 Explain why a water drop assumes this shape.3 The water drop on glass is much flatter than the

drop on plastic. Is water more attracted to glassthan to plastic?

4 List the five materials you tested in order of theirattraction to water.

5 Suggest what shape a drop of water may take on aTeflon surface.

6 Which liquid formed the most spherical (rounded)drop on the waxed slides?

7 Which liquid has the highest surface tension?8 List the liquids in order of increasing surface

tension.

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Surface tension influences the ability of a liquid to be absorbed by, orto ‘wet’, a porous surface. A surface is wet when the molecules of theliquid are attracted to the molecules of the surface material.

If you add a few drops of water to a finely woven cotton fabric, thedrops will remain on the surface without spreading or wetting the fabric. Add a little detergent to the water and it spreads into thefabric, wetting it. Detergent is a surfactant. A surfactant (‘surface activeagent’) is a substance that can reduce the surface tension of a liquid.

Comparing menisciInvestigation 1.4

meniscus of waterin a glass test-tube

meniscus of mercuryin a glass test-tube

When adhesive forces betweenthe container and liquid arestrong, a concave meniscusforms.

FIGURE 1.12

Comparison of menisci. When the adhesive forces are less than the cohesive forces in aliquid, a convex meniscus forms.

Surfactants reduce surfacetension, allowing a surface to be wet.

Surfactants

AimTo compare the menisci produced by different liquids.

Materials• 5 medium test-tubes in a test-tube rack• 5 mL alcohol (methylated spirits)• 5 mL water• 5 mL oil• 5 mL detergent• 5 mL milk• hand lens (optional)

Method1 Pour 5 mL of each liquid into the test-tubes.

2 Compare the shapes of the meniscus formed byeach liquid.

3 Record your results in a table or as a diagram.4 Your teacher may be able to demonstrate the shape

of the meniscus formed by mercury.

Discussion1 Using your results from the previous experiment on

shapes of drops, explain the differences in themeniscus shape of each liquid.

2 Explain the ‘reverse’ shape of the meniscus formedby mercury.Sam

ple pa

ges


When added to water, detergent reduces the surface tension of thewater and therefore increases its wetting power.

If a suspension of oil and water is allowed to settle, the oil and waterseparate and an interface forms between them. At the interface there isa large difference in the surface tension of each liquid because of the dif-ferent types of forces holding together the molecules of water and themolecules of oil. The two liquids cannot be thoroughly mixed unlessthis difference in surface tension is overcome. A surfactant containsmolecules that are able to attract the molecules of both liquids. Thisreduces the surface tension and the oil and water will mix.

FIGURE 1.13

A drop of water ‘sits’ on a piece of fabric(top), but detergent solution wets thefabric. The ability of detergent solutions towet fabric is crucial when clothes arewashed.

Surfactant effects of detergentInvestigation 1.5

AimTo observe the effect of detergent on the surfacetension of water.

Materials• 250 mL beaker• talcum powder in dispenser• dishwashing detergent in dropper bottle

Method1 Half-fill the beaker with tap water.2 Sprinkle talcum powder over the surface of the

water.

3 Record your observations.4 Add detergent to the water in the beaker a drop at

a time until you observe a change at the surface ofthe water.

Discussion1 Why did the talcum powder remain on the surface

of the water at first?2 What happened to the talcum powder when the

detergent was added?3 What was the effect of the detergent on the surface

tension of water?

The properties of surfactantsWater by itself is useful for cleaning away only a few substances—those that are easily dissolved in water. Most stains contain oils andfats, which are insoluble in water, or other substances that are noteasily wet by water. In order for water to become a useful cleaningagent, it must be able mix with and remove all types of dirt.

Why won’t oil and water mix?Oil and water do not mix because they consist of very different typesof molecules. Water molecules are polar. This means they have posi-tively and negatively charged ends. Water can dissolve substances thatare either polar or ionic (consisting of positive and negative ions). Oilmolecules are non-polar and do not dissolve in water.

w Did you know?

w

The lungs of adults and most new-borns are coated with a surfactant thatallows the wettable surface areainside the lungs to increase when airenters. In many premature babies thelung is not sufficiently developed toproduce enough of this surfactant.These babies have problemsbreathing. Part of neonatal intensivecare involves delivering surfactant tothe undeveloped lungs.

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How surfactants workCleaning products make use of surfactants to mix oil with water. In asink full of dirty, greasy dishes, water cannot reach the surface of thedishes to clean them because of the oil coating them. When a surfac-tant such as detergent is added to the water, it causes the oil to emul-sify in the water. Surfactants have this property because they consistof molecules with two different parts, which behave in different ways:

• The small polar, usually ionic, ‘head’ of the molecule is attracted towater. It is called hydrophilic (‘water-loving’).

• The non-polar hydrocarbon chains of the molecule, which form its‘tail’, are repelled by water but are attracted to oils because theyhave a similar structure. This end of the molecule is calledhydrophobic (‘water-fearing’).

We can also call the non-polar part of the surfactant moleculeslipophilic (oil-loving), and the polar end lipophobic (oil-fearing) as itrepels fats and oils.

A surfactant will dissolve its hydrocarbon chain in a droplet of oil sothat the hydrophilic head sticks out into the surrounding water. Thisarrangement is called a micelle and forms a ‘bridge’ between the oil andwater, lowering the surface tension and allowing the water to wet a pre-viously non-wettable surface.

While surfactants play a major role in the action of cleaning, they arealso widely used to bring any two materials together so that one may acteffectively on the other. For example, surfactants in insecticide suspen-sions allow the waxy outer layer of leaves on plants to be wet. The insec-ticide is then able to pass through the outer layer into the plant’s system.Surfactants in fabric conditioners attach themselves to the surfaces ofthe fabric’s fibres to give each fibre a smooth coating. This gives thefabric more bulk and a soft texture.

S

O

O

O Na– +

Hδ+

Oδ–

Hδ+

δ+ slightly positive end of moleculeδ– slightly negative end of molecule

O

O

O

O

O

O CH2

CH2

CH

a

b c

FIGURE 1.14

(a) A water molecule is polar because the hydrogen end of the molecule carries a small positive charge while the oxygen end carries a small neg-ative charge. The negative ends of one water molecule attract the positive ends of surrounding water molecules. (b) A lipid molecule has longchains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (called hydrocarbon chains) and a few oxygen atoms. (c) A detergent molecule has the combined prop-erties of water and lipids in one molecule. The polar head dissolves in water and the long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain tail dissolves in lipids.

A surfactant has two different parts:the hydrophilic head dissolves inwater, and the lipophilic taildissolves in fats and oils.

FIGURE 1.15

(a) Micelles form in detergent solution. (b) Surfactant molecules at the surface of water.

a

b

air

detergentsolution

micelle

air

water

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Questions

1 Why should a cosmetic substance applied to theskin have chemical properties similar to the skin?

2 What type of colloid is:a butterb milkc toothpaste?

3 How does adding detergent allow water to wet apiece of cloth more thoroughly than it does withoutdetergent?

4 Briefly explain the structure of a surfactantmolecule.

5 Explain why it is often more useful to use a colloidrather than a suspension in skin products.

6 Complete the table below to summarise theproperties of solutions, suspensions and colloids.

TABLE 1.3 Properties of solutions, suspensions and colloids.

Property Solution Colloid Suspension

Particle size intermediate

Distribution of particles in medium homogeneous

Particle settling particles settle over time

Effect of filtering particles not filtered

Effect on light beam scatters light

1 Choose five of the following products from a typicalhousehold:deodorant calamine lotionsoluble aspirin toothpasteacrylic paint floor waxskin toner laundry powdermayonnaise sunscreen lotionliquid dishwashing detergenta State whether each is a solution, suspension or

mixture.b Describe the major use of each product.c Explain how the mode of delivery (whether it is a

solution, suspension or colloid) affects theusefulness of each product.

2 A cotton cloth is made waterproof by spraying it witha fine coating of waterproofing agent. Draw adiagram to show the appearance of water drops onthe surface of this cotton after it has been treated inthis way.

3 List two commercial products that containsurfactants and explain how the surfactant enableseach product to work.

4 Use your library or the Internet to find out how waterstriders are able to walk on the surface of water.

5 Why do mercury and water form menisci withopposite shapes in a glass container?

Further questions

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Questions


1 Draw up a table showing the function and pH ofeach part of the digestive system. Use the columnheadings ‘Name of part’, ‘Function of part’ and ‘pHrange’.

2 The fluid inside the stomach is acidic while the fluidin the small intestine is slightly alkaline. Is thesolubility of drugs different in the stomachcompared with the small intestine? Explain youranswer.

3 Drugs are usually delivered to the site where theyare needed by the bloodstream. How do most drugsget into the bloodstream?

4 What is an enteric-coated tablet? How does theenteric coating affect the solubility of a tablet?

5 Slow-release drugs are now often prescribed forchronic conditions such as chronic muscle pain.a What is meant by the term ‘slow-release drugs’?b Why are they used in place of normal tablets for

some conditions?c Describe three types of slow release drugs and

how they work

6 Vitamins are often divided into two groups—the fat-soluble vitamins and the water-soluble vitamins.Why can fat-soluble vitamins cause toxic effectswhen taken in large doses, whereas water-solublevitamins are unlikely to be toxic?

7 Complete Table 1.9.

TABLE 1.9 The breakdown of food in the digestive system.

Food Type of digestive enzyme Where broken down pH range required

starch

protein stomach

fat

Further questions t

1 Which parts of the digestive system are the mostimportant for the chemical breakdown of foods, and why?

2 Use your library or the Internet to research thesuccessful use of slow-release tablets to administera particular drug. In your answer describe how thetablet is designed to release the drug gradually tothe body.

3 Refer to Figures 1.53 and 1.54, which show themolecular structures of some major vitamins. a Vitamin A and vitamin C both have a C—O—H

group in them. This group is polar and forms

polar bonds. Why is vitamin A fat-soluble andvitamin C water-soluble?

b Vitamin B1 is water-soluble yet contains only oneC—O—H group. However, it does contain manyC—N—H groups. What conclusion can you drawabout the C—N—H group in a molecule?

c Write a general statement that relates thenumber of polar bonds in a vitamin molecule toits solubility in water.

4 Which of the fat-soluble vitamins appears to be most dangerous to adults when taken in largequantities? What are some toxic effects of thisvitamin?

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■ We use a wide variety of substances for our food, hygiene and health mainte-nance. Our use of a substance depends on its physical and chemical properties.

■ Most consumer products are in the form of mixtures: as solutions, suspensions or colloids.

■ Surface tension occurs at the surface of a liquid because the cohesive forcesbetween the particles of the liquid are unbalanced at the surface, causing the surface molecules to be continually pulled inward toward the other molecules.

■ Surface tension affects the shape of liquid drops and the formation of menisci. ■ Surfactants are ‘surface active agents’—they reduce surface tension. ■ Emulsions are colloids in which one liquid is suspended within another. An emul-

sifier with a high affinity for water produces an oil-in-water emulsion whereas anemulsifier with a high lipid affinity tends to produce a water-in-oil emulsion.

■ Cleaning products contain emulsifying agents (emulsifiers) so that dirt or soil maybe dissolved (emulsified) in water to be washed away.

■ Soaps and detergents are surfactants. They lower the difference in surface tension between a material (allowing a surface to be ‘wet’) and an emulsifier.

■ Most early synthetic detergents were non-biodegradable because of their molecular structure. Changes to the molecular structure of modern syntheticdetergents make them readily broken down by naturally occurring bacteria—theyare biodegradable.

■ Water-in-oil and oil-in-water emulsions may be distinguished from each other by thedifferences in their electrical conductivity and their ability to absorb certain dyes.

■ The skin is a large body organ with a variety of functions including protection ofinternal organs; excretion of water, salts and other wastes; body temperature control; and protection from disease-causing microbes.

■ Human hair has three distinct forms. Hair grows out of hair follicles that areformed from epidermal cells.

■ Skin microflora are microscopic organisms that normally inhabit the skin andinclude various bacteria and yeasts. The type of microflora present varies withparts of the body.

■ The pH scale is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance.■ The pH of the human skin varies only within a narrow range of around 5.3 to 6.0

and is therefore slightly acidic. Human skin pH is affected by the interaction ofperspiration, the action of the skin’s normal microflora, and oils produced byglands in the skin.

■ Water and alcohol are common solvents used to deliver medications and cosmetics to the body.

■ Drugs must be dissolved or emulsified in the watery medium of the bloodstreambefore they can be effective in the body. Most drugs are delivered via the digestive system.

■ The role of the digestive system is to deliver soluble or emulsified nutrients to thebloodstream for transport to body cells.

■ pH conditions vary throughout the digestive tract—the stomach is acidic while thesmall intestine is weakly alkaline. These differences in pH affect the solubility ofsome drugs such as aspirin.

■ Drugs may be designed to be soluble in different parts of the digestive tract, todissolve gradually or to be delivered by alternative means than through the digestive system

■ Fat-soluble vitamins may accumulate in the fatty parts of cells over time whentaken in large quantities, and can therefore have toxic effects. Water-soluble vitamins are usually flushed out easily in the urine.

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Exam-style questions


1 ‘Hi-Gloss’ shampoo listed the ingredients of theirproduct in a table as shown below:

Which of the ingredients was responsible for actuallycleaning the hair?A glycol stearateB sodium chlorideC stearyl alcoholD sodium laureth sulfate

2 ‘Cleansoft’ moisturiser claims to be ‘pH balanced’ tosuit the conditions of the skin. Most skin is slightlyacidic. What range would you expect the pH of‘Cleansoft’ to be in?A 0 to 3B 5 to 7C 7 to 9D 9 to 11

3 Look at the table below.

Which category of chemical is correctly matched withits function?A Surfactant cleanersB CosmeticsC Body hygiene chemicalsD Pesticides

4 Which of the following is not a function of the skin?A absorption of nutrientsB immunity C waterproofing the bodyD excretion

5 How do subdermal implants deliver medication to thebody?A They pass medication through the skin by

dissolving it in lipids.B They gradually release measured amounts of

medication into the body from an inert materialplaced under the skin.

C They slowly release medication in measuredquantities from the digestive system.

D They involve the injection of medication byhypodermic syringe directly into the bloodstreambeneath the skin.

6 Su-Ping carried out an experiment to test how quicklyenteric-coated aspirin tablets dissolve in solutionswith different pH values. In each test she placedidentical tablets into 200 mL of solution at 40˚C. Su-Ping’s results are shown in the table below.

What conclusion could Su-Ping make from thisexperiment?A Enteric-coated aspirin tablets dissolve best in a

neutral solution.B Enteric-coated aspirin tablets dissolve readily in

the stomach.C Enteric-coated aspirin tablets dissolve best in

alkaline conditions.D Enteric-coated aspirin tablets dissolve best in

acidic conditions.

7 Why do fat-soluble vitamins pose more risk to humanhealth than water-soluble vitamins when taken invery large doses?A Excess fat-soluble vitamins are flushed out of the

body via the kidneys.B Excess fat-soluble vitamins tend to remain in the

body much longer than water soluble vitamins.C Fat-soluble vitamins are more toxic than water-

soluble vitamins.D It is not possible to take too many water-soluble

vitamins.

TABLE 1.10 pH range of sunscreen lotions.

Ingredient Type of ingredient

sodium laureth sulfate surfactant

cocamide DEA lather booster

glycol stearate conditioning agent

stearyl alcohol opacifier

D&C yellow no. 10 colour

sodium chloride thickener

Type of chemical Function

surfactant cleaners remove soil from surfaces byfriction

cosmetics protect skin from the effects ofaging

body hygiene enhance the appearance of chemicals the body

pesticides kill organisms that threatenhuman activities

pH of solution Time taken for tablet todissolve (hours)

2 No change observed in 24 hours

4 24

7 12

10 6

TABLE 1.11 Range of chemicals used in everyday living.

TABLE 1.12 Results of dissolution tests.

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Exam-style questions

8 Sunscreen lotions are usually water-in-oil emulsions.Explain why a water-in-oil emulsion is preferable toan oil-in-water emulsion when applying sunscreen tothe skin.

9 The pH scale is used to describe acidity of asubstance.a Describe how the numerical value of pH changes

from highly acidic to neutral to highly alkalinesolutions.

b Describe how you could test the claim that theskin pH of a person may vary.

10 Explain how the oil produced by sebaceous glandsand perspiration produced by sweat glands in theskin can affect the pH of the skin.

11 Explain why each of the following components areadded to skin cleansers:a surfactantb preservativec emollient

12 a Define the term ‘microflora’.b Describe the role of the normal microflora on two

different parts of the skin.

13 Men often apply aftershave to their faces aftershaving to give a refreshing feeling of tightness to theskin. a Why is alcohol generally used as the solvent in

aftershave?b Glycerin, a humectant and an emollient, is also

often added to aftershave. How does glycerinaffect the skin?

14 The drug dexchlorpheniramine (trade namePolaramine) is an antihistamine, often taken by

hayfever and allergy sufferers. The body’s naturalhistamine attaches to receptors in body cells, causingan allergic response. Dexchlorpheniramine competeswith the body’s natural histamine for these receptorsites. The drug is normally taken as a tablet andrepeat doses are taken every four to six hours. a Discuss how dexchlorpheniramine reaches the

cells that cause allergic responses.b Why does this drug need to be taken every four to

six hours?c How does the solubility of a drug affect its action

on the body?

15 It is possible to overdose on Vitamin A when it istaken in the form of retinol obtained from plant-eating animals. The symptoms of vitamin A overdosemay include damage to red blood cells, skin rashes,headaches, nausea, liver damage, and muscle, jointand bone pain.a What property of retinol allows it to accumulate in

the body and to affect so many organs of thebody?

b Why are few toxic effects recorded for large dosesof vitamin C?

16 The stomach is a muscular bag that churns food andsecretes digestive juices, hydrochloric acid andenzymes to aid in the digestion of food.a What is the pH range found in the stomach fluid?b Discuss how the pH of the stomach may affect the

solubility of drugs.c Describe how drugs may be treated to avoid the

effects of the stomach’s environment.d Describe two differences in the environment of the

duodenum (small intestine) compared to thestomach.

60 Senior Science 2

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lifestyle chemistry - Pearsonpearson.com.au/media/445120/seniorscience2.pdf · 4 Senior Science 2 FIGURE 1.2 Chemicals from around the home. TABLE 1.1 The properties and uses of a

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