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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1
PART I – GENERAL EDUCATION COMPONENT ..................................................... 10
English ................................................................................................................... 10
Parts of Speech ..................................................................................................... 10
Correct English Usage ......................................................................................... 34
Basic Rules in Agreement and Grammar ............................................................. 67
The Use of Figurative Language .......................................................................... 65
Literature .............................................................................................................. 79
Filipino .................................................................................................................. 103
Bahagi ng Pananalita ......................................................................................... 103
Panitikan ............................................................................................................ 147
Mathematics ......................................................................................................... 164
Developing Problem Solving Skills ..................................................................... 164
Tips and Strategies in Solving Mathematical Problems ...................................... 178
Mathematical Review ......................................................................................... 180
Fundamental Operations .................................................................................... 182
Order of Operations ........................................................................................... 188
Exponents and Powers ...................................................................................... 189
Fractions ............................................................................................................ 189
Decimals ............................................................................................................ 192
Integers .............................................................................................................. 194
The Number Line ................................................................................................ 194
Plane Geomerty ................................................................................................. 199
Algebra ............................................................................................................... 207
Natural Science .................................................................................................... 208
Definition of Science ........................................................................................... 208
Steps to Scientific Method .................................................................................. 209
Biology ............................................................................................................... 210
Cell Theory ......................................................................................................... 214
Ecology .............................................................................................................. 214
Important Terms in Ecology ................................................................................ 215
Soil Problems ..................................................................................................... 218
Water Problems ................................................................................................. 219
Forces that Shape the Earth’s Crust ................................................................... 220
Earthquake ......................................................................................................... 221
Weather and Climate .......................................................................................... 221
Severe Weather Bulletin ..................................................................................... 225
Meaning and Description of the Modified Public Storm Signals .......................... 225
The New Public Weather Forecast ..................................................................... 229
Eclipse ............................................................................................................... 229
Tides .................................................................................................................. 229
The Solar System ............................................................................................... 230
Social Science ..................................................................................................... 231
Philippine History and Government .................................................................... 231
Political Science ................................................................................................. 248
Constitution ........................................................................................................ 254
Human Rights .................................................................................................... 284
Economics .......................................................................................................... 286
Taxation ............................................................................................................. 289
PART II – PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION COMPONENT ....................................... 292
Facilitating Learning, Child and Adolescent Development .............................. 292
Human Growth and Development ...................................................................... 292
The Biological and Psychological Bases of Education ........................................ 292
Sociological Bases of Education ......................................................................... 313
Anthropological Bases of Education ................................................................... 316
Teaching Profession ........................................................................................... 320
Education ........................................................................................................... 320
Educational Contributions of Ancient Civilizations .............................................. 322
Educational Influences of Jesus Christ ............................................................... 327
The Different Medieval Movements in Education ................................................ 328
Philosophical Movements in Education .............................................................. 332
Psychological Movements in Education .............................................................. 336
Legal Bases of Philippine Educational System ................................................... 338
The Historical Development of Philippine Educational System ........................... 377
Curriculum Development .................................................................................... 385
Schools of Thought in Curriculum Development ................................................. 385
Dimensions in Curriculum Development ............................................................. 385
Guidelines for Curriculum Development ............................................................. 386
Approaches to Curriculum Design ....................................................................... 387
Curriculum Patterns ............................................................................................ 387
The Curricula of Philippine Schools .................................................................... 389
2002 Basic Education Curriculum ....................................................................... 401
Understanind by Design (UbD) Curriculum ......................................................... 407
The K-12 Program .............................................................................................. 413
Principles of Teaching, Educational Technology
Field Study, Practice Teaching ........................................................................... 414
Types of Principles of Teaching .......................................................................... 414
The Inborn Tendencies of the Child .................................................................... 415
Multiple Intelligence ............................................................................................ 416
Characteristics of the Filipino Learners ............................................................... 423
Learning ............................................................................................................. 423
Theories of Learning .......................................................................................... 423
Laws of Learning ................................................................................................ 425
Factors that Affect Learning ............................................................................... 425
The Learner ........................................................................................................ 426
The Teacher and the Learning Process .............................................................. 427
Classroom Management .................................................................................... 428
The Art of Questioning ....................................................................................... 430
Hierarchy of Questions ....................................................................................... 431
Lesson Planning ................................................................................................. 434
List of Behavioral Objectives .............................................................................. 440
Teaching Methods/Strategies ............................................................................. 445
Guidance and Counseling .................................................................................. 460
Counseling ......................................................................................................... 467
Educational Technology ...................................................................................... 479
Education ........................................................................................................... 479
Technology ......................................................................................................... 479
Educational Technology ..................................................................................... 479
Theories ............................................................................................................. 480
Use of Audio Aids ............................................................................................... 481
Device ................................................................................................................ 482
Nonprojected Audiovisual Aids ........................................................................... 483
The Use of Technology in the Classroom ........................................................... 483
Assessment of Learning ..................................................................................... 485
Measurement and Evaluation ............................................................................. 485
Classification of Tests ........................................................................................ 485
Criteria of a Good Examination ........................................................................... 486
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Stages in Test Construction ............................................................................... 493
Statistical Measures or Tools used in Interpreting Numerical Data ..................... 502
Social Dimensions of Education ........................................................................ 510
The Four Pillars of Learning ............................................................................... 510
Ethics ................................................................................................................. 511
Values ................................................................................................................ 513
Defective Norms of Morality ............................................................................... 515
Modern Philosophies of Education ..................................................................... 516
Oriental Philosophy ............................................................................................ 521
PART III – PRACTICE EXAMINATIONS .................................................................. 528
English ............................................................................................................... 528
Filipino ................................................................................................................ 536
Mathematics ....................................................................................................... 540
Natural Science .................................................................................................. 547
Social Science .................................................................................................... 556
Facilitating Learning, Child and Adolescent Development, Teaching Profession and
Curriculum Development ..................................................................................... 565
Principles and Methods of Teaching, Field Study, Educational Technology and
Practice ............................................................................................................... 575
Assessment of Learning ..................................................................................... 586
Social Dimensions in Education ......................................................................... 596
Last page ........................................................................................................... 609
INTRODUCTION
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The Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of
1994: Its Implications to Teacher Education
Pursuant to the provision of Section 1 Article XIV of the 1987 of the 1987 Constitution
that “the State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at
all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all”.
The Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994 (Republic Act No. 7836) was
promulgated.
This was signed into law by President Fidel V. Ramos on December 16, 1994. The
above mentioned law amends and/or supersedes the provisions of P.D. (No. 1006 or
the Teachers Professionalization Decree of 1976, which was the basis of the
Professional Board Examination for Teachers (PBET). This act aimed towards (1) the
promotion, development and professionalization of teachers and the teaching
profession and (2) the supervision and regulation of the licensure examination for
teachers.
To this effect, the Professional Board Examination for Teachers which was traditionally
administered by the National Board for Teachers, an agency attached to the
Department of Education, Culture, and Sports in coordination with the Civil Service
Commission, will be administered by the Professional Regulations Commission (PRC)
starting August 1996.
The Professional Board for Teachers
The teacher’s examination including its rules and regulations will be enforced through a
collegial body called the Board for Professional Teachers, under the supervision of the
PRC. They are appointed by the President of the Philippines based on the
recommendations of the accredited associations of teachers. Pursuant to the provisions
of the law, the board shall be composed of five (5) members who shall be (a) citizens of
the Philippines, (b) at least 35 years old, of proven integrity, and possess high moral
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values in their professional and personal conduct and have not been convicted of any
offense involving moral turpitude, (c) holder of a Bachelor’s degree in Education or
Bachelor of Arts and preferably holders of a master’s degree of doctorate degree in
education or its equivalent, (d) professional teachers with valid certificate of registration
and valid professional license, except those who shall compose the first Board for
Professional Teachers, (e) have been professional teachers in the active practice of the
teaching profession for at least ten (10) years in the elementary and secondary level,
and (f) not officials or members of the faculty of, nor have a pecuniary interest in any
university, college, school or institution conferring a bachelor’s degree in education or its
equivalents for at least three (3) years prior to their appointment, and neither connected
with a review center or with any group or association where review classes or lectures
in preparation for the licensure examination are offered or conducted.
Examination and Registration
All applicants for registration as professional teachers shall be required to pass a written
examination which shall be given at least once a year in places and dates as the board
may determine upon the approval by the PRC. A valid certificate of registration and a
valid professional license from the PRC are required before any person is allowed to
practice as a professional teacher in the Philippines.
The examination for the elementary and secondary school teachers shall be given
separately. The results of the examination shall be released within one hundred twenty
(120) days after the date of examination. In this connection, a professional license
signed by the Chairman of the PRC and bearing the registration number and date of
issuance and the expiration and renewability shall be issued to every registrant who has
paid the annual registration fees for three consecutive years. This license shall serve as
evidence that the license can lawfully practice his profession.
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Periodic Merit Examination
Aside from the licensure examination, a professional teacher is encouraged to grow
professionally by taking a Merit Examination once in every five years as provided by
section 19 of this law, the result of which shall serve as the basis for merit promotion as
well as for salary adjustments. However, no fee shall be required in taking the merit
examination.
A teacher who fails to pass the merit examination will be allowed to take the
examination for the second time. If he fails, he shall be required to take a CHED
accredited refresher course or program before being allowed to take another
examination. However, failure in the merit examination shall not be used as ground for
dismissal or demotion.
But those who passed shall be awarded a diploma of merit by the board, earn merit
points for purposes of salary adjustment or promotion to higher position or grade level,
be placed in priority list for government scholarship, and enjoy other benefits as may be
provided by the board. Moreover, the law provides that these incentives shall be
extended to those teachers who make inventions, develop new methods of teaching,
write a book or books and create works of artistic merit.
Registration and Exception
The Board for Professional Teachers shall publish a roster of professional teachers,
date of registration, their names and addresses and other pertinent data. Furthermore,
as provided by Section 26, two years after the affectivity of this law, no person shall
engage in teaching and/or act as professional teacher whether in the pre-school,
elementary or secondary level, unless he is a duly-registered professional teacher and a
holder of a valid certificate of registration. Applications for license as a professional
teacher may be issued without examination under the following circumstances:
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a) a holder of a certificate of eligibility as a teacher issued by the Civil Service
Commission and the CHED;
b) registered professional teacher with the National Board for Teachers under the
CHED pursuant to P.D. 1006;
c) an elementary or secondary teacher of five (5) years in good standing and a
holder of a Bachelor’s degree in Education or its equivalent;
d) An elementary or secondary teacher for three years in good standing and a
holder of a master’s degree in education or its equivalent.
The teachers who fall under the above circumstances are given two years from the
organization of the Board for Professional Teachers within which to register and be
included in the roster of professional teachers. Those incumbent teachers who are not
qualified to register without passing any examination or qualified yet failed to register
within the two year period shall be issued a temporary special permit. Furthermore,
those who failed in the licensure examination for professional teachers shall be eligible
as para-teachers.
On the other hand, this law also provides for a fine of not less than five thousand pesos
(Php5, 000) nor more than twenty-thousand pesos (Php20, 000) or imprisonment of not
less than six months nor more than five years, or both, (at the discretion of the court) to
any person, school or school official found guilty of violating the provisions of this law.
THE “LET” AND QUALITY EDUCATION
The law which professionalizes the teaching profession and placing the authority of
administering the licensure examination for teachers to the Professional Regulations
Commission is a laudable endeavor. Yet it is just one of those herculean tasks that the
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State through the CHED needs to accomplish soonest in order to rectify the turbulent
maladies that are now pestering the entire educational system.
The teacher is the most important factor in the educative (teaching-learning) process.
The teacher with his personality has the capacity either to make or break the young
minds that are entrusted to his care. Therefore, the teacher holds in his hands the future
of this nation. No wonder why the oft-quoted EDCOM report in 1991 considered the
teachers as the heart of the problem.
That same report stated that the teachers are poorly trained and most of them in any
level of education do not have the minimum qualifications for teaching. It is indicated
that the deplorable performance can be traced to poor teaching training and the low
quality of students enrolled in teacher training institutions.
This allegation no matter how hard it is for us in the field of education to accept its
veracity has an inherent truth in it. This is due to the fact that teaching is a poorly
esteemed profession nowadays. Gone are those years when teachers were the helm of
the public’s eyes and were considered to be the most honorable people in any society.
For this, teaching can no longer attract the best high school graduates. The prevalent
psyche today is that if you are bright and talented as much as possible you should avoid
being a teacher and instead take up law, medicine, engineering and other high paying
professions. Whereas, if you are mediocre student, teaching is the easiest course for
you to get a college diploma.
What has really happened to the noblest profession? What did the government do to
save this noble calling from the mire of misery and from its deteriorating condition?
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These questions are just the proverbial “tip of the iceberg” in so far as the horrible state
of teaching in the Philippines is concerned.
As expected, nobody is willing and courageous enough to accept the blame. Instead,
the different sectors involved are pointing an accusing finger at each other and
upbraiding one another.
The government for its part will point to the provision of Section 5 Article XIV of the 1987
Constitution as its contribution to alleviate the plight of the poor teachers, for this
mandates that the State should give the highest budgetary priority to education, so as to
attract the best available talents into becoming teachers.
However, it is easier said than done. As it is mentioned in this book (Foundations of
Education II), teaching has already lost its traditional glory and glamour. It is now
considered a horrible if not a disgusting profession. Teachers are now demoralized and
somehow “demonetized” professionals. To this effect nobody dares to take the
challenge of educating our youth and worst even those are already in the field are
leaving their calling as teachers to serve as domestic helpers, baby sitters, and even
entertainers in foreign countries.
The enrolment of teacher training schools in Metro Manila and even in the whole
country is declining. Well, no one can blame and force the student to be teachers if they
cannot be promised with a bed of roses once they decided to enter the portals of the
teaching profession. If they have other alternatives to make more money, surely they
would not dare embark on the gargantuan and seemingly unrewarding task of being a
teacher.
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But of course there are other idealists who would content that teaching is not a money-
making machine, but rather a calling, a vocation that needed an unwavering devotion
and commitment. And in the words of Socrates of ancient Greece, if the teachers teach
because of salary, they are degrading the reputation of the profession and reducing it to
a mere income-generating endeavor.
Again, these words are easier said than done. I firmly believe that teachers are just
human beings like any other professional. They need what everybody needs. Teachers
cannot teach with an empty stomach. They cannot teach if they have nothing to wear.
They cannot teach effectively if their families are starving and are dying because they
have no money to buy the necessary medicine.
Moreover, almost all the studies conducted in the past until now, since the Monroe
Survey of the 1920’s and the Swanson Survey of the 1950’s up to the current report of
the EDCOM revealed the same thing – teachers are poorly paid and trained. So what
else is new? If the proper authorities will not execute decisive actions on this matter with
a sense of urgency, one day we will wake up to see that our country and her citizens
are already in the arid and barren field of ignorance, misery and intellectual deprivation.
If we truly care for the future of our children who are, since time immemorial considered
as the hope of the nation, we will seriously consider the gravity of the problem and will
do all means to thwart these boisterous dilemmas that threaten our very existence. Yes,
it is true that teachers need to be properly trained and be fully equipped to qualify them
to teach our children.
Hence, there is a need to professionalize them through the licensure examination.
However, if the government continues to ignore their plea for better compensation and
brighter future in their chosen career, and instead of responding constructively to their
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clamor when they go to the streets to seek redress for their grievances, the same
“humane” government slaps them with threats of suspension and even dismissal from
services, we cannot expect these teachers to teach effectively and be satisfied with their
work, thus, we definitely cannot expect quality education. This is due to the fact that the
students are just as good as their teachers, and as the Lord Jesus Christ stressed in
Matthew 22:14, “no student is better than his teacher.”
The state authorities still claim that there is not enough money to fully implement the
salary increase of teachers because the government does not have enough budget for
this task. But if we try to carefully and objectively analyze the actual situation, we will
realize that the national budget is devoured by the “foreign debt servicing scheme” via
the provisions of P.D. 1177, which prescribes that the lion share of the annual budget
(General Appropriations Act) be set aside to pay our foreign debts.
But sad to say all initiatives in the Congress to repeal this burdensome Marcos’ decree
has never prospered for reasons only the gentlemen in the Senate and House of
Representatives know. And to add insult, to injury the national budget is further depleted
by the “pork barrel” which amounts to several billions of pesos yearly given to senators
and congressmen deceitfully labeled as countrywide development fund (CDF), which
more often than not leads to budgetary deficits.
And if there is a need for more revenues to finance the whims of the government, there
is always an easy way to generate funds – levy more taxes to the people, just like
Expanded Value Added Tax.
If the government can afford to appropriate more than 35% of the national budget to
repay the debts which the past administrative had acquired (yet failed to explain where
the money went) and can provide the president, vice president, 24 senators and 250
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congressmen their respective pork barrels by the millions and can increase the monthly
salary of the legislators by 100% overnight, why can’t it spare the lowly paid teachers a
small amount to augment their income? Are junketing, electioneering, and paying the
private armies and others more important than educating our people?
Every opening of the school year the CHED announces that there is a need for more
teachers to meet the needs of increasing enrolment. In order to address this problem of
lack of teachers, the CHED has to schedule as many as three teaching shifts, offer
multi-grade classes (a teacher handles at least two different grades at the same time in
one class) and increase the class size to 60 or 70 pupils per section. And as revealed
by the teachers in the rural areas and far flung provinces, they are already handling as
much as 70 to 90 students per section.
Indeed, how can we expect quality education under this set-up? No matter how efficient
a teacher is and regardless of his rating in the licensure and the subsequent merit
examination, he is definitely incapacitated to control more than 90 students per section,
much more delivering the goods to them. The way it seems the Philippine society
particularly the government is asking too much from the teachers and yet giving them
too little. With these in mind we cannot help it but ask ourselves that if education is
expensive let us try the cost of ignorance.
The Role of Teacher Training Institutions
James A. Garfield, the 20th President of the United States once said that “a good
teacher on one end of a log and interesting pupil on the other will make a university
anywhere.” Based on this premise, no country can ever offer quality education to its
constituents in the absence of quality teachers. However, efficient and dedicated
teachers are not miraculously produced. They are the result of long and tedious work of
the people involved in teacher training. These can be done through improving the
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curricula of the Education programs based on the requirements of the LET, and the
curricula of the basic education (i.e. NESC and NSEC), hiring highly qualified
administrators, and faculty and non-teaching personnel, employing modern technology
in the training of the prospective teachers and providing them with sufficient pre-service
training. These and other necessary steps are implemented so as to equip future
teachers with skills and competencies that they badly need not only in hurdling the
Licensure Examination but also in dealing with the harsh realities that the world of
teaching would offer them in the future.
These and other innovations would surely contribute to the achievement of the
constitutional mandate of providing quality education to all citizens at all levels and
making such education accessible to all. This I believe is the true spirit of democratic
education.
PART I
GENERAL EDUCATION COMPONENT
Part I of the Licensure Examination for Teachers is devoted to General Education
subjects with a weight of 20% consisting of English, Filipino, Mathematics, Natural
Science and Social Science.
ENGLISH
The English component of the General Education portion of the Licensure Examination
for Teachers includes Study and Thinking Skills, Writing in the Discipline, Speech and
Oral Communication, Philippine Literature and Word Literatures.
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PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of speech is used to describe the mechanism of the language, in other words, the
grammar which is defined as the art of speaking and writing the language correctly
according to the rules in general. The parts of speech are noun, pronoun, verb,
adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
NOUN
Nouns are names of persons, places, events, things, or ideas. Example: lawyer,
province, table, New Year, freedom
Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper nouns – are specific and written in capital letter.
Example: Danica, Atty. Dined, Christmas, Taft Ave.
2. Common nouns – are general.
Example: house, girl, street, teacher, country
3. Collective nouns – name groups
Example: team, crowd, organization
4. Mass nouns – cannot be counted.
Example: hair, sugar, water, sand, stars
5. Concrete nouns exist in the physical world
Example: flower, moon, chair, bag, bottle
6. Abstract nouns – refer to ideas and feelings.
Example: love, independence, honesty, faith
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Number of Nouns
Singular – refers to one noun.
Plural – refers to two or more nouns.
Rules in forming the plural of nouns:
1. Most nouns add s to the singular form.
Ex.: boy + s = boys, room + s = rooms
2. Nouns ending in a hissing sound (s, chi, she, x or z) add is.
Ex.: box – boxes, church – churches, match – matches, dish – dishes
3. Most nouns ending in f or fee change f to vet before adding s.
Ex.: calf – calves, knife – knives, leaf – leaves
4. Most nouns ending y preceded by a consonant sound usually change y to i and
add es.
Ex.: city – cities, lady – ladies, reply – replies
5. Nouns ending in y after a vowel, add s.
Ex.: key – keys, alley – alleys, monkey – monkeys
6. Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es.
Ex. : cargo – cargoes, tomato – tomatoes, hero – heroes
7. A few very common nouns add en or change the vowel or remain unchanged.
Ex.: ox – oxen, child – children, sheep – sheep
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8. Most compound nouns, add s or es to the principal words of the compound.
Ex.: bookcase – bookcases, handful – handfuls, runner-up – runners-up
9. Some nouns function collectively.
Ex.: information, battalion, artillery, furniture, equipment, jewelry
Cases of Nouns
1. Nominative – used as the subject, noun of address, predicate noun or appositive.
Examples:
a. Danica looks pretty in her red dress.
b. Celine, come and get your toys.
c. The winner in the oratorical contest in Czarina.
d. Dr. Dioneda, our new professor discusses the lesson well.
2. Objective – used as direct object, indirect object, or object of the preposition.
Examples:
a. The students are playing basketball.
b. Charles sent Lourdes a love letter
c. The concert was held in the part.
3. Possessive – used to show ownership or possession. Examples:
a. Mother’s bag is colorful
b. The house’ gate is newly painted
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PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a substitute for nouns. Examples: he, she, they, ours, those.
Antecedent of the pronoun – the noun to which a pronoun refers. A pronoun must agree
with its antecedent in gender, person, and number.
Kinds of Pronouns
1. Demonstrative pronoun. Examples:
This (singular) – used to point near object.
These (plural) – used to point near objects.
That (singular) – used to point far object.
Those (plural) – used to point far objects.
2. Indefinite pronoun. Examples:
singular – any, anybody, anyone, nobody, no one, anyone, anything,
each, everyone, one, someone, somebody, every, either, neither,
everything
plural – all some, few, both, several, many
3. Interrogative pronoun – who, which, what, whom, whose, whoever, whomever
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Below is the table of personal pronouns, their cases and persons:
First (1st) person refers to the speaker.
Second (2nd) person refers to the person spoken to.
Third (3rd) person refers to the person(s) spoken about.
VERB
A verb expresses action or state of being.
Ex. yell, interpret, feel, are
Nominative Case Objective Case Possessive Case
SINGULAR
1st person I me my, mine
2nd person You You Your, yours
3rd person He, she, it Him, her, it His, her, hers
PLURAL
1st person We Us Our, ours
2nd person You You Your, yours
3rd person They Them Their, theirs
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Forms of Verb
N s, No d/ed, No ing.
1. The base-form educate, learn, write
2. The S-form for third person singular noun or pronoun; educates, learns, writes
3. The ing-form or present participle; educating, learning, writing
4. The past form; educated, learned, wrote
Kinds of Verb
1. Regular verbs form their past tense by the addition of d, or ed to the base form.
They have the same form both for the past tense and past participle.
Base form S-Form Present Participle Past and Past
Participle
No s/d//ed/ing (used for third
person singular
noun or pronoun)
ing form Ending in d/ed
cook cooks cooking cooked
decorate decorates decorating decorated
play plays playing played
2. Irregular verbs form their past tense and past participle in several ways.
Base form Past tense Past participle
come came come
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break broke broken
seek sought sought
cut cut cut
PAST FORM OF SOME IRREGULAR VERBS
Base Form Past Form Past Participles
A
arise arose arisen
awake awoke awaken
B
backslide backslid backslidden/backslid
be was, were been
bear bore born / borne
beat beat beaten / beat
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
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bet bet bet
bid bid/bade bidden
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
C
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
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cost cost cost
creep crept crept
cut cut cut
D
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt dwelt
E
eat ate eaten
F
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
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flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forecast forecast forecast
foresee foresaw foreseen
foretell foretold foretold
forget forgot forgotten / forgot
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
G
get got gotten / got
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
H
hang hung hung
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have had had
hear heard heard
hew hewed hewn
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
K
keep kept kept
kneel knelt knelt
knit knit knit
know knew known
L
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
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light lit lit
lose lost lost
M
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
mow mowed mown
P
partake partook partaken
pay paid paid
proofread proofread proofread
prove proved proven
put put put
Q
quick-freeze quick-froze quick-frozen
quit quit quit
R
read read read
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rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
S
saw sawed sawn
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewn
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaven
shed shed shed
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
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show showed shown
shrink shrank shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
slay (kill) slew slain
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
sling slung slung
slink slinked slunk
slit slit slit
sow sowed sown
speak spoke spoken
speed sped sped
spell spelled spelt
spend spent spent
spill spilled spilt
spin spun spun
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spit spit / spat spit / spat
split split split
spread spread spread
spring sprang / sprung sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stunk / stank stunk
strew strewed strewn
stride strode stridden
strike (delete) struck stricken
strike (hit) struck struck
string strung strung
strive strove striven
sublet sublet sublet
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swollen
swim swam swum
P a g e | 26
swing swung swung
T
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
telecast telecast telecast
tell told told
test-drive test-drove test-driven
test-fly test-flew test-flown
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden / trod
U
understand understood understood
undertake undertook undertaken
undo undid undone
W
wake woke woken
P a g e | 27
waylay waylaid waylaid
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wed wed wed
weep wept wept
win won won
win won won
wind wound wound
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
withhold withheld withheld
withstand withstood withstood
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
3. Linking verbs are used to link or join the subject with a word in the predicate which
related to the subject.The be form of the ver (am, is, are, was, were) is the most
commonly used linking verb. Others are the verbs of the senses: become, seem, look,
smell, appear, feel, taste, sound, remain.
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Linking verbs in sentences:
1. My favorite color is red.
2. He looks great in black.
3. My friend became famous.
Tense
Tense means time
Present tense. A verb is in the present tense if:
a. The sentence expresses a permanent action.
Ex.The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
b. It shows habitual action.
Ex. He goes to church every Sunday.
c. It expresses an on-going action.
Ex. The students are researching in the library now.
Past tense. A verb is in the past tense if it expresses a completed action.
Ex.: They transferred to a new building yesterday.
She gave alms to the beggar.
Nica recited the poem well.
Future tense. A verb is in the future tense if it expresses an action that is yet to be
done.
It is a verb phrase using the auxiliary verbs will/shall + the simple form of the
verb.
Ex.: Will you visit me tonight?
P a g e | 29
They will pass their projects next week.
I shall return.
Am / is / are + going to also expresses future tense.
Ex.: I am going to Baguio.
The friends are going to perform on stage.
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words that describe, limit or modify nouns and pronouns.
Ex.: warm, quick, tall, blue, interesting
Adjectives answer the questions “Which one?”, “What kind?” and “How many?”
The Uses of Adjectives
1. A noun modifier is usually placed directly before the noun it describes.
Ex.: He is an intelligent man.
2. A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and modifies the subject.
Ex.: He is happy.
The movie seems interesting.
3. An article or noun marker are other names for these adjectives: a, an, the
Ex.: Dorothy was given an apple.
The teacher is awarded for her meritorious performance.
The new born is a baby boy.
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Kinds of Adjective
1. Indefinite Adjective: some, many, much, several, few, a few, a great deal of little, a
little.
a. With countable nouns: Ex. I have (many, several, few) books at home.
b. With uncountable nouns: Ex. I have (much, a great deal, little) information on
history.
c. With both plural countable and uncountable nouns. Ex. He has (some, a lot
of, enought) money.
d. The indefinite adjectives much, many, little and few may be modified by too
and very. Ex. You are making too much noise.
2. Numerals: one two, three, etc., are cardinal numbers.
Ex. He gave me three roses.
While numerals like first, second, third, etc., are called ordinal numbers.
Ex. We will discuss the third chapter.
3. Descriptive adjectives: new, tall, blue, charming.
Ex. The charming woman is my aunt.
4. Proper adjective: Filipino flag, English language, Persian carpet, etc.
Ex. Persian carpets are on sale at the mall.
5. Nouns that modify nouns: oak, paper, etc.
Ex. Here is your history book.
6. Phrases and clauses that modify nouns:
Ex. The girl watching television is my sister.
P a g e | 31
7. A clause modifying a noun is usually introduced by a relative pronoun: that,
which, who, whom, whose and where.
Ex. The man who is driving the car is my father.
ADVERB
An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Ex. fast, slowly, well, very
Adverbs answer the questions, “How?”, “Where?”, “When?”, “How often?” and “To what
degree?”
Adverbs should not be used to modify nouns.
Kinds of Adverb
1. Adverb of Manner (how)
Ex. He spoke (poorly, fluently,slowly).
Written Exercise: Change the following adjectives to adverbs by adding ly.
1. slow
2. merry
3. graceful
4. quick
5. quiet
6. careful
7. courageous
8. weak
9. easy
10. neat
P a g e | 32
2. Adverb of time (when)
Ex. He is coming (tomorrow, next week, next month, tonight).
Written Exercise: Underline the time expression used in each of the following
sentences.
1. The doctor will check him up very soon.
2. Are you going to Baguio this summer?
3. I could not sleep well lately.
4. The students complained about their grades last week.
5. They will spend their vacation in Baguio in April
6. My sister will see the dentist later on.
7. He hopes to finish college next year.
8. It rained hard last night.
9. Mother is baking a cake right now.
10. Yoly is happy all this morning.
3. Adverb of place (where)
Ex.: Let us meet in the restaurant.
The concert will be in the park.
4. Adverb of frequency (how often)
Ex. He writes to him (daily, regularly, weekly).
5. Adverb of negation/affirmation
Ex. Yes, no, not, never, always, absolutely definitely
P a g e | 33
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions connect words or group of words.
Ex. and, but, or, for, yet, therefore, also, however, because, so that, as long as
Ex. I will love you as long as the grass shall grow.
PREPOSITION
Preposition shows the relation between a word and a noun or pronoun that follows. It
indicates:
a. place and position – at, in, across, above, below, between, behind, beyond
b. direction and motion – in, towards, out, about, around, through, by, down, over
c. time – at, before, after, during, since, until
Ex. I have been waiting for your call since last week.
INTERJECTION
Interjection expresses emotion, acts as a signal, or adds a conversational touch. It
usually ends with an exclamation point.
Ex. ouch! , what! , wow! , hurray!
Ex. Hurray! Ginebra won the game.
VERBALS
Verbals are used as modifiers or nouns in the subject, object, predicate complement or
object of a preposition.
Three Kinds of Verbal
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1. Infinitive – to + the simple form of the verb (no s, no d, or ed, no ing)
Ex. To speak is necessary to improve one’s English.
2. Gerund – verb + ing
Ex. Speaking is necessary to improve one’s English.
3. Participle is a word that is formed from a verb and used as an adjective.
Ex. Speaking English always, she acquired the mastery of the language.
CORRECT ENGLISH USAGE
Accede – means to agree with.
Concede – means to yield, but not necessarily in agreement.
Exceed – means to be more than.
We shall accede to your request for more evidence.
To avoid delay, we shall concede that more evidence is necessary.
Access – means availability
Excess – means too much.
The lawyer was given access to the records of the company.
The expenditures this month are far in the excess of income.
Accept – means to take when offered.
Except – means excluding. (preposition)
Except – means to leave out. (verb)
P a g e | 35
The hero gladly accepted the ‘keys to the city.
All the food except the vegetables were eaten by the children.
The school excepted her from taking gym classes because of her illness.
Adapt – means to adjust or change
Adopt – means to take as one’s own
Adept – means skillful
Children can adapt to changing conditions very easily.
The orphan was adopted by the young couple.
Propery instruction and practice will make you an adept chess player.
NOTE: adapt to, adopt by, adept in or at.
Adapted to – implies original or natural suitability.
The gills of the fish are adapted to underwater breathing.
Adapted for – implies created suitability.
Atomic energy is constantly being adapted for new uses.
Adapted from – implies change to be made suitable.
The movie was adapted from the best selling book.
Addition – means the act or process of adding.
Edition – means printing of a publication.
P a g e | 36
In addition to a dictionary, he always uses a thesaurus. The first edition of Duka’s
book was published in 1997.
Advantage – means a superior position.
Benefit – means a favor conferred or earned (as a profit).
He had an advantage in experience over his opponent.
The rules were changed for his benefit.
NOTE: to take advantage of, to have an advantage over.
Adverse – (pronounced AD-verse) means unfavorable.
Averse – (pronounced a-VERSE) means disliking.
He took the adverse decision poorly.
Many students are averse to criticism from their classmates.
Advise – means to give advice. Advise is losing favor as a synonym for notify.
Acceptable: The teacher will advise the student about study habits.
Unacceptable: We are advising you of a delivery under separate cover.
(SAY: notifying)
Affect – means to influence. (verb)
Effect – means an influence. (noun)
Effect – means to bring about. (verb)
P a g e | 37
Your education must affect your future.
The effect of the last war is still being felt.
A diploma effected a tremendous change in his attitude.
NOTE: Affect also has a meaning of pretend.
She had an affected manner.
After – is unnecessary with the past participle.
SAY: After checking the timetable, I left for the station.
DON’T SAY: After having checked (omit after) the timetable, I left for the station.
Ain’t – is an unacceptable contraction for am not, or not, or is not.
Aisle – is a passageway between seats.
Isle – is a small island
All ready – means everybody or everything is ready.
Already – means previously
They were all ready to write when the teacher arrived.
They had already begun writing when the teacher arrived.
Alright – is unacceptable.
All right – is acceptable
All-round – means versatile or general.
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All around – means all over a given area.
The decathlon champion is an all-round athlete.
The policemen were lined up at Luneta Grandstand.
All together – means everybody or everything together.
Altogether – means completely.
The boys and girls sang all together.
This was an altogether different computer from the other office.
All ways – means in every possible way.
Always – means at all time.
She was in all ways acceptable to the voters.
His reputation had always been remarkable.
Allude – means to make a reference to.
Elude – means to escape from
It is almost impossible for one to elude tax collectors.
Allusion – means a reference
Illusion – means a deception of the eye or mind.
The student made allusions to his teacher’s habits.
Illusions of the mind, unlike those of the eye, cannot be corrected with glasses.
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Alongside of – means side by side with.
Bill stood alongside of Henry.
Alongside – means parallel to the side.
Park the car alongside the curb.
Alot – is unacceptable. It should always be written as two words a lot.
Among – is used with more than two persons or things.
NOTE: Amongst should be avoided.
Between – is used with two persons or things.
The inheritance was equally divided among the four children.
The business, however, was divided between the oldest and the youngest one.
Amount – applies to quantities that can be counted only one.
Number – applies to quantities that cannot be counted one by one.
A large amount of grain was delivered to the storehouse.
A large number of bags of grain was delivered.
Annual – means yearly.
Biennial – means once in two years or every two years.
Anywheres – is unacceptable.
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SAY we can’t find it anywhere.
ALSO SAY nowhere (NOT nowhere),
Somewhere (NOT somewhere)
Aren’t I – is colloquial. Its use is to be discouraged.
SAY: AM I not entitled to an explanation?
(preferred to Aren’t I…)
As – (used as a conjunction) is followed by a verb
Like – (used as a preposition) is Not followed by a verb.
Do as I do, not as I say.
Try not to behave like a child.
Unacceptable: He acts like I do.
As far as – expresses distance.
So far as – indicates a limitation.
We hiked as far as the next guest house.
So far as we know, the barn was adequate for night‘s stay.
As good as- should be used for comparisons only.
This buildings is as good as the next one.
Note: As good as does Not mean practically.
Unacceptable: They as good as promised us a place in the hall.
P a g e | 41
Acceptable: They practically promised us a place in the hall.
as if – is correctly used in the expression .”He talked as if his jaw hurt him”
Unacceptable: “He talked like his jaw hurt him.”
Ascent – is the act of rising.
Assent – means approval.
The ascent to the top of the mountain was perilous.
Congress gave its assent to the President’s emergency power.
Assay – means to try or experiment.
Essay – means an effort or, the result of an effort.
We shall assay the ascents of the mountain tomorrow.
The candidate’s views were expressed in a well-written essay.
Attend to – means to take care of.
Tend to – means to be inclined to
One of the clerks will attend to mail in my Absence.
Lazy people tend to gain Weight.
Back – should NOT be used with such words as refer and return since the prefix re
means back.
P a g e | 42
Unacceptable: Refer back to the text, if you have difficulty recalling the facts
Backward and backwards – both are acceptable and may be used interchangeably as
adverb.
We tried to run backward (or backwards).
Backward as an adjective means slow in learning. (DON’T say
backwards in this case)
A backward pupil should be given every encouragement.
Berth – is a resting place.
Birth – means the beginning of life.
The orphans were given a new berth near the sea.
He was a fortunate man from birth.
Beside – means close to.
Besides – means in addition to.
He lived beside the stream.
Besides being a lawyer, she was a skilled musician.
Better – means recovering.
Well – means completely recovered.
He is better now than he was a week ago.
In a few more weeks, he will be well.
P a g e | 43
Both – means two considered together.
Each – means one of two or more.
Both of the applicants qualified for the position.
Each applicant was given a generous reference.
Note: Avoid using such expressions as the following:
Both girls tried to out do the other. (Use each girl instead.)
They are both alike (Omit both).
Breath – means an intake of air.
Breathe – means to draw air in and give it out.
Breadth – means width.
Before you dive in, take a very deep breath.
It is difficult to breathe under water.
In a square, the breadth should be equal to the length.
Bring – means to carry toward the person who is speaking.
Take – means to carry away from the speaker.
Bring the books here.
Take your raincoat with you when you go out.
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Broke – is the past tense of break.
Broke - is unacceptable for without money.
He broke his arm.
“Go for broke” is a slang expression widely used in gambling circles.
Celine accidentally broke the vase.
Bunch – refers to things.
Group – refers to persons or things.
This looks like a delicious bunch of bananas.
What a well – behaved group of children!
Note: The colloquial use of bunch applied to persons is to be discouraged.
A bunch of the boys were whooping it up.
(Number is preferable).
Certainly – (and surely) is an adverb.
Sure – is an adjective.
He was certainly learning fast.
Unacceptable: He sure was learning fast.
Cite –means to quote.
Sight – means seeing
Site – means a place for building.
P a g e | 45
He was fond of citing from the Scriptures.
The sight of the wreck was appalling.
The Board of Directors is seeking a site for the new building.
Coarse – means vulgar or harsh
Course – means a path or a study
He was counseled because of his coarse behavior.
The ship took its usual course.
Which course English are you taking?
Come to be - should NOT be replaced with the expression become to be, since become
means to come to be.
Comic - means intentionally funny.
Comical – means unintentionally funny.
A clown is a comic figure.
The pecular hat she wore gave her a comical appearance.
Conscience – meanse sens of right
Conscientious – means faithful.
Conscious – means aware of ones self.
Man’s conscience prevents him from becoming completely selfish.
We all depend in him because he is conscientious.
The injured woman was completely conscious.
P a g e | 46
Considerable – means sense of right.
Cease – means to end.
Seize – means to take hold of.
Will you please cease making those sounds?
Seize him by the collar as he comes around the corner.
Cent - means a coin.
Scent – means an odor.
Sent – is the past tense of send.
The nine-cent postal card is a thing of the past.
The scent of roses is pleasing.
We were sent to the rear of the balcony.
Calendar – is a system of time.
Calendar – is a smoothing and glazing machine.
Colander – is a kind if sieve.
We measure our calendar year from January 1 through December 31.
In ceramic work, the potting wheel and the calendar are indispensable.
Garden-picked vegetables should be washed in a colander before cooking.
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Can – means physically able.
May – implies permission.
I can lift this chair over my head.
You may leave after you finish your work.
Cannot help – must be followed by an – ing form.
We cannot help feeling (NOT feel) distressed about his.
NOTE: CANNOT HELP FEELING BUT IS UNACCEPTABLE.
Can’t hardly – is a double negative. It is unacceptable.
SAY: The child can hardly walk in those shoes.
Capital – is the city
Capitol – is the building.
Paris is the capital of France.
The Capitol in Washington is occupied by the congress.
NOTE: Capital also means wealth.
Compare to – means to liken something which has a diffremt form.
Compare woth – means to compare persons or things with each other when they are of
the same kind.
Contrast with – means to show the difference betweem two things.
A minister is sometimes compared to a shepherd.
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Complement – means to a completing part.
Compliment – is an expression of admiration.
His wit was a complement to her beauty.
He complimented her attractive hairstyle.
Consul – means a government representative
Council – means an assembly that meets for deliberation.
Counsel – means advice.
Americans abroad should keep in touch with their consuls.
The City Council enacts local laws and regulations.
The defendant headed the counsel of his friends.
Convenient to - should be followed by a person.
Convenient for – should be followed by a purpose.
Will these plans be convenient to you?
You must agree that they are convenient for the occasion
Copy – is an imitation of an original work.(not necessarily and exact imitation)
Facsimile – is an exact imitation of and original work.
The counterfeiters made a crude copy of the one thousand peso bill.
The official government engraver, however, prepared a facsimile of the bill.
P a g e | 49
Could of – is unacceptable. (Should of is also unacceptable)
Could have – is acceptable. (Should have is acceptable.)
Acceptable: You could have done better with more care
Unacceptable: I could of won.
ALSO AVOID: must of, would of.
Decent – means suitable.
Descent – means going down.
Dissent – means to disagreement.
Allusion – regerence to something.
Illusion – means to a wrong idea that will probably not influence action.
People were under the delusion that the earth was flat.
It is just an illusion that the earth is flat.
Desert – (pronounced DEZZ-ert) means an arid area.
Desert – (pronounced di-ZERT) means to abandon; also a reward or punishment.
Dessert – (pronounced di-ZERT) means the final course of a meal.
P a g e | 50
The Sahara is the world’s most famous desert.
A husbamd must not deser his wife.
Lifetime imprisonment was a just desert for his crime.
We had leche plan for dessert.
Different from – is acceptable.
Different than – is unacceptable.
Acceptable: Jack is different from his brother.
Unacceptable: Baguio’s climate is different than Manila’s climate.
Doubt that – is acceptable.
Doubt whether – is unacceptable.
Acceptable: I doubt that you will pass this term.
Unacceptable: We doubt whether you will succeed.
Dual - means relating to two.
Duel – means a contest between two persons.
Dr.Jekyll had a dual personality.
Both the wrestlers were fatally injured in a duel.
Dute to – is unacceptable at the beginning of a sentence. Use because of, on account
of, or some similar expression instead.
Unacceptable: Due to the rain, the game was postponed.
P a g e | 51
Acceptable: The postponement was due to the rain.
Each other – refers to two persons.
One another – refers to more than two persons.
The two girls have known each other for many years.
Several of the girls have know one another for many years.
Either… or – is ised when referring to choices.
Neither…nor – is the negative form.
Either you or I will win the election.
Neither Bill nor Henry is expected to have a chance.
Eliminate – means to get rid of.
Illuminate – means to supply with light.
Let us try to eliminate the unnecessary steps.
Several lamps were needed to illuminate the corridor.
Emerge – means to rise out of.
Immerge – means to plunge into. (also immerse)
The swimmer emerged from the pool.
The student totally immerged himself in his studies.
Emigrate- means to leave one’s country for another.
Immigrate – means to enter another country.
P a g e | 52
The Norwegiansemigrated to America in the mid -1860’s
Many of the Norwegian immigramts settled in the Middle West.
Everyone – is written as one work when it is a pronoun.
Every one – (two words) is used when each individual is stressed.
Everyone present voted for the proposal.
Every one of the voters accepted the proposal.
NOTE: Everybody is written as one word.
Everywheres – is unacceptable.
Everywhere – is Acceptable.
We searched everywhere for the missing book.
NOTE: Everyplace (one word) is likewise unacceptable.
Fell bad – means to feel ill,
Feel bad – means to have a poor sense of touch.
I feel bad avbout the accident I saw.
The numbness in his limbs caused him to feel badly.
Feel good – means to be happy.
Feel well – means to be in good health.
I feel bery good about my recent promotion.
Cool weather always makes him feel well.
P a g e | 53
Flout – means to insult.
Flaunt means to make a display of.
He flouted the authority of the principal.
The movies star flaunted her sexy body.
Formally – means in a formal way.
Formerly – means at an earlier time.
The letter of reference was formally written.
She was formerly a delegate to the convention.
Former – means the first of two.
Latter - means the second of two.
The former half of the book was in prose.
The latter half of the book was in poetry.
Forth – means forward.
Fourth – comes after third.
They went forth like warriors of old.
The fourth honor is Danica.
NOTE: spelling of forty (40) and fourteen (14)
Get – is a verb that strictly means to obtain.
Please get my bag.
There are many slang forms of GET that should be avoided:
P a g e | 54
AVOID: Do you get me? (SAY: Do you understand me?)
AVOID: YOU can’t get away with it. (SAY: You won’t avoid punishment if you do it.)
AVOID: Get wise to yourself. (SAY: Use common sense.)
AVOID: We didn’t get to go. (SAY: We didn’t manage to go.)
Got – means obtained.
He got the tickets yesterday.
AVOID: You’ve got to do it. (SAY: You have to do it.)
AVOID: We have got no sympathy for them. (SAY: We have no sympathy for them.)
AVOID: They have a great deal of property.)
Hanged – is used in reference to a person. (regular verb)
Hung – is used in reference to a thing. (irregular verb)
The prisoner was hanged at dawn
The picture was hung above the fireplace.
However – means in what possible way.
We are certain, however, that you will like this class.
We are certain that how ever you decide to study, you will succeed.
P a g e | 55
If – introduces a condition.
Whether – introduces a choice.
I shall go to Europe if I win the prize.
He asked me whether I intended to go to Europe. (not if )
If it was – implies that something might have been true in the past.
If it were – implies doubt, or indicates something that is contrary to fact.
If your book was there last night, it is there now.
If it were summer now, we would all go swimming.
In – usually refers to a state of being ( no motion)
Into – is used for motion from one place to another.
The records are in that drawer.
I put the records into that drawer.
NOTE: “We were walking in the room” is correct even though there is motion,
The motion is not from one place to another.
Irregardless – is unacceptable.
Regardless – is acceptable.
Unacceptable: Irregardless of the weather, I am going to the game.
Acceptable: Regardless of his ability, he is not, likely to win.
P a g e | 56
Its – means belonging to it.
It’s – means it is.
The house lost its roof due to bad weather.
It’s an exposed house, now.
Kind of and sort of – are unacceptable for rather.
SAY: We are rather disappointed with you.
Last – refers to the final member in a series.
Latest – refers to the most recent in time.
Latter – refers to the second of two.
This is the last bulletin. There won’t be any other bulletins.
This is the latest bulletin. There will be other bulletins.
Of the two most recent bulletins, the latter is more encouraging.
Lay – means to place.
Lie – means to recline.
NOTE THE FORMS OF EACH VERB:
TENSE LIE (Recline)
Present The child is lying down.
Present perfect The child has lain down.
P a g e | 57
TENSE LAY (Place)
Present The chicken is laying an egg.
Past The chicken laid an egg.
Present Perfect The chicken has laid an egg.
Lightening – is the present participle of to lighten.
Lightning – means the flashes of light accompanied by thunder.
Leaving the extra food behind resulted in lightening the pack.
I don’t know, but I would say much rain fell last night.
May – is used in the present tense.
Might – is used in the past tense.
We are hoping that he may come today.
He might have done it if you had encouraged him.
It’s I – is always acceptable.
It’s me – Is acceptable only in colloquial speech or writing.
P a g e | 58
It’s him}
This is her} always unacceptable
It was them}
It’s he}
This is she} always acceptable
It was they}
Number – is singular when the total is intended.
The number of pages in the book is 500
Number – is plural when the individual units are referred to.
A number of pages (in the book) were printed in italic type.
Of any – (and of anyone) is unacceptable for of all.
SAY: His was the highest mark of all. (NOT of any or of anyone)
Off of – is unacceptable for aloud.
SAY: He read aloud to his family every evening.
Outdoor- (and out-off-door) is an adjective.
Outdoors – is an adverb
We spent most of the summer at an outdoor music camp.
Most of the time we played string quartets outdoors.
NOTE: Out- of- doors is acceptable in neither case.
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People – comprise a united or collective group of individuals.
Persons – are individuals that are separate and unrelated.
Only five persons remained in the theatre afther the first act.
The people of Tacloban have enthusiastically accepted Pope Francis
during his visit.
Persecute – means to make life miserable for someone. (Persectution is illegal.)
Prosecute – means to conduct a criminal investigation. (Prosecution is legal.)
Some terrorist insist on persecuting others.
The lawyer is prosecuting the criminals.
Precede – means to come before.
Proceed – means to go ahead. (Procedure is the noun)
Sit – means to take a seat. (intransitive verb)
Set – means place. (transitive verb)
NOTE for the forms of each verb.
TENSE SIT (Take a seat)
Present He sits on a chair.
Past He sat on the chair.
Present perfect He has sat on the chair.
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TENSE SET (PLACE)
Present He sets the lamp on the table.
Past He set the lamp on the table.
Present Perfect He has set the lamp on the table.
Some time - means a portion of time.
Sometime – means at an indefinite time in the future.
Sometimes – means occasionally.
I’ll need some time to make a decision.
Let us meet sometime after twelve noon.
Sometimes it is better to hesitate before singing a contract.
Somewheres – is acceptable.
Supersese – means to replace.
What were the circumstances that preceded the attack?
We can then proceed with our plan for resisting a second attack.
It is then possible that Plan B will supersede Plan A.
Principal – means chief or main (as an afjective); a leader (as a noun)
Principle – means a fundamental truth or belief.
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His principal supporters came from the city.
The principal of the school asked for cooperation from the staff.
Humility was the guiding principle of Buddha’s life.
NOTE: Principal may also mean as sum placed at interest.
Part of his monthly payment was applied as interest on the principal.
Stationary – means standing still.
Stationery – means writing materials.
In ancient times people thought the earth was stationary.
We bought writing paper at the stationery store.
Stayed – means remained
Stood- remained upright or erect.
The army stayed in the trenches for five days.
The soldiers stood at attention for one hour.
Sure – for surely is unacceptable.
SAY: You surely (NOT sure) are not going to write that!
Taken in – is Unacceptable in the sense of deceive or attend.
SAY: We were deceived (NOT taken in) by his oily manner.
We should like to attend (Note take in) a few plays during our vacation.
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Their – means benging to them.
There – means in that place.
They’re – means they are.
We took their books home with us.
You will find your books over there on the desk.
Theyre going to the ballpark with us.
Theirselves – is unacceptable.
SAY: Most children of school age are able to care for themselves in
many ways.
These kind – is acceptable.
This kind – is acceptable.
I am fond of this kind of apples.
NOTE: These kinds would also be acceptable.
Through – meaning finished or completed is unacceptable.
SAY: We’ll finish (NOT be through with) the work by five o’clock.
Try to – is acceptable.
Try and – is unacceptable.
Try to come (NOT try and come)
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NOTE: Plan on going iis unacceptable
Plan to go is acceptable
To – means in the direction of.
Too – means more than or also.
There are two sides to every story.
Three twos (or2’s) equal six.
We shall go to school.
We shall go, too.
The weather is too hot for doing outdoor games.
Was – If something is contrary to fact (not a fact),
Were - use were in every instance.
I wish I were in Paris.
Unacceptable: If he was asensible, he wouldn’t act like that.
(SAY: If he were . . .)
Ways – is unacceptable for way.
SAY: we climbed a little way (NOT ways) up the hill.
Went and took – (went and stole, etc.) is unacceptable.
They stole (NOT went and stole) our tools.
When – (and where) should NOT be used to introduce a definition of a noun.
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SAY: A tornado is a twisting, high wind on land. (NOT is when a
Twisting, high wind is on land.)
A pool is place for swimming. (NOT is where people swim)
Whereabouts – is unacceptable for where.
SAY: Where (NOT whereabouts) do you live?
NOTE: Whereabouts as a noun meaning a place is acceptable.
DO you know his whereabouts?
Whether – should NOT be preceded by of or as to.
SAY: The president will consider the question wether (NOT of
Whether) it is better to ask for or demand higher taxes now.
He inquired whether (NOT as to whether) we were going or not.
Which – is used incorrectly in the following expressions:
He asked me to stay, which I did.
(CORRECT: He asked me to stay and I did.)
It has been a severe winter, which in unfortunate.
(CORRECT: Unfortunately, it has been a severe winter.)
You did not write besides which you have not telephoned.
(CORRECT: omit which)
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While – is unacceptable for and the though.
SAY: The libratry is situated on the south side: (OMIT while) the
laboratory is on the north side.
Though (NOT while) I disagree with you, I shall not interfere with
your right to express your opinion.
Though (NOT while) I am in my office every day, you do not attempt
to see me.
Who – The following is a method (without going into grammar rules) for determining
When to use who or whom.
“Tell me (Who, Whom) do you think should represent our company?”
STEP ONE: Change the who- whom part of the sentence to its
natural order.
(who, whom)” Do you should represent our company?”
STEP TWO: Substitute HE for WHO, HIM for WHOM.
Do you think (he, him) should represent our company?
You would say he in this case.
THEREFORE: “Tell me WHO –Whom do you think should represent the company?” is
correct.
Who is}
Who am}
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Note these constructions:
It is I who am the most experienced.
It is he who is ….
It is he or I who am ….
It is I or he who is ….
It is he and I who are …
Whose – means of whom.
Who’s – means who is.
Whose is this notebook?
Who’s in the next office?
Would have – is unacceptable for had.
SAY: I wish you had (NOT would have) called earlier.
You all- is unacceptable for you (plural)
SAY: I wish you had not (NOT would have) called earlier.
You all – is unacceptable for you (plural)
SAY: We welcome you, the delegates from Region 5.
You are all welcome Delegates of Negros.
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BASIC RULES IN AGREEMENT AND GRAMMAR
1. A verb agrees with its subject in person and in number.
Wrong: They doesn’t understand what to do.
Right: They don’t understand what to do.
2. The number of noun in a phrase introduced by the preposition “of” does not affect
the form of the verb.
Wrong: A list of books were made by Bong.
Right: A list of books was made by Bong.
3 .Compound subjects joined by “and” ordinarily take the base form of the verb.
Wrong: Here comes Nanding and Manny.
Right: Here come Nanding and Manny
4. When two or more singular subjects are joined by “or” or “nor” the “s” form of the
verb is required.
Wrong: A man’s success or failure lie in his hands.
Right: A man’s success or failure lies in his hands.
5. Intervening phrases introduced by “of, with, together with, as well as, including,
Besides, no less than, in addition to, accompanied by, not, do not affect the form
of the verb.
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Wrong: The teacher, together with her pupils were there.
Right: The teacher, together with her pupils was there.
6. Compound nouns joined by “and” use the “s” for of the verb if they are regarded as
a unit.
Example: Bread and butter was all he asked for.
7. When the subject and predicate nominative differ in number, the verb must agree
with the subject “not” the complement.
Wrong: The theme of the essay are the experiences of our heroes.
Right: The theme of the essay is the experiences of our heroes.
8. Compound subjects joined by “either-or, neither-nor, not only- but also” ordinarily
Take verbs agreeing in number with the nearer subject.
Wrong: Not only the students but also the teacher are learning.
Right: Not only the students but also the teacher is leaning.
9. When the subject comes after the verb make sure that the veb agrees with its
subject.
Wrong: In this school is enrolled several alien students.
Right: In this school are enrolled several alien students.
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10. Never begin a sentence with a participle that does not logically modify the
subject f the sentence.
Wrong: walking around the campis, the bell rang.
Right: Walking around the campus, I heard the bell rang.
11. Sentence elements that are grammatically connected should be cloed together.
Wrong: I, after the class, went to the movies.
Right: I went to the movies after my class.
12. Modifiers should be placed as near as possible to the words they modify.
Wrong: She rushed into the room just as we are singing the last song
breathless with excitement .
Right: Breathless with excitement, she rushed into the room just as we are
singing the last song.
13. Avoid dangling modifiers
Wrong: Having taken the entrance examinations, the President of the College
accepted me.
14. Ordinarily,”this” and “that” take the “s” form of the verb while “these” and “those”
take the base form of the verb.
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Examples: That is good idea.
These are times that try man’s soul.
15. The following indefinite pronouns are ordinarily use with the third person. They
take the base form of the verb: “all, both, few , many, several, some.
Examples: All were satisfied.
Both are to be blamed.
16. The following indefinite promouns, whether singular or plural in meaning are
ordinarily used with the third person “S” form of the verb:
“each, everybody, everyone, everything ,any ,anything , other ,somebody ,someone
,something ,one ,nothing ,nobody ,either ,neither , another.
Examples: Each arrives on time
: Everything is in order
17. The “title” of a book is considered singular.
Example: “The Dialogues” of Plato is a great classic.
18. The word “people”, meaning many persons is plural.
Peoples refer to different races.
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Examples: The people were excited about the news.
The people vote for Erap’s candidates.
19. The expression “the number of” takes “S” for of the verb, while the expression
“a number of “ takes the base form of the verb.
Examples “A number of books are on reserve in the library.
The number of students in the class is limited.
20. Noum referring to money, time, measurement or distance that is preceded by an
Expression of any amount or quantity is considered singular and takes the
singular form of the verb.
Examples: Five hundred pesos is a long time to wait for you.
Three weeks is a long time to wait for you.
21. The number of the noun that follows an expression “of fraction” or portion
determines the number of the verb to used.
Example: One third of the apples are yours.
Half the apple was eaten by rats.
22. Sentences introduced by “it” take the “s” form of the verb.
Examples: It is time to say goodbye.
It hurts to say goodbye.
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23. The number of the subject of a sentence introduced by “there” determines the
verb to be used.
Examples: There is a man in the room.
There are days wjen she is lonely.
There are five schooldays in a week.
24. The verb takes an “S” when it is used in the third person singular of the present
tense.
Example: Jerry plays chess vidorously.
25. The expressions “one of the, the number of and a number of “are always
followed by plural nouns.
Examples: One of the boys in absent.
A number of books were stolen.
A number of apples were rotten.
26. Some nouns are always plural in form
Examples: measles, mumps, pants, shorts, scissors, trousers.
My scissors are missing.
27. Nouns such as Mathematics, Statistics, Economics, Politics, Physics are used
with the singular form of the verb when they refer to an area of study.
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Examples: Physics is required for science majors.
Politics, is not dirty per se, but the politicians are the ones making it
dirty.
28. Possession is usually shown by adding apostrophe (‘) or apostrophe and s (s’) to
a noun
Examples: The boy’s club.
: The ladie’s club
29. The infinitive of a verb is always in the simple form.
Examples: To love is an adventure.
Long ago, Bong’s dream was to live in a forest.
30. Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning (Singular form of the verb)
Examples: News, measles. The news is exciting.
31. Nouns singular in form but function collectively
Examples: information, food, equipment, jewelry; furniture.
THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Since literature makes use of effective and affective language. It is proper for the
literature teacher to master the various types of figurative language.
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However, it is not enough that he can identify them, he must be able to explain and
justify their use whether in prose or poetry, even in everyday, casual discourse. In
literature, the suggestive power of words give the writer the opportunity to create the
nuances, the connotations, the texture, emotions, the tone color ang the overtones
imbedded in figurative language.
Types of Figures of Speech
The following are the most commonly accepted and often used figures of speecs
its literature – oral and written.
1. Simile –A stated comparison between two unlike things or persons that have
something in common using “like” or “As”.
Ex.Her smile is as mysterious as Mona Lisa’s.
2. Metaphor – an implied comparisomn between two person or thins that are
unlike in most respects the words like or as are left out.
3. Personification – ging human quality to inanimate objects or abstract things.
Ex. The flowers dance in the garden.
4. Metonymy – consists in the naming of a thing by one of its attributes.
Ex. The crown prefers taxes from the underlings to support his expenses.
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5. Synecdoche – substituting a part for a whole, an individual for a class or a
material for the things.
Ex.many squatters dream of roofs over their heads.
6. Hyperbole – An exaggeration used for artistic effect.
Ex. Thanks a million.
7. Litotese – A deliberate understantement used to affirm by negating its
opposite.
Ex. Edgar Allan Poe is no mean writer.
8. Irony – the use of a word to signify the opposite of its literal meaning.
There are three types of irony:
(a) Irony of situation, when the result differs from what is expected; (b)
Verbal irony, which is actually veiled sarcasm; and © dramatic irony, the author’s
intended meaning differs from the characters expectation.
Ex. You’re so beautiful; you look like a Christmas tree!
9. Oxymoron – Putting together in one statement two contradictory terms.
Ex. The sound of silence is indeed, deafening.
10. Periphasis – The substitution of a descriptive phrase for a name or
Vice -versa.
Ex. The sleeping Giant has broken ties with its neighbors.
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11. Apostrophe – An address to (a) dead person as though he were alive; (b) an
Absent person as thought he were present, © an inanimate object as though it were
animate.
Ex. Ninoy, you’re not alone!
12. Climax – The arrangement of words or idead according to their degree of
importance; thus, the last set appears most valuable.
Ex.” I came, I saw, I conquered.” (Julius Caesar)
13. Anti-Climax – A real apparent or ludicrous decrease in the importance or
impressiveness of what is said. Opposed to climax.
Ex. He lost his shoelace, his house charred to ashes, his wife even
Abandoned him.
14. Anti-Thesis – Equating or balancing two opposing ideas.
Ex. There is a time to sow and there is a time to reap.
15. Parallelism or Juxtaposition – Placing two comparable ideas side by side.
Ex. “Yea! Though I walk in the valley of the shadow of death, I shall fear
no evil. Thy rod and thy stuff thy comfort me.”
16. Pun – A play on words with humorous, witty effects.
Ex. House’s everything for all Filipinos.
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17. Paradox – A seemingly, contradictoty but true example.
Ex. There is a grief in happiness.
The following rhetorical devise should not be mistaken for figures of speech.
Actually they help analyze one color or the toal qualities inherent in vowel and
consonant combination. In other words, tone color reinforces sense with sound.
1. Alliteration – The use of repetition of a succession of initial consonant
sounds.
Ex. She sells sea shells on the seashore.
2. Assonance – Resemblance in sound; specifically in prosody correspondence
of the accented vowels, but not of the consonants.
Ex. “Alone, alone, all, all alone
Alone on a wide, wide sea
And never a sould took pity on
My sould in agony.”
--Coleridge
3. Anaphora – Repeating a word or phrase in the beginning of several
successive verses, clauses or sentences.
Ex. “Love is real, real is love.
Love is wanting, to be loved.
Love is searching, searching love”.
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4. Onomatopoeia – Imitation of sounds to produce the desired effect.
Ex. The rain drops in the roof.
The cat meows in the dark.
5. Allusion – A literari device which is unimplied or indirect reference to biblical,
litereray or historical characters or events.
EXERCISES ON FIGUTIVE LANGUAGE
Directions: Identify the figure of speech, explain and justify its use.
1. Feudalism is the winter or discontent in the countryside.
2. Our Father, who art in Heaven . . . .
3. Throw the book to the coup plotters.
4. “My love sprang from my only hate!”
5. He courted her, she answered “yes”,they eloped.
6. Mr. Cruz is as quiet as a politician.
7. “If winter comes, can spring be far behind?” (Shelley)
8. There is emptiness in wholeness. (From Taoism)
9. Her speech is a newly sharpened scythe.
10. “Oh, Romeo, wherefore art thou my Romeo?”
11. The U.N Forum is a tower of Babel.
12. The baby is a bundle of fat.
13. “The child is Father to the Man.” (Wordsworth)
14. “Oh Liberty, how many crimes are committed in thy name?” (Madame
Roland)
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15. “I am thy Lord and God, thou shalt not worship strange gods before
Me!”
16. The night has a thousand eyes.
17. Hearing the gossip spread about her, Rosa flew into a rage.
18. She stamped her foot, banged the door, and pounded the table.
19. No comment.
20. “If you prick us, do we not bleed?” (Shylock)
21. Address tjat question to the chair.
22. The Hermit Kingdom is divided into two by the 38th parallel.
23. “For the moon never beams without bringing me dreams of my bride,
my darling, Annabel Lee”. (Poe)
24. “Eggheads of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose but your
yokes!”
25 that man is a Hamlet, it takes him eternity to decide.
LITERATURE
Literature- is derived from the Latin word litera – meaning letter
- Any printed matter written within a book, magazine or pamphlet.
- Faithful reproduction of man’s manifold experiences blended into
one garmonious expression.
- Man’s loves, griefs, thoughts, dreams, & aspirations coached in
beautiful language
- Story of man
- SHE – significant human experience
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Reasons for studying literature
1. To better appreciate our literary heritage.
2. TO trace the rich heritage of ideas handed down to us by our fore fathers.
3. To understand the great and noble tradition of the different races of the world.
4. As Filipinos, to take pride in our own culture & manifest deep concern for our
own literature.
Types of Literature
A. PROSE
1. Novel – long narrative divided into chapters. The events are taken from true-
to-life stories & spans a long period of time.
2. Short Story – a narrative involvinh one or more characters, one plot & one
single impression.
3. Plays – presented on stage divided into acts & each act has many scenes.
4. Legends – these are fictions, narratives, usually about origins.
5. Fables – stories about animals & inanimate things that speak & act like people
& their purpose is to enlighten the minds of children to events that can mold their ways
& attitudes.
6. Anecdotes – products of the writer’s imagination & the main aim is to bring
out lessions to the reader.
7. Essay – expresses the viewpoint or opinion of the writer about a particular
problem or event- best example is the editorial page of a newspaper.
8. Biography – deals wotj the life of a person which maybe about himself or that
of others.
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B. POETRY
1. Narrative
a. Epic – an extended narrative about heroic exploits often under
supernatural control.
Ex. Bi-ag ni Lam-Ang-Ilokos
Ybalon – Bicol
Hudhud at Alim – Igorot
Bidasari – Mindanao
Beowulf – England
Iliad & odyssey – Greece
b. Tales – stories about supernatural beings
c. Ballads – short poems, adapted for singing, simple in plot and metrical structure
2. Lyric – type of poetry that expresses emotions and feelings of the poet
-usually short, simple & easy to understand
a. folksongs (awiting bayan) – short poems intended to be sung
-common themes are love, despair, grief, doubt, joy, hope & sorrow
Ex. Chit-Chirit-Chit
b. Sonnet – 14 line poem dealing with emotions, feelings or ideas
Ex. Sonnets of Shakespeare
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c. Elegy – poem for the dead
Ex. Annabel Lee
By Edgar Allan Poe
Elegy written in Country Churchyard
By Thomas Gray
d. Ode – poem of a noble feeling, expressed with dignity on a certain
thing/object.
Ex. Ode to the West Wind
Percy Bysshe Shelley
e. Psalms – song praing God & containing a philosophy of life
Ex. Psalm of David
f. Awit – Florante at Laura – sung – 12 syllables per line – realistic
g. Corrido – Ibong Adarna – recited – 8 syllables – elements of fantasy
3. Dramatic Comedy
a. tragedy – involves the hero who struggles mighty against dynamic forces until he
meets death.
Ex. Hamlet
b. Comedy – Greek word “komos” meaning festivity or revelry
- purpose – amusement / happy ending
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c. melodrama – arouses immediate & intense emotion and is usually sad but
there is happy ending for the principal character.
d. farce – exaggerated comedy
- seeks to arouse mirth by laughable lines.
- situations are too ridiculous to be true
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Pre-Spanish Period – oral
- Own literature that reflects our own race
- Shows our customs & traditions in evereday life
- Own alphabet known as baybayin
- Records were written on leaves & bamboo cylinder, bark of trees
and caves
- Legend , folk tales, epics, folk songs , riddles, chants, proverbs &
sayings
-
- Epics –Hudhod & Alim- Ifugao
1. Ybalon – Bikolano
2. Biag ni Lam-Ang – Ilokano
3. Bidasari – Muslim
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Spanish Period
- Alibata was replaced by Roman alphabet
- Teachings of the Christian Doctrine became the basis of religious
practices
- Spanish language gave many of its words to our language
- European legends & traditions were assimilated in our songs,
corridos, Moro-Moro
- Ancient literature was collected & translated to Tagalog & other
dialects
- Grammar books were printed in Filipino
- Periodicals gained a religious tone
First Books
Doctrina Christiana – first book printed in the Phil. In 1593
-written by Fr. Juan de Placencia & Fr. Domingo Nieva
Barlaan at Josephat – first Tagalog novel published in the Philippines.
Pasion – life & sufferings of Jesus Christ
Urbana at Felisa – book by Modesto de Castro (Father of Classic Prose in Tagalog)
- Letters between two sisters dealing with good behavior.
-
Vocabulario Dela Lengua Tagala – first Tagalog dictionary by Fr. Pedro de San
Buenaventura
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Recreational Plays
1. Tibag – search of St. Helena for the cross on which Jesus died.
2. Cenaculo – dramatic performance to commemorate the passion & death of
Jesus Christ
3. Panunuluyan – presentation of the search of Virgin Mary & St. Joseph for an
inn to deliver the baby Jesus
4. Salubong – Easter play that dramatizes the meeting of the Risen Christ & his
mother.
5. Zarzuela – father of drama musical comedy/melodrama dealing with man’s
passions & emotions.
6. Moro-moro – play about the fighting between Moros & Christians
7. Duplo/Karagatan – played during wakes for the dead
-princess who dropped her ring in the middl of the sea
8. Balagtasan – Debate in poetic verse; created during the American
Colonization of the Philippines.
9. Awit – Metrical romance that is sung or said in fast beat. Subject is mostly
about legends and fantasy.
Corrido or metrical romance that tackles in narrative form the life and adventures
of persons.
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Period of Enlightenment – nationalism
- Filipinos demanded changes in the government and in the church.
1. Propaganda Movement – leaders
Jose Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena
A. Jose Rizal – Laong Laan & Dimasalang
-Noli and Fili
B. Marcelo H. del Pilar – Plaridel, pupdoh, Piping Dilat and Dolores
Manapat
- Pag- ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa, Dasalan at Tuksuhan
C. Graciano Lopez Jaena
- first magazine – La Solidaridad
- Ang Fray Botod
D. Other Propagandists
-Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce, Pedro Paterno (Ninay-first social
novel im Spanish by a Filipino, Jose Panganiban.
Period of Active Revolution
- Reforms demanded by propagandists were not given attention
- No other way except to revolt
- Leaders were Andres Bonifacio – father of Filipino Democracy,
Father of Katipunan (KKK), Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa.
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- Emilio Jacinto- Brains of the Katipunan, Katrilya ng Katipunan,
Liwanag at dilim
- Apolinario Mabini – Sublime Paralytic brains of the Revolution
- Jose Palma – Phil. National Anthem
-
American Regime
- Literature had the theme of nationalism but was stopped due to
suppression done by the Americans
- English became the medium literary pieces
Writers – Cecilio Apostol, Fernando Ma. Guerero, Jesus balmori &
Claro M.Recto, Lope K. Santos, Jose Corazon de Jesus, Amado V.
Hernandez, Inigo Ed Regalado
- Severino Reyes – Father of the Tagalog drama – Walang Sugat
- Pedro Bukaned – Father of Ilocano Literature
- Claro Caluya – Prince of Ilocano poets
- Leon Pichay – best Bukanegero
-
- Sursum Corda (poem) first work to be published in English
In 1919 the UP College Folio published the literary compositions of
the first Filipino writers in English.
-Short Story – Dead Stars by Paz Marqueez benitez became the
model of perfection
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Japanese Literature
- Newspaper in English were stopped by the Japanese
LIWAYWAY was placed under strict surveillance
- HAIKU , TANAGA
- Movie houses were closed showing American films
- Writers were Jose Ma. Hernandez, Francisco Soc Rodrigo, Julian
Cruz Balmaceda, NVM Gonzales, Liwayway Arceo, Carlos P.
Romulo and Carlos Bulosan
-
Rebirth of Freedom
1945 – American returned
- Proliferation of newspaper FREE PRESS, MORNING SUN, Manila Times Philippine
Heral, Chronicle, Bulletin
-Poems, novel m short stories
-Without Seeing the Dawn by Javellana
Palanca Awards – Kuwento ni Mabuti-Genoveva Edroza (1950-51) (first award)
Period of Activism – because of the ills of society, the youth moved to seek reforms
- Martial Law
- Writings were rebellious
- Placards in red bearing the sign MAKIBAKA
- Period of terror % wrath
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New Society
Age of Ninoy Aquino’s martyrdom
People’s Power
- Rebirth of newspapers, books
- Songs – Handog ng Pilipino sa Mundo/Bayan Ko
AFRO – ASIAN LITERATURE
Chinese Literature – one of the major cultural heritage of the world
Poetry – characterized by compactness & brevity
Confucius or Kung Fu-tze – first sage of China who wanted to make education available
to all men.
Great Techer – proponent of Chinese Literature
SHIH CHING – first anthology of Chinese poetry
Five Books
1. Yiking (Book of Chnges) divination
2. Liking (Book of Ceremonies) etiquette
3. Shuking (Book of Historical Documents) political ideas & fundamentals of good
government
4. Shiking (Book of Poetry) best poems
5. Chun Chiu (Spring & Autumn) history of Confucius native provinc
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Teachings
Principles of courage & prudence
Filial duty
Selecting friends
- Good human relations
- Good government
- Value of education & self-criticis,
Analects – are selection or parts of literary works
Ex.
1. If a man in the morning hear the right way, he may die in the evening without regret
2. I am not concerned that I am not know but I seek to ve worthy to be known.
3. When we see men of worth, we should think of equaling them, when we see men of
Contrary character, we should turn inwards & examine ourselves.
4. Give man a fish & you feed him for a day, teach man to fish and you feed him for life.
Arabia
A Thousand & One nights – a collection of stores and folk tales compiled in
Arabic.
Ex. Aladdin, Ali Baba and Forty Thieves and Sinbad the Sailor
- Kahlil Gibran – great poet
Indian Literature – oldest sacred literature is found in four VEDAS (knowledge)
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a. Rigveda – oldest – Veda of Praise
b. Brahmanas – rituals & prayers
c. Upanishads – discoursesbetween teachers & pupils
d. Puranas – history of the Aryan race
Mahabharata (Hindu Epic) – Cosmology, statecraft, philosophy, science of war
- Longest poem in the world about the bitter quarrel of two brothers – Pandu &
Karu (Pandavas are unjustly deprived of the ancestral kingdom of their woicked sons)
Hindu proverb – I weep because I have no shoes, unitl I saw a man without feet
Ramayana (Hindu epic) – It depicts the duties of relationship portraying ideal
characters like the ideal servant, ideal brother, ideal wife and ideal king
Kalidasa – poet know for Sakuntala/greatest Sanskrit playwright ang poets
Rabindranath Tagore – best know of all recent writers in India
- Masterpiece – Gitanjali
Hebrew Literature
Bible – book of all books, 39 books Old Testatament/27 books – New Testament
- Literature that provokes another literature
- Most famous works in the hebew literature is the Old Testament
- Genesis
- Ten Commandments
- David & Goliath
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- Ecclesiates- To everything there is season and a time to every purpose under
heaven; a time to love and a time to hate, a time of war & a time of peace
Psalm of David (Psalm 23)
The Lord is my shepherd I shall not want.
Story of Joseph and Story of Ruth
Persian Literature – Iran
Rubaiyat – Omar Khayyam (tent-maker) poem of high divine and spiritual
meaning. The beauty and simplicity of this poem is so immaculate that is why people of
all faiths seek divine solace.
Egyptian Literature – Pharaog, pyramids, mummies, papyrus Book of the Dead,
Hymns to the Sun- Godm Rosetta Stone- reveals the antiquity of Egypt
Egyptian writing – hieroglyphics
Poem- To Whom Should I Speak Today
Japanese Literature
1. NOH DRAMA – dramatic dance with lyrical poetic texts and masked actors
2. HAIKU – 7 syllable poetic form usually about nature
3. WAKA – 31 syllable classical poetry
4. KABUKI – Japanese dance drama
5. KOJIKI – (Record of Ancient Matters) earliest surving work in Japan
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ENGLISH / AMERICAN LITERATURE
- Jutes, Angles, Saxons
- Language – Anglo Saxon
-Angleland – Stone age people
Gaels/Britons
Romans
BEOWULF (England) - Epic of more than 3,000 lines
CHAUCER – Canterbury Tales
-greatest English writer of the middle ages
-St.Thomas a Becket
-Through Harry BAilly – innkeeper – Tabard Inn
Ex. Paradoners Tale
King Arthur & the Knights of the Round Table
-Sir Gawaine
-Sir Thomas Malory- Le Morte de Arthur
-rise & decline of the Round Table, quest for the Holy Grail & establishment of the first
printing press in English by William Caxton.
-Sir Thomas More – Utopia
-Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe – The Passionate Shepherd to His Love
“Come Live with me and “Be my Love” I will make thee bed of roses
Sis Walter Raleigh – The nymphs Reply to the Shepherd” If all the world and love were
young and truyth in every shepherd’s tounge
William Shakespeare – greatest writer of all times
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-Venus and Adonis / Romeo and Juliet / Hamlet/Macbeth
-Sonnets
Sonnet 18 – Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Shall I compare thee to a
summer’s day?
Thomas Campion – My Sweetest LEsbia- “Let us live & love”
Francis Bacon – Father of English Essay
Of Studies – Studies serve for delight, fir ornament & for ability
Ben Johnson- Song to Celia “Drink to me only with thines eyes and I will pledge with
mine or leave a kiss but in the cup and I’ll not look for mine.”
John Miltom – Paradise: Lost, On his Blindness
Thomas Gray – Elegy Written in Country Churchyard
Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Thyme of the Ancient Mariner
Percy Bysshe Shelley – Ode to the West Wind
Alfred Lord Tennyson – Break, Break, Break
Robert Browning – Last Duchess
Elizabeth Barrett Browning – Hpw Do I Love Thee?”
Matthew Arnold – Dover Beach
Rudyard Kipling – Madalay/Recessional
John Masefield – Sea Fever
David Herbert Lawrence – Lady Chatterly’s Lover
American Literature
- Captain Jong Smith (Pocahontas)
- Vitginia
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Thomas Jefferson – Declaration of Independence of the 13th United States of America
Patrick Henry – Hive me liberty or give me death
Washington Irving - Legend of Sleepy Hollow
- Rip Van Winkle
- Ichabod Crane and Rose of Alhambra
Edgar Allan Poe – Annabel Lee, Tell-Tale Heart
-Father of Horror Stories
Ralph Waldo Emerson- Self – Reliance
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – A Psalm of life
- “Tell me not in mournfull numbers”
-“Life is but an empty dream”
Samuel Lamghorne Clemens (Mark Twain) – Afventures of Tom Sawyer
Henry James- Tree of Knowledge
Stephen Crane – Blades of Grass
Ernest Hemingway – Old Man & the Sea
Robert Frost – The Road Not Taken
William Ernest Henley – Invictus
Walt Whitman – O captain, My Captain
Charles Dickens – Christman Carol
Greek Literature
1. Pre Homeric and Homeric Age
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2. Anthenian period – Alexander the Great
3. Period of Decline
Qualities:
1. Permanence & universality
2. Essentially full of artistry
3. Originality
4. Diversity of talent
5. Intellectual quality
Homer – blind poet of Greece/great epics – Illiad & Odyssey
Theme- Man’s fate is the result of his actions.
Mythological background of Iliad
Achilles – greatest Greek warrior
Thetis and Peleus (Parents)
Eris – Goddess of mischief was not invited
Golden Apple – to the fairies of the Goddess
-Hera – promised power
Athena – wisdom
Aphrodite – most beautiful woman in the world
Helen – married to Menelaos
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- Alexandros abducted Helen and brought her to Troy
- Greeks (Achaians) banded together to restore Helen of Menealos
-10 year war – Trojan war
Iliad
-violent quarrel between Agamemnon & Achilles
-Briseis was unjustly taken by Agamemnon
-Achilles bowed not to fight & stayed on his tent; because of his absemce, the
Trojans led by prince Hecor were winning & Greeks were driven back
Patroclus – dear friend of Achilles begged to fight
-was killed by Hector
- and because of this, Achilles killed the Trojans in order to marry Penelope
-Story of Penelope
Because of Athena, he reached Ogygia
- met the nympj Calypso, fallen in love with him
-kept for seven years
-Hermes ordered Calypso to realease Odysseus
-Poseidon got angry and Odysseus met several dangers before reaching Ithaca
Dramatist of the Athenian Age
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1. Aeschylus – father of tragedy
- theological poet
- soldier playwright
- Battle of Marathon/Salamy
2. Sophocles
-Oedipus Rex
-Parent Laius & Jocasta (Thebe)
- Childless – Apollo at Delphi
- received a prophecy that Jocasta would have a son, but will murder his father
and marry his mother
- Oedipus was born
-exposed in the mountain
-given to the childless King& Queen of Corinth
-went to oracle of Delphi and learned the truth
-left Corinth
- on his way , he met an old man & insulted him & tried to beat him
- killed the man
-reached Thebe
- people were suffering under great misfortune in the form of a Sphinx
Riddle – morning walks in 4 legs; noon – 2 legs – night – 3 legs
Oedipus – solved the riddle
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-became king of Thebe & married Jocasta
-plague came to the land
-Theban went to oracle of Delphi
-Apollo saod that they must look for the murdere of their King Lauis & punish him
People sought the help of Oedipus & promised to look for the murderer
He learned the truth and Jocasta & Oedipus realized that they were mother and son.
In the end Jocasta committed suicide while Oedipusblinded his eyes
3. Euripides – modern playwright
4. Aristophanes – master of Greek comedy
Rome – Virgil – ggreatest writer that Rome produced
Aeneid – Aeneas (Trojan hero)
-burning troy
-went to Latium
-landed in Carthage and welcomed by Queen Dido
-queen fell in love with Aeneas
-Aeneas great destiny was to be the founder of Rome
-oracle – only daughter Lavinia would marry a foreigner- king
Nibelungelied – Siegfred/epic/of Germany
Song of Roland – epic of France
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El Cid – epics of Spain
Diving Comedy – Dante – Father of Italian Literatiore
-greatest literary production of the middle Ages
GREEK GODS AND GODDESSES
Zeus – In Greek mythology, the father of gods and men, and most powerful of
immortals. He was pre-Hellenic and was worshipped as the sky-deity, whose presence
was marked by lightning, thunder, and rain, He was theson of Kronos and Rhea:
Poseidon.
Hades, Hestia, Demeter, JHera were his brothers and sisters, Hera being also
his wife, When the world was distributed among them after the overhrow of Kronos,
Poseidong obtained the sea, Hades the underworld and Zeus the heavens and upper
regions, the earth being common of them all.
Thetis – sea goddess, mother of Achilles
Poseidon- Fierce god of the sea and of earthquakes, brother of Zeus and
Hades, defender of Greeks
Hermes – Son of Zeus and Maia. He is familiar in Roman myhology as
Mercurius
His best know role was that of messenger of the gods, for which he carried a herald’s
wand. He also conducted the dead to Hades. He was commonly represented in art asa
a head supported by a tapering pillar with a phallus affixed to it. Such images were
known as Hermae.
Hera – Pre-Hellenic goddess whose Greek name is no more than the title, lady.
The daughter of Kronos and Rhea, she figures in Greek mythology as wife and sister
Zeus and patroness of female life in general and of marriage in particular. Her children
included Ares, Hebe and Hephaestus. According to Homer she was jealous and
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quarrelsome; Zeus himself quailed at her tounge. Argos seems to have been the most
ancient place for her worship.
Hephaestus – Also called Hephaistos, in Greek Religon, the God of fire.
Originally a deity of Asia Minor and the adjoining islands, he had an important place of
worship at the Lycian Olympus, where natural gas provided both his image and his
sanctuary. As god of fire, Hephaestus became the divine smith and patron of craftsmen,
the naturalvolcanic or gaseous fires already connected with him were often considered
to be his workshops.
Athena – Sometimes called Pallas. She spramg fully grown and armed from the
head of Zeus, who had swallowed her mother MEITIS (wise counsel). Although pre-
Hellenic, she became patron goddess of Athems, and personified wisdom. In Roman
mythology is identified with Minerva.
Artemis – Originally a primitive earg-goddess; she appears in Greek mythology
as daughter if Zeus and Leto and sister of Apollo; a virgin huntress and patroness of
chastity.
Aphrodite – The Goddess of Beauty and Love, who beguiled all, Gods and men
alik; the laughter-loving Goddess, who stole away even the wits of the wise. She is the
daughyer of Zeus and Dione in the Iliad. She was also known as Venus in the Roman
mythology.
Apollo – Archer god, main protector of the Trojans.
Ceres- Roman goddess of corn, identified with Greek Demeter
Ares – He presented the distasteful aspects of brutal warfare and slaughter.
From at least the time of Homer, who established him as the son of the chief god, Zeus
amd Hera his consort, he was of the Olympiam deities, buthis fellow gods and even his
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parents were not fond of him. HE was accompanied in battle, however, by his sister Eris
(Strife) and his sins (by Aphrodite) DEimos and Phobos (panic and Rout).
Achilles – was the son of Peleus and Thetis and hero of Homers Iliad by whom
Greek valor and its mightiest was exemplified in Trojan War. He was educated in war
and eloquence by phoenis amd in hunting, riding, music and medicine by Chiron. He
was the greatest and bravest warrior among the Greeks.
Agamemnon – Son of Atreus and brother of Menelaus. He was the legendary
king of Mycenae. In Homer, he appears to be commander in chief of the Greek
expedition against Troy. He was personally brave but somewhat irresolute and
despondent. His quarrel with Achilles is principal motif of the Illiad.
The Odyssey relates, on his return from the wars, he and his followers were
treacherously murdered by his wife Clythemnestra and her lover Aegisthus, Clymnestra
also killed Cassandra, thedaughter of Prian, king if Troy, whom agamemno had brought
back with him.
Neptune, Neptunus – Roman god of water; later elevated to God of the Sea
after his identification with the Greek Poseidon
Vulcan – Roman God of fire and in Particular of furnaces; his festival, the
Vulcania, was observed on 23’rd August. He was identified with the Greek
Hephaesthus.
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FILIPINO
Ang bahaging Filipino sa Licensure Examination for Teachers ay binubuo ng
Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino, Pagbasa at Pagsulat tungo sa Pananaliksik,
Masining na pagpapahayag
BAHAGI NG PANANALITA
PANGNGALAN
Ang Pangngalan ay pasalitang simbolo na ang tinutukoy ay tao, hayop, bagay,
pook at pangyayari.
Ang Pangngalan ay ngan ng tao, hayop, bagay, pook at pangyayari
Ang unang katuturan ay gumagamit ng katawagang pansemantika, pasalitang simbolo;
Ang ikalawa ay ang karaniwang katuturang ibinibigay ng balarilang tradisyunal.
Halimbawa: Mga pangngalang ngalan ng tao
Gloria Ama guro
Nonoy anak manananggol
Mga pangngalang ngan ng hayop
Tagpi Aso Tandang
Muning pusa Katyaw Kalabaw
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Mga pangangalang ngalan ng pook
Pilipinas lunsod kaparangan
Bundok ng Apo bundok kamaynilaan
Mga pangngalang ngan ng katangian
Bait kabaitan pagkamabait
Tapang katapangan pagkamatapang
Mga pangngalang ngan ng pangyayari
Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig
Kasalan pulong
Pag-aasawa kaarawan
Sa ikalawang pananaw na batay sa lingwistikang istruktural, ang pagbibigay ng
katuturan ay batay sa kayarian at gamit sa pangungusap ng tunit ng wika na
binibigayang kahulugan. Hindi isinasaalang-alang ditto ang kahulugang tinutokoy o
binibigay ng salitang binibigyangkatuturan.
Ang Kayarian ay tumotukoy sa anyo ng salita at iba pang yunit ng wika.
Sa kayarian, ang pangngalang, ay karaning salitang ugat o anuman pagbabagu-bagong
anyo niyo ayon sa kung ito ay inuulit, nilalapian, o pinagtatambal.
Halimbawa ang agos ay salitang ugat o anumang pagbabahu0bagong
anyo nito ayon sa kung ito ay inuulit, nilalapian, o pinag tatambal.halimbawa and Agod
ay salitang ugay; ang buhay-buhay ay pag uuli ng salitang ugat ng buhay; ang
kabuhayan ay salitang ugat na buhay na nilapian ng Ka . . . . . an; ang buhay-alamang
ay dalawang salitang ugat ma pinagtambal. HInggil sa mga pangangalang maylapi. Sa
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Pilipino ay mayroon tayong mga panlaping sadyang ginagamit lamang sa pagbubuo ng
pangngalan.
Tinutukoy pa rin ng kayarian ang gamit ng salitang sa loob ng wika o ang
kayarian ng mga pariralang, maaring mabuo nito, kasama ng iba pang salita o kataga.
Ang anumang salitang maaring sa ang/si, ng/ni, sa/kay, at mga anyong maramihan ng
mga ito, ay isang pangngalan o dili kaya ay isang salitang gumaganap ng tungkulin n
gang tatlong pares ng mga katagang binanggit sa katuturan ay mga pananda.
Ang unang pares ay pananda ng mga pangngalang na sa kaukulang palagyo; ang
hulinf dalawang pares ay pananda naman ng mga pangngalang nasa kaukulang
palayon.
Ano ang ibig sabihin ng pariralang “salitang maaring isunod sa . . . loob ng
katuturan?
Nangangahulugan na ang salita ay nagagamit na kasunod ng alinaman sa mga
katagang nabanggit upang makabuo ng parirala.
Ang anyong maramihan ng ang/so ay ang mmga/sina; ang maramihan ng ng/ni;
ay ng mga/nina; at ang mga maramihan ng sa/kay ay sa mga/kina.Kung ang mga
pariralang isahan sa mga halimbawa sa itaas ay ilalagay natin sa maramihan, ganito
ang mga pariralang mabubuo natin:
1. ang mga anak 2. Sina Maria
Ng mga anak nina Maria
Sa mga anak kina Maria
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Kung magpapatuloy tayong maghanap ng mga salitang maaring isunod sa
unang pangkay ng mga kataga (ang, ng, sa ) makikita nating ang mga sumusunod na
salita ay maari ring gamitin: akin, mabait, umawit.
Makabubuo tayo ng mga parirala na sumusunod:
1. ang akin ang mga akin
Ng akin ng mga akin
sa akin sa mga akin
2. ang mabait sa mga mabait
Ng mabait ng mga mabait
sa mabait sa mga mabait
HALIMBAWA:
1. Mga pariralang ANG
a. Sa opisyal na pulong ko na inuulat ang akin.
b. Laging pinagpapala ng DIyos ang mabait.
c. Ang umaawit sa ating palatuntunan ay tanyag sa buong daigdig
2. Mga pariralang NG
a. Kalihim ko ang bumasa ng akin sa opisyal na pulong
b. Karaniwang tahimik at walang bagabag ang buhay ng mabait
c. Ang pangalan ng umaawit ay tanyag sa buong daigdig.
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3. Mga pariralang SA
a. Hindi ko malilimot ang kanyang ginagawang tulong sa akin
b. ang diyos ay lagging may gantimpala sa mabait.
c. Walaang katapusan ang papuri ng mga nakinig sa umawit.
Saunang pangungusap, ang pariralang ang ANG AKIN ay pinaikling anyo, isang
ellipsis
Ang salitang AKIN ay pinaikling panghalip na karaninwang ginagamit na kasama ng
isang pangngalang kasunod ng AKIN ay ULAT. Kung gayon, ang buong pangungusap
na walang elipsis.
Halimbawa:
Sa opisyal na pulong ko na iuulat ang aking ulat.
Sa kayarian n gating mga pangngusap sa Pilipino, ang salitang ULAT sa
ganitong halimbawa ay maari nang alisin, kaya’t napapalitan ang mtungkulin ng
panghalip na AKIN.
Ang dating panuring na AKIN ay nagiging isang salitang gumaganap ng tungkulin ng
pangngalan.
Mga Klasipikasyon Ng Pangngalan
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Ang mga pangangalan ay mauuri ayon sa kahulugan og kayarian ng mga ito
bilang isang salita. Ang unang pag-uuri ay klasipikasyon pansemantika, ang ikalawa
ay pangkayarian o pang-instruktura
Mga Uring Pansemantika
Sa ilalim ng pag0uuring pansemantika ay may dalawang paraan ng
klasepikasyon.
Ang una ay batay sa kung ang pangngalan ay may diwang panlahat o hindi panlahat,
at ang ikalawa ay batay sa kung ang pangngalan ay tumutukoy sa isang bagay na
tahas o hindi tahas .
Ayon sa unang batayan, ang mga pangngalan nay maaring pangngalang
pantangi o pangngalang pambalan. Ayon naman sa ikalawang batayan, ang
pangngalan ay maaring tahas o Basal.
Pantangi ang pangngalan kung tumutukoy sa isang tanging tao, hayop, bagay, pook, o
pangyayari. Ang ibig sabihin ng tangi ay particular ng tao, hayop, bagay, pook, o
pangyayari. Sumasagot ito sa tanong na: Ano ang panawag sa o ngalan ng particular
na ito; ng partikular na asong ito, o pusang ito; dagat na ito ng particular na aklat na ito
o lapis na na ito; ng particular ng dagat na ito, atbp.
HALIMBAWA:
1. MGa pangngalan ng particular na tao
Danica Bb. Carol Reyes
Czarina D. Dioneda
2. Mga pangngalang particular na ngalan ng ibat ibang uri ng hayop
Tagpi Bantay
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Muning Whitie
3. Mga pangngalang particular na ngalang ng ibat ibang bagay
Pilot Mongol
Bagon Alpabeto Magasing Time
4. Mga pangngalang partikular na ngalan ng pool
Talon ng Maria Carolina Ilog pasig
Bulkang Mayon Naga
5. Mga pangngalang particular na pangyayari
Paligsajamg Bb.Universe Taong 1998
Araw ng Paggawa
Pambalana ang mga pangngalang tumutukoy sa pangkalahatang diwa. Halimbawa,
ang pangngalan ng tao ay tumutokoy sa lahat ng nilang na may katawan at kaluluwang
rasyunal.
1. Pangngalang pang kalahatang nglan ng tao.
Halimbawa: bata, guro, lalaki
2. Pangngalang pangkalahatang ngalan ng hayop
Halimbawa: aso, pusa, baka
3. Mga pangngalang pangkalahatang ngalan ng bagay
Halimbawa: Lapis, Radyo
4. Pangngalang pangkalahatang ngalang ng pangyayari
Halimbawa: Kaarawan, sayawan
Ang mga pangngalang pantangi ay sinisimulan sa malakng titik kapag isinusulat.
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Ang mga pangngalang pambalana ay sinisimulan naman sa maliit na titik maliban kung
simula ng pangungusap.
TAHAS ang pangngalan kung tumutukoy sa bahay na material.
Halimbawa: Tao, hayop, puno, pagkain, gamut, kasangkapan
Ang mga pangalang tahas ay mauuri pa rin sa dalawa:
Palansak. Ito ay tumutukoy sa pangkay ng iisang uri ng tao o bagay.
Halimbawa: buwig, kumpol, hukbo, tangkal, tampok
Di-Palansak. Ito ay tumutukoy sa lamang sa mga bagay na isinasaalang-alang
Halimbawa: saging, sundalo, kamatis, tao, bulaklak
Basal ang pangalang kung ang tinutukoy ay hindi material kundi diwa o kaisipan.
HAlimbawa: pag-ibig, katagan at pag-asa
Mga Uring Pangkayarian
Uri ng pangngalan, batay sa kayarian nito:
1. Pangaalng Payak kung ito ay isang salitang –ugat lamang. Wala itong kasamang
panlapi o katambal na salita, at hindi rin inuulit ang kabuuan o bahagi nito. Ang
pangalang payak ay binubuo ng isang morpema lamang.
Halimbawa: Bulak, dahon, bunga, diwa
2. Pangalang Maylapi o Hinango kung binubuo ng salitang ugat at panlaping
makangalan. Sa bagon pananaw, sinasabing ang pangngalang maylapi ay binubuo ng
isang morpemang Malaya at using morpemang di-malaya. Ang morpemang malaya
ay ang salitang-ugat: ang morpamang di-malaya ang panlapi.
Halimbawa: kaklase, kabuhayan, pagbasa, dinuguan
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Ang unang halimbawa ay may salitang ugat na dugo, gitlaping in, at hulaping an.
Tinatawag nating makangalan ang mga panlaping ginagamit sa pagbubuo ng pangalan,
at kaiba ito sa iba pang panlapi na ginagamit naman sa pag bubuo ng iba pang bahagi
ng pananalita, tulad ng panaguri at pandiwa.
3. Pangalang Inuulit kung ang kabuuan nito o ang bahagi nito ay inuulirr. Batay sa
kung ano ang inuulit, nmay dalawang uri ng pag-uulit a) ang pag-uulit na di-ganap o ang
pag-uulit na parsyal at (b) ang pag-uulit na ganap.
Halimbawa: Bali-balita, da-dalawa, Sali-salita, bali-baligtad
May mga pangalang maylapi na ang inuulit ay ang unang salita (katinig) at ang patinig
ng salitang ugat.
Alaala, bulaklak, lapulapu, paruparu, sarisari
Payak ang klasipikasyong mga ito sapagkat wala namang salitang-ugat na ala, lak,
paro, lapu
Pag-uulit na ganap ang tawag sa pag0uulit ng buong pangalan. MGa pangalang payak
lamang na binubuo ng dalawang patinig ang nauulit nang ganap.
Halimbawa:
Kuru-kuru, bayan-bayan, buhay-buhay,sabi-sabi
4. Pangngalang Tambalan
Ang panggalang tambalan ay binubuo ng dalawang magkaibang salitang pinag-
isa. BInubuo ito, samakatwid, dalawang morpenang Malaya.
May mga pangalang tambalan na nanatili ang kahulugan ng mga salitang
nagtatambal at nagkakaroon ng bagong kahulugan ang nabuong pangalan.
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Ang unang pangkat, yaong nanantili ang kahulugan ng pinagsamang salita ay tintawag
na malatambalan o tambalang di-ganap. Samantal, ang ikalawa yaong nagkakaroon
ng bagon kahulugan ang mga salita, ay tinatawag na tambalang ganap.
Halimbawa:
(a) Mga tambalang di-ganap
Balikbayan, alay- kapwa, dalagang-bukid, bahay-kalapati
Sa mga tambalang di-ganap ay may kataga o mga katagang nawawala.
Halimbawa: ang balikbayan ay galling sa pariralang bumalik sa bayan o
nagbalik sa bayan inalis ang katagang sa at kinuha na lamang ang salitang-ugat ma
balik buhat sa bumalik o nagbalik upang mabuo ang pangalang balikbayan.
Sa halimbawang alay-kapwa, ang katagang nawawala ay sa.
Sa dalagang-bukid, taga ang katagang inalis.
At sa bahay-kalapati ng ang nawawala.
(b) Mga tambalang ganap
Kapitbahay, bahaghari, hampaslupa, dalagambukid (isda)
Mapapansin sa mga tambalang ganap, ang kahulugan ng mga pinagsamang
salita ay nawawala.
Mga Kakanyahan Ng pangngalan
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May mga katangian o kakanyahan ang pangngalan na ikinaiiba nito sa iba pang
subkategorya ng mga bahagi ng pananalita.
Sa balarila ni Lope K. Santos, apay ang kakanyahan ng pangalan:
(1) kausapan (2) kailanan, (3) kasarian, at (4) kaukulan,
Sa mga balarilang tradisyunal, ang kausapan, itinuturing na isa sa mga kakanyahan ng
pangalan, ay natutukoy lamang sa pamamagitan ng panghalip na kasama nito o kaya’y
sa pamamagitan ng konteksto ng pangungusap.
Halimbawa: Ako, ang inyong ama, ang magpapasya
Nalalaman nating ang pangalang ama ay nasa kausapang kumakausap.
Samantala, sa pangungusap na:
Isang Pilantropo si Don Crispin.
Ang pangalang Don Crispin ay alam na nating nasa ikatlong panauhan dahil sa
konteksto.
Sa ibang salit, Don Crispin halimbawa, ay walang kausapan kung nag-iisa. Kaya
lang magkaroon ito ng kausapan ay kung magiging bahagi ng pangungusap dahil sa
mga panghalip.
Halimbawa: Ako si Don Crispin.
Ikaw si Don Crispin.
Siya si Don Crispin.
Sa kailanman ng pangalan ay nalalaman natin kung ang pangalan ay tumutukoy sa isa,
dalawa, o higit pang tao, hayop, bagay, pook o pangyayari. At batay sa kung ilan ang
tinutukoy, ang kailanan ng pangalan ay maaring
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(1) isahan (2) dalawahan, (3) maramihan o lansakan
Halimbawa ng mga pangngalang likas na isahan, dalawahan, o lansakan
Isahan : Kapatid
Dalawahan : Kambal
Lansakan : Kawan
Ang kapatid na likas na isahan ay magagawang dalawahan o maramihan sa
pamamagitan ng paggamit ng pantukoy, pang-uri, pamilang at panlapi
Halimbawa:
Pantukoy: ang kapatid, ang magkapatid
Pang-uri: mabait na kapatid, mababait na kapatid
Pamilang: isang kapatid, dalawang kapatid, limang kapatid
Panlaipi : Kapatid, magkapatid, magkakapatidd
Kasarian ng Pangngalan
Ang tao, hayop, bagay na tinutukoy ng pangalan ay maaring urrin ayon sa sekso; (1)
may sekso at (2) walang sekso. Tao at hayop ang may sekso; bagay, pook, at
pangyayari ang mga walang sekso.
Dalawa ang uri sekso: (1) lalaki at (2) babae, kaya tang pangalan ay maaring
tumutukoy sa isang tao o hayop na lalaki o isang tao o hayop na babae. Ngunit may
mga pangalang maaring tumutukoy sa alin man sa babae o sa lalaki
Tinatawag na kasariang panlalaki ang kasrian ng mga pangalangg tumutokoy
sa tao o hayop na lalaki. Kasariang pambabae kung ang mga pangalang ay tumutukoy
sa tao o hayop na pambabae. Kasariang di-tiyak kung ito ay mga pangalang maaring
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panlalaki at pambabae. Walang Kasarian ang mga pangalang tumutukoy sa nga
bagay, pook, pangyayari na walang sekso.
May mga salitang likas na pawing sa lalaki, tulad ng ama, kuya, tiyo at mayroon
namang likas na panawag sa babae, tulad ng ina, ate, tiya. Mapapangsing sa mmga
salitang ito ay walang tiyak na palatandaan sa kayarian. Kahukugan lamang an gating
pinagbabatyan sa pagkilala ng kasarian, tulad ng
abogado,abogada,biyahero,biyahera,kondukto,konduktora sa pamamagitan ng mga
morpenang (a) at (o) sa pusisyong pinal.
Kaukulan ng Pangngalan
Kaukulan ang tawas sa kakanyahan ng pangalang nagpapakita ng gamit nito sa
pangungusap. May iba’t ibang gamit ang pangalan sa loob ng pangungusap, at batay
sa mga gamit na ito ay mauuri natin ang kaukulan ng pangngalan sa dalawa: kaukulang
palagyo at kaukunglang palayon.
Nasa kaukulang palagyo ang pangalang kung ginamit itong simuno, pamuno sa
simuno o pamuno sa kaganapang pansimuno.
Halimbawa:
1. Simuno ang gamit ng pangngalan.
Si Bonifacio ay Dakilang Filipino.
2. Pamuno sa simuno ang gamit ng pangngalan.
Si Bonifacio, ang bayani, ay Dakilang Filipino.
3. Kaganapang pansimuno ang gamit ng pangngalan
Si Mabini ay Dakilang Lumpo.
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4. Pangngalang patawag ang gamit ng gpangngalan.
Czarina, alagaan mo si Celine.
5. Pamuno sa kaganapang pansimuno ang gamit sa panggalan.
Ang dalang iyon ay si Alice, ang pinsan ko.
Sa unang pangungusap, ang pangngalang BOnifacio ay pinapaksa kaya’t
simuno ang gamit. Sa sususnod na pangungusap ay mamy pamuno ang simunong
Bonifacio, ang pangngalang bayani. Ang kaukulan ng pamuno ay tulad sa kaukulan ng
pangngalang pinupunoan.
Ang pangngalang ginagamit na panawag ay tinatawag na pangngalang patawg. Sa
ikatlong pangungusap, ang pangngalang Czarina, ay pangngalang patawag: ito ay nasa
ikaukulang palagyo.
Nasa kaukulang palayon ang pangngalan kung ginagamit na layon ng pandiwa o
layon ng pang –ukol, o kung pamuno sa alinaman sa dalawa.Tulad ng Makita sa mga
halimbawa sa kaukulang palagyo, ang pamuno ay may kaukulang tulad ng salitang
pinupunuan nito.
Halimbawa:
1. Layon ng pandiwa ang gamit ng pangngalan.
Ang masipag na ina ay nagsisinop ng kanilang bakuran.
2. Layon ng pang-ukol ang gamit ng pangngalan.
Ang mga mag-aaral ay nasa palaruan.
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PANGHALIP
Ang panghalip ay mga salita na pamalit o panghalili sa pangngalan. Maaring
bigyang katuturan ang panghalip ayon sa pananaw pangsemantika at pananaw na
pang-istruktura.
Halimbawa:
Si Manuel L. Quezon ang kinikilalang “AMa ng Wikang Pambansa”
Sa pananaw na istruktural, ang mga panghalip ay makikilala dahil sa
implekasyon o pagbabagong-anyo ayon sa kaukulan : (a) ang mga panghalip na nasa
anyong ang, (b) ang mga panghalip na nasa anyong sa.
Tulad ng napag-aralan na natin, ang mga pangngaln ay may kaukulan. Ang
pangngalang pinangungunahan n gang/si ay nasa kaukulang ang. Ang pangangalang
pinangungunahan ng ng/si nasa kaukulang ng. Ang pangngalang pinagngungunahan
ng sa/kay ay basa kaukulang sa.
Batay sa mga kaukulan ng pangngalan, ang mga panghalip ay maroon ding mga
kaukulan. Ang panghalip na maaring ihalili sa pariralang pangngalang
pinangungunahan n gang o si ay sinasabing nasa kaukulang ang o kaukulang palagyo.
Halimbawa:
(1) Ang mabuting mamamayan ay may disiplina sa sarili.
Ang pariralang pangngalang ang mabuting mamayan ay maaring palitan ng
panghalip na siya. Nasa kaukulang an gang pariralang pangngalang ang mabuting
mamamayan, kaya’t ang panghalip na siya ay nasa kaukulang ang din.
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MGA URI NG PANGHALIP
May apat na uri ang mga panghalip na panao, panghalip na pamatig, o panghalip
na panaklaw, at panghalip na pananong.
Mga Panghalip na Panao
Ang panghalip na panao ay panghalili sa ngalan ng tao.
Halimbawa:
Si Dr. Jose Rizal ay manggagamot ng baryo.
Ang si Dr.Jose Rizal ay maaring palitan ng siya, kaya tang pangungusap ay
magiging:
Siya ay manggagamot ng baryo. O kaya’y
Manggagamot siya ng baryo.
Mapapangkay sa tatlong anyo ang mga panghalip na panao: panghalip panao sa
anyong ang, panghalip panao sa anyong ng, at panghalip panao sa anyong sa.
Narito ang tsart ng mga panghalip na panao sa ibaa’t ibang anyo. Pinag – iiba rin
sa tsart ang mga panghalip ayon sa panauhan o kung sno ang tinutukoy: unang
panauhan (kumakausap), ikalawang panauhan (kinakausap), at ikatlong (pinag-
uusapan).
Gayundin, pinapangkat ang mga panghalip ayon sa kailanan o bilang ng
tinutukoy : isahan, dalawahan , at maramihan
Tsart I
Panauhan/kailanan Anyong ang Anyong ng Anyong sa
(palagyo) (paukol) (paari)
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Isahan
Una ako ko akin
Ikalawa ikaw, ka mo iyo
Ikatlo siya niya kanya
Dalawan
Una *kata *nita *kanita
Kita, tayo natin atin
Ikalawa kayo inyo inyo
Ikatlo sila nila kanilal
Maramihan
Una kami naming amin
Ikalawa kayo ninyo inyo
Ikatlo sila nila kanila
*Bihira nang gamitin
Ipinakikita sa tsar tang mga panghalip na panao sa ibat ibang anyo, sa ibat ibang
panauhan, at sa ibat ibang kailanan.
Ang pag-iiba ng anyo ng panghalip ay naayon sa mga kaukulan ng pangngalang
hinihalipan ay nasa anyong ang, ang panghalip na maihahalili ay nasa anyong ang din.
Halimbawa:
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Ang Unang Ginang ng bansa ay masigasig na tagataguyod ng kapakanang pang
madla.
Ay magiging:
Siya ay masigasig na tagapagtaguyod ng kapakanang pangmadla.
Kung ang pangngalang hinahalipan ay nasa anyong ng, ang panghalip na maihahalili
ay dapat na nasa anyong ng din. Halimbawa, ang pangungusap na:
Malaki at matataba ang mga baboy na alaga ni Mang Coro.
Ay magiging:
Malalaki at matataba ang mga alaga niya.
Samantala naman, kung ang pangngalang hinahalipan ay nasa anyong sa, ang
panghalip na magagamit ay yaong nasa anyong sa rin. Halimbawa, ang pangungusap
na: Ang aklat para sa guro ay tungkol sa industriya at ekonomiya ng bayan.
Ay magiging:
Ang aklat para sa kanya ay tungkol sa industriya at ekonomiya ng bayan.
Sa panauhan malalaman kung ang panghalip ay tumutukoy sa taong kausap, sa taong
kinakausap, o sa taong pinag-uusapan.
Ang kailanman naman ay tumutukoy sa bilang ng taong kinakatawan ng panghalip.
Nasa kailanang isahan ang panghalip na panao kung tumutukoy sa isang tao;
dalawahan kung dalawa ang itinutukoy, ay maramihan kung tatlo o higit pa ang
tinutukoy.
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Mga Panghalip na Pamatlig
Panghalip na pamatlig ang tawag sa mga panghalip na humahalili sa ngalan ng
tao, bagay, atb. Na ituturo o inihihimaton.
Halimbawa:
Gaya ng mga turista ang kapatid nito.
Ang nito ay may hinahanlinhang pangngalang at, gayundin, nagpapahiwatig na
ang tinutukoy ay itinuturo ng nagsasalita.\
Mapapangkat sa apat na uri ang mga panghalip na pamatlig: prominal, panawag-
pansin o pahimaton, patulad at palunan.
Ang bawat uring pronominal ay yaong pamalit at nagtuturo lamang sa ngalan ng
tao, o bagay, at wala nang iba pang kahulugang sangkap, tulad ng panghihimaton sa
tao, o bagay, paghahambing, o pagsasaad ng pook na kinaroroonan ng tinutukoy, na
siya namang kahulugang ng iba pang mga uri.
Ang bawat uri ng panghalip na pamatlig ay may apat na kategorya: malapit na
malapit sa nagsasalita, malapit sa nagsasalit, malapit sa nakikinig, at malayo kapwa sa
nagsasalita at nakikinig.
Ang pamatlig na pronominal ay mapapangkat din sa tatlong anyo ayon sa
pagkakaugnay nito sa pokus ng pangungusap: anyong ang, anyong ng, at anyong sa.
Ang pamatlig na palunan ay pinaikling anyo lamang ng gaya at ng anyong ng
upang magpahayag ng pagkakatulad ng mga tinutukoy ng nagsasalita.
Halimbawa
Gaya nire – ganire, gaya niyan- ganiyan/ganyan
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Ang pamatlig napalunan ay masasabi namang pinaikling anyo ng nasa at ng
anyong ang ng pamatlig na maaring ipalit sa mga kayariang nasa sa mga pusisyong
kategoryang iyan, niyan,diyan,ayan,ganyan, at nariyan kung ang inihihimaton o ang
itinuturo ay higit na malapit sa kinakausapan kaysa nagsasalita.
Iba’t ibang gamit sa pangungusap ng mga anyo ng pamatlig.
Simuno o kaganapang pansimuno ang gamit sa pangungusap ng anyong ang.
Halimbawa:
1. Ito ay yaring Pilipino. ( simuno)
2. Ang yaring Pilipino ay ito. (kaganapang pansimuno)
Ginagamit ang anyong ng na panghalili sa pariralang pang-ukol na nagpapahayag ng
diwang paari.
Halimbawa:
1. Napapanahon ang kurso ng mag-aaral na ito.
2. Napapanahon ang kurso nito.
Ginagamit ang anyong sa bilang panghalili sa pariralang pang-ukol ba
pinangungunahan ng pang-ukol na sa at samakatwid ay nagsasaad ng lunan.
Halimbawa:
1. Ang klima sa pook na ito ay mabuti sa kalusugan.
2. Ang klima rito ay mabuti sa kalusugan.
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Mga Panghalip na Panaklaw
Panghalip panaklaw ang tawag sa mga panghalip na sumasaklaw sa kaisahan
dami o kalahatan ng tinutukoy.
Narito ang halimbawa ng mga panghalip na panaklaw.
Isa anuman magkanuman
Iba alinaman kuwan
Balana sinuman lahat
Ilanman tanan kailanman
Halimbawa sa ilang pangungusap:
1. Pinalabas ng guro ang isa.
2. Balana ay humahanga sa kagandahan ng Bulkan Mayon.
3. Sinuman ay maaring lumahok sa timpalak na ito.
4. Hahanapin ka raw niya saanman.
5. Nawawala ang kuwan.
Mga Panghalip na Pananong
Panghalip na pananong yaong mga panghalili sa ngalan ng tao at bagay, na
ginagamit sa pagtatanong. Kaganapang pansimuno ang gamit ng mga ito.
Mapapangkat ang mga ito sa dalawang kailanan: isahan at maramihan
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Narito ang talaan ng mga panghalip na pananong:
Isahan Maramihan
Sino sinu-sinu
Ano anu-ano
Alin alin-alin
Kanino kani-kanino
Ginagamit ang sino at kanino para sa tao; ang ano at alin ay para sa tao; ang ano atalin
ay para sa bagay, hayop, o lunan.
PANDIWA
Ayon sa kahulugang pansemantika, ang pandiwa ay salitang nagpapakilos o
nagbibigay buhay sa isang lipon ng mga salita.
Halimbawa:
Ang pulisya ay naglunsad ng puspusang kilusan sa pagsugpo ng pagkasugapa
sa narkotiko.
Ang salitang naglunsad ay pandiwa sapagkat nagsasaad ng kilos o galaw.
Sa pananaw na istruktural, ang pandiwa ay nakikilala sa pamamagitan ng mga
implekasyon nito sa ibat ibang aspeto ayon sa uri ng kilos nito.
Halimbawa:
1. Nagdasal na ang mag-anak. (Perpektibo)
2. Nagdarasal ang mag anak ngayon. (Imperpektibo)
3. Magdarasal na ang mga mag-anak. (Kontemplatibo)
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Ang mga pandiwang nagdasal, nagdarasal, magdarasal ay may ibat ibang anyo sa ibat
ibang aspeto ng mga ito.
(1) Kayarian ng Pandiwa
Ang pandiwa sa Pilipino ay nabubuo sa pamamagitan ng pagsasama ng isang
salitang ugat at ng isa higit pang panlapi. Ang salitang – ugat ang nagbibigay ng
kahulugan sa pandiwa samantalang ang panlapi naman ang nagpapahayag bg pokus o
relasyong pansemantika ng pandiwa sa simuno o paksa ng pangungusap.
Mga Kaganapan ng Pandiwa
Kaganapang ng pandiwa ang tawag sa bahagi ng panag – uri na bumubuo o
nagbibigay ng ganap na kahulugan sa pandiwa at magagawang paksa ng pangungusap
kung babaguhin ang pokus ng pandiwa.
Ang mga kaganapang tagaganap at kaganapang layon ay naipapahayag sa
pamamagitan ng pariralang ng.
Halimbawa:
1. Kinain ng bata ang suman at manggang hinog/
(Kaganapang tagaganap)
2. Kumain ang bata ng suman at manggang hinog.
(Kaganapang layon)
Ang iba [ang kaganapan ay naipapahayag sa pamamagitan ng pariralang sa, o para sa,
tulad ng mga halimbawa pariralang sa (sa phrase) sa mga sumusunod na
pangungusap:
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3. Bumili ako ng ilaw na kapis para sa pinsan kong nag-balikbayan.
(Kaganapang tagtanggap)
4. NAgtanim ng gulay sa bakuran ang aming katulong.
5. Pinunasan ko ang mga kasangkapan sa pamamagitan ng basahang malinis.
(kaganapang kagamitan)
6. Nagkasakit siya dahil sa labis na panghitit ng opyo. (kaganapang sanhi)
7. Ipinasyal ko sa tagaytay ang mga panauhin kong kabilang sa ‘Peace Corps’.
(kaganapang direksyunal)
Katuturan ng mga Kaganapan
Ang kaganapang tagaganap ay ang bahagi ng panaguri na gumaganap sa kilos
na isinasaad ng pandiwa.
Halimbawa:
Ipinagdiwang ng mga kabataan ang unang anibersaryo ng kanilang samahan.
Ang pariralang ng mga kbataan ay siyang nagsasaad kung sino ang gumaganap
jg kilos ng pandiwa.
Halimbawa:
Nagpasadya ako sa Pasig ng binurdahang husi.
Ang pariralang ng binurdahang husi ang itinutukoy sa binili.
Ang kaganapang tagatanggap ay ang nagsasaad kung sino ang nakikinabang ng
kilos ng pandiwa.
Halimbawa:
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Nagluto sina Ingga ng halayang ube para sa aking mga panauhin.
Ang pariralang para sa aking mga panauhin ay nagsasaad kung ano para kanino ang
nilulutong halayang ube.
Ang kaganapang ganapan ay ang nagsasaad ng lugar ng ginaganap ng kilos
ng pandiwa.
Halimbawa:
Naglaro ng basketbol sa Rizal Stadium ang koponan n gaming
pamantasan.
Ang pariralang sa Rizal Stadium at nagsasaad kung saan naglaro ang koponan.
Ang kaganapang kagamitan ay nagsaad kung anong bagay, kagamitan o instrument
ang ginagamit upang magawa ang kilos ng pandiwa.
Halimbawa:
Binungkal ng tatay ang lupa sa pamamagitan ng asarol.
Ang pariralang sa pamamagitan ng asarol ay nagsasaad kung ano ang ginagamit
upang mabungkal ang bukid.
Ang kaganapang sanhi ay nagsasaad kung ano ang dahilan ng pangyayari ng
kilos pandiwa.
Halimbawa:
Yumaman siya dahil sa mina ng ginto.
Ang pariralang dahil sa mina ay nagsasaad ng ikinayaman ng tinutukoy.
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\ Ang kaganapang direksyunal ay ang nagsasaad ng direksyon ng kilos na
taglay ng pandiwa.
Halimbawa:
Nagtungo sila sa Bicol.
Ang pariralang sa bicol ay nagsasaad ng direksyon ng kilos na taglay ng padniwa.
Mga Aspeto ng Pandiwa
Maraming makabagong lingwistiko ang naniwala na ang mga pandkwang
Tagalog ay nababanghay sa aspeto at hindi dahil sa panahunan. Anila ay wala talagang
pagkakaiba ang mga pandiwang Tagalog ayon sa panahunan na di tulad sa Ingles. Sa
IIngles ay may pagkakaiba ang kilos ng pangnagdaan o pangkasalukuyan.
Halimbawa:
1. My brother studied in Europe.
2. My brothere studies in Europe.
Sa Tagalog, ang distingksyon ng kilos ay tulad sa pakakaiba ng aspekto ng mga
pandiwa sa mga sumusunod na pangungusap:
1. He ate his lunch early.
2. He was eating his lunch.
Aspetong Pangnakaraan o Perspektibo
Nagpapahayag ang aspetong pangnakaraan ng kilos na nasimulan na at
natapos na.
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Ang implekasyon sa aspetong ito nabubuo sa pamamagitan ng mga sumusunod na
tuntunin:
(a) Kapag ang panlapong pandiwa ay may inisyal na ponemang /m/, ang /m/ ay
nagiging /n/
Halimbawa:
Anyong Pawatas Aspetong Pangnakaraan
Magsaliksik Nagsasaliksik
Manghakot nanghakot
Maunawaan nauunawaan
(b) Kapag ang pandiwa ay banghay sa –um/-um, ang panalaping ito ay nanatili sa
pangnakaraan at walang pagkakaiba.
Halimbawa:
Anyong Pawatas Anyong Pangnakaraan
Umunlad umunlad
Yumuko yumuko
c. Kapag ang pandiwa ay banghay sa hulaping –an/-han ay nanatili ngunit nagdaragdag
ng unlapiong –in kung ang pandiwa ay nagsisimula sa patinig, at gitlaping –in- naman
kung ang pandiwa ay nagsisimula sa katinig
Halimbawa:
Anyoong Pawatas Anyong Pangnakaraan
Alatan inalatan
Sabihan sinasabihan
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Taliwas sa tuntuning ito ang –an/-han na may kakambal na unlaping ma-. Kapag ang
pandiwa ay banghay sa kabilang panlaping ma– an/han ay nagiging na-
Halimbawa:
Anyong Pawatas Anyong Pangnakaraan
Matamaan natamaan
Masabihan nasabihan
Dapat ding banggiting ang panlaping –in- nas idinaragdag sa anyong pangnakaraan ng
mga pandiwang may –an/-han ay nagiging ni- kung ang pandiwa ay nagsisimula sa /l/.
Opsyunal ang ganitong pagpapalit kung ang pandiwa ay nagsisimula sa /r/, /w/, p /y/.
Mga Halimbawa:
Anyong pawatas Anyong Pangnakaraan
Lagutan nilagutan
Ligawan niligawan
Regaluhan niregaluhan
Walisan niwalisan
Aspetong Pekpektibong Katatapos
Sa mga pandiwang tagalaog ay matroon ding aspetong pangnakaraan katatapos
o aspetong perpektibong katatapos. Nagsasaad ito ng kilos na kayayari o katatapos
lamang bago nagsimula ang pagsasalita. Maihahanay na rin ang aspetong ito sa
aspetong katatapos lamang na nabubuo sa pamamagitan ng unlapong ka- at pag-uulit
ng unang katinig-patinig o patinig ng salitang-ugat.
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Halimbawa:
Anyong Pawatas Aspetong katatapos
Tumula katutula
Uminog kaiinog
Masulat kasusulat
Makalibot kalilibot
Magpatala kapatatala
Pansining sa huling halimbawa ang salitang inunlapian ay pangangalang hango na
binubuo ng salitang ugat na tala at ng panglaping pa-. Ang iba pang ngalang hango na
nagiging pandiwa sa mag- at nalalgyan ng aspektong pangnakaraan katatapos ay
yaong may pang- at ma-.
Aspetong Pangkasalukuyan o Imperpektibo
Ang aspetong pangkasaliukuyan o imperpektibo ay nagpapahayag ng kilos na
nasimulan na ngunit, di pa natatapos at kasalukuyang ipinagpapatuloy. Nabubuo ito sa
pamamagitan ng pag-uulit ng unang katinig-patinig o unang patinig ng salitang-ugat at
gayundin sa pamamagitan ng ibat ibang tuntuning tinalakay sa ilalim ng aspetong
perpektibo. Samakatwid, ang aspetong pangkasaliukuyan ay tulad din ng aspetong
pangnagdaan; inuulit lamang ang unang katinig-patinig o unang salitang-ugat.
Halimbawa;
Anyong Pawatas Anyong Pangnakaraan Aspetong Kasalukuyan
Magsaliksik nagsaliksik nagsasaliksik
Manghakot nanghakot naghahakot
Umunlad umunlad umuunlad
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Yumuko yumuko yumuyuko
Alatan inalatan inaalatan
Sabihan sinabihan sinasabihan
Pagtawanan tinawanan pinagtawanan
Pagbilhan pinagbilhan pinagbibilhan
Aspetong Panghinaharap o Komplatibo
Ang aspetong panghinaharap ay nanglalarawan ng kilos na hindi pa nasisimulan.
Nabubuo ito sa pamamagitan ng pag-uulit ng unang katinig-patinig o unang patinig ng
Salitang-ugat o pangngalang hango. Walang pagbabago sa taglay na panlapi.
Samakatwid, ang aspetong panghinaharap ay tulad din ng anyong pawatas; inuulit
lamang ang unang katinig-patinig o unang patinig ng salitang-ugat.
Ang tanging taliwas sa tun tunin ay ang banghay sa –um/-um-. Ang panglaping –um/-
um- ay nawawala sa aspetong panghinaharap.
Halimbawa
Anyong Pawatas Aspetong Panghinaharap
Magsaliksik magsasaliksik
Umunlad uunlad
Yumuko yuyuko
Alatan aalatan
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Mga Pandiiwang Di- Karaniwan
Pandiwang di-karaniwan ang tawag sa mga pandiwang nagkakaroon ng mga
pagbabagong morpoponemikong pagkakaltas ng ponema o mga ponema, pagpapalit
ng ponema, metatesis.
Narito ang ilang halimbawa ng mga pandiwang di-karaniwan na may pagkakaltas
ng mga ponema.
Salitang Ugat + Panlapi Di-karaniwan Anyong Pawatas
Buhos + an buhusan busan
Dumi + han dumihan dumhan
Higit + ma.an mahigitan mahigtan
May mga halimbawa rin na ang pagbabagong nagaganap ay hindi lamang pagkakaltas
kundi nagkakaroon din ng dagdag na ponema, tulad ng dinig +-in- dinigin-dinggin
Narito naman ang ilang halimbawa ba nay metatesis o paglilipat ng mga
penema. Mapapansing sa metatesis ay mayroon ding nawawalang ponema.
Salitang – ugat + Panlapi di- Karaniwan Anyo ng Pawatas
Atip + -an atipan aptan
Silid + -an silidan sidlan
Tanim + pag-..-an pagtaniman pagtamnan
Ang mga sumusunod na halimbawa naman ay mga pandiwang may ponema o
mga ponemang napapalitan ng ibang ponema.
Salitang Ugat + Panlapi Di Karaniwan Anyong Pawatas
Tawa + -han tawahan tawanan
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Halili + -han halilihan halinhan
Pawis + pag-..-an pagpawisan pagpusan
PANG-URI
Ang mga pang-rui ay salitang nagsasaad ng katangian o uri ng taom hayop,
bagay, lunan atbp. Na tinutukoy ng pangngalang o panghalip na kasama nito sa loob ng
pangungusap.
May ibat-ibang gamit ang pang-uri sa loob ng pangungusap: pang –uuring
pangngalan o panghalip, pang-uring ginagamit bilang pangngalan, at kaganapang
pansimuno.
Halimbawa:
1. Panuring ng Pangngalan
(a) Mararangal na tao ang pinagpala.
Panuring ng panghalip
(a) Kayong masigasig ay tiyak na magtatagumpay.
2. Pang-uring ginagamit bilang pangngalan
(a) Ang mapagtimpi ay malayo sa gulo
3. Pag-uring kaganapang Pansimuno
(a) Mga madasalin ang mga Pilipino.
Kayarian ng Pang-Uri
Mapapangkat sa apat na kayarian ang mga pang-uri: payak, maylapi, inuulit, at
tambalan
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Payak ang pang-uri kung binubuo ng likas na salita lamang o salitang walang
lapi.
Halimbawa:
1. Mainit ang ulo ng taong gutom.
2. Huwag kang makipagtalo sa sinumang galit.
Maylapi ang pang-uri kung binubuo ng salitang-ugat na may lapi. Tinatawag na
panlaping makapang-uri ang mga panlaping ginagamit sa pagbuo ng pang-uri
Ginagamit ang mga panlaping ka-, ma-, maka- at mala.
Halimbawa:
Kalahi kayganda
Mataas makatao
Ang pang-uring inuulit ay salitang-ugat o salitang maylapi na may paguulit.
Maaring ganap o di ganap ang pag-uulit.
Halimbawa:
PAg-uulit na ganap: (ang) puti-puti
Puting-puti
Maputing-maputi
Pag-uulit na di-ganap:- (ang) liliit
Maliit
Tambalan ang pang-uri kung binubuo ng dalawang salitang pinag-iisa. Ang mga
ganitong pang-uri ay maaring may kahulugan karaniwan o patalinghaga.
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Halimbawa:
Karaniwang Kahulugan Taus-puso biglang-yaman
Bayad-utang hilis-kalamay
Patalinghagang Kahulugan Kalatog-pinggan
Bulang-gugo
Kailanan ng Pang-uri
May tatlong kailanan ang mga pang-uri : isahan, dalawahan, at maramihan.
Anyong isahan ang ginagamit kung iisa lamang ang inilalarawan; anyong
dalawahan kung dalawa ang inilalarawan; at anyong maramihan kung higit sa dalawa
ang inilalarawan.
Halimbawa:
1. Kalahi ko siya (isahan)
2. Magkalahi kaming dalawa. (Dalawahan)
3. Magkakalahi tayong lahat. (Maramihan)
Ang anyong isahan ay naipakikita sa paggamit ng panlaping pang-isa, tulad ng
ma,ka,pang nang walang pag-uulit ng unang P o KP ng salitang ugat o walang
panandang mga, o ibang pang salitang nagsasaad ng bilang na higit sa isa.
Halimbawa:
1 Magkamukha ang magkapatid na Nica at Zsa Zsa.
2. Magsinlaki sina Dannize at Chris
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3. Magkasingganda ang damit ninyo.
Ang anyong maramihan ay naipapakita sa pamamagitan ng pantukoy na mga, sa
pag uulit ng unang P o KP ng salitang ugat o sa pag uulit ng pantig n aka sa mga
panlaping magka at magkasing ; o sa paggamit ng salitang nagsasaad ng bilang na
higit sa dalawa.
Halimbawa:
1. Mga mapagkakattiwalaang kawaksi sa bahay ang mga iyan.
2. Malilintog na ang mga butyl ng palay.
3. Magkakakulay ang mga Pilipino, Indonesyo, at Malayo
Ang pantukoy sa mga ay maaring samahan ng pang-uring may panlaping ma na
nasa anyong isahan o maramihan
Kaantasan ng kasidhian ng pang-uri
1. Lantay ang karaniwang anyo ng kasidhian ng pang uri, tulad ng mayaman, pang
araro, palabiro.
2. Katamtamang antas ay naipakita sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga salitang
medyo, bahagya, nang kaunti o sa pag uulit ng salitang ugat o dalawang pantig nito.
Halimbawa:
1. Medyo hilaw ang sinaing
2. Labis nang bahagya ang pagkain
3. Masidhi ang ikatlong antas at naipapakita sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga
panlaping napaka, nag. an, pagka at kay ; ng mga salitang lubha, masyado, totoo ,
talaga.
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Halimbawa:
1. Mataas na mataas pala ang Bundok ng Apo
2. Napakalamig pala sa Lalawigang Bulubundukin.
Hambingan ng mga Pang-uri
Pang uring pahambing ang tawag sa mga pang-uring naghahambing ng
dalawang tao, bagay, pook
Pasukdol naman ang tawag sa mga pang uring naghahambing ng higit sa dalawa.
Dalawang uri ng pang-uring pahambing:
1. Pahambing na magkatulad kung ang mga pinaghahambing ay pareho o
magkapatas ng uri o katangian. Naipapakita ito sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga
panlaping ka, sing, kasing, at ng mga salitang pampaunlad tulad ng gaya, tulad, paris,
kapwa
Halimbawa: a- Kamukha ni Mike ang ama niya.
b- Kasingganda niya ang kanyang kapatid.
2. Di-magkatulad ang hambingan kung ang mgma pinaghahambing ay hindi
magkapatas ng uri o katangian. Naipapakita ito sa pamamagitan ng mga salitang
paghahambing tulad ng kasya, di-tulad, di-gaya, di gaano.
Halimbawa: Malayo ang Kalinga kaysa Baguio kung manggaling sa Maynila.
3. Panukdulan ng pang-uri ay napakikita sa pamamagitan ng mga panlaping pinaka,
walang kasing.
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Halimbawa: a- Pinakatanyag na laro sa Pilipinas ang basketbol.
b- Walang kasing sungit ang matandang dalaga.
Mga Pamilang
Ibinibilang sa mga pang uri ang mga pamilang sapagkat ginagamit na panuring
ng pangngalang o panghalip.
Halimbawa: a- Limang malalaking kaimito ang uwi niyang pasalubong.
Ang pamilang na lima ay panuring ng pangngalang kaimito.
Mga uri ng Pamilang
Pamilang na Patakaran o Pamilang na Kardinal
Ang pamilang na panunuran ay ginagamit sa pagpapahayag ng pagkakasunod-sunod
ng tao, bagay, atbp may panlapi itong ika-, o pang-.
Halimbawa:
Pamilang na Patakaran o Pamilang na Kardinal
Isa siyam labinpito
Dalawa sampu labingwalo
Tatlo labing-isa labinsiyam
Apat labindalawa dalawampu
Pamilang na panunuran
Anyong Ika- Anyong Pang-
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Una pang-una
Ikalawa pangalawa
Ikatlo pangatlo
Ang mga pamilang na patakaran ay batayan ng iba pang pang-uring pamilang: (1)
Pamilang na pamamahiga (fraction). (2) pamilang na palansak o pangkat-pangkat
(collective-distributive) at (3) pamilang na pahalaga (unitary collective)
PANG-ABAY
Ang pang-abay ay nagbibigay turing sa pandiwa, pang-uri, pandiwari at iba pang
pang-abay. Ang pang-abay ay nahahati sa ibat ibang uri: 1. Pamanahon, 2. Panlunan,
3. Pamaraan, 4. Panggaano, 5. Pang-agam, 6. Pananggi at panang-ayon, at 7. Panulad
Pang-abay na pamanahon
Ang pang-abay na pamanahon ay karaniwang nagbibigay turing sa pandiwa at
pang-uri at nagsasaad ng panahon. Sinasagot ng pang-abay ang tanong na “kalian”.
Halimbawa : Ang pangulo ay dumating kahapon.
Masaya kagabi ang tatay.
Ang iba pang mga pang-abay na pamanahon ay gaya ng: mindan bukas,
Kamakalawa, ngayon,dati, lagi, bihira at iba pang mga salitat pariralang nagsasaad ng
panahon.
Pang-abay na panalunan
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Ito ay pang-abay na sumasagot sa tanong na “saan” at madalas na
nagbibigay- turing sa pandiwa at pang-uri.
Halimbawa: Dito nakatira ang guro nina Teodora.
Si Lyn ay maligaya roon ngunit siyay malungkot ditto.
Pang-abay na pamaraan
Ang pang-abay na ito ay nagsasabi kung paano ang pagganap na
binabanggit sa pandiwa. Ang mga pang-uring inuunlapian ng “ma” ay ginagamit ding
pang-abay na pamaraan.
Halimbawa: Ang manlalaro ay patakbong umalis.\
Marahang lumapit ang pulis at hinuli ang magnanakaw.
Pang-abay na panggaano
Karamihan sa mga pang-abay na itoy mga pang-uri rin. Sinasaklaw ng uring ito
and “dami” na binabanggit sa pandiwa. Nagbibigay turing din ang pang-abay na ito sa
pang-uri.
Halimbawa: Ang bata ay busog na, huwag mo na siyang pilitin.
Maraming sinba ang matalas na babae ngunit ang kausap ay hindi man lamang
sumagot gaputok man.
Pang-abay na pang-agam
Kapag ang nilalaman ng pandiwa o pang-uriy nagkakaroon ng diwa ng pag-
aalinglangan at di-katiyak, ang pang-abay na pang-agam ay ginagamit.
Halimbawa Sasama marahil ang ama ni Gliza sa pagdiriwang.
Ang kalahok ay tila nahihiya sa mga tao.
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Pang-abay na pananggi at panang-ayon
Ang pang-abay na pananggi ay nagbibigay-turing sa pandiwa at pang-uri at ang
diwang isinasaad ay pag-ayaw o kayay pagtanggi.
Halimbawa: Huwag kayong mabahala at tutuparin nila ang kan ilang
pangako.
Ayaw magluto ni Nanay sa dahilang siyay bumili na lamang ng pagkain sa
restaurant.
Ang pang-abay na panang-ayon ay nagsasaad ngn pagsang-ayon at pagkatig sa
kahulugang binabanggit sa pandiwa at pang-uri
Halimbawa: Oo, nakalampas na si Crispin sa mahigpit na pagsusulit.
Tunay na maligaya na ngayon ang mag-anakk na Dioneda
Pang-abay na panulad
Ang pang-abay na panulad ay ginagamit sa paghahambing ng kilos o galaw ng
pandiwa o kayay paghahambing ng mga pang-uri.
Halimbawa: Lalong nasasayahan si Gloria ditto sa Maynila kaysa lalawigan.
Si Mang Pedro ay higit na mayaman kaysa kay Aling Juana.
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MGA PANG-UGNAY
PANG-UKOL
Ang pang-ukol na panulad ay nag-uugnay sa pangalang o panghalip sa ibang
mga salita sa pangungusap. Ang pang-ukol ay maaring isang salita o kayay dalawang
salita.
Pang-ukol na isang salita
Halos “sa” lamang ang siyang ginagamit na pang-ukol na isang salita. Ginagamit
din kung minsan ang “ng”
Halimbawa: Ang mga pagkain ay inilagay na sa mesa.
Ang alagang aso ay pumanhik ng (sa) bahay.
Pang-Ukol na Dalawang Salita
Halimbawa: Ang mga ala-alang ito ay para sa iyong ina.
Ayon sa balita, nagkaroon dawn g mahigpit na pagtatalo sa Kongreso
Ang pang-ukol na sinusundan ng pangngalan o panghalip ay siyang bumubuo ng
pariralang pang-ukol.
Halimbawa: sa bahay ukol sa iyo
Bahay na may ilaw punong may bunga
PANGATNIG
Ang pangatnig ay nag-uugnay ng kapwa salita, parirala at sugnay. Ang
pangatnig ay maaring panimbang, paninsay, panubalim pamukod, pananhi, at panapos.
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Pangatnig na panimbang
Tinatawag na panimbang ang pangatnig na ginagamit kapag ang dalawangsalita,
parirala o sugnay na pinag-uugnay ay magkasing-halaga o magkasintimbang. Kabilang
sa mga ito ang at, saka, at saka.
Halimbawa: Ang palatuntunan ay sinimulan ngunit wala ang panauhing
tagapagsalita.
Si Lourdes ay dadalo sa ating kasal bagaman masama ang kanyang loob.
Pangatnig na panubali
Ito ay nag-uugnay ng mga kaisipang pasumala o may pasubali.
Halimbawa: Pag nasira ka sa iyong pangako, sila ay hindi na maniniwala sa iyo.
Kung ikaw ay dadalo sa handaan, tumawag k asana kay Elisa.
Pangatnig na pamukod
Ang pangatnig na itoy nagbubukod ng dalawa o mahigit na tao bagay na
binibigyang linaw.
Halimbawa: Si Nestor ba o ikaw ang kandidato.
Ni ikaw ni ako ay hindi dadalo sa handaan.
Pangatnig na pananhi
Ginagamit ang pangatnig na ito kapag ang diwang iniugnay ay isang
pangangatwiran o isang kadahilanan ng binananggit sa inuugnayan.
Halimbawa: Dahil sa malayo ang bahay sa simbahan, ang mga bata ay madalas
na hindi makasimba
Si Felisa ay nahinto sa pag-aaral pagkat napaalis sa pina-pasukan ang kanyang
ama.
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Pangatnig na panlinaw
Ang pangatnig na panlinaw ay nag-uugnay sa isang kaisipang nagpapaliwanag
sa ibang mga bagay na binabanggit o binanggit na.
Halimbawa: Ang sabi nilay wala na sa talaan ng tanggapan ang iyong pangalan,
samakatwid inalis ka na nila sa iyong Gawain.
Pawang masama ang kanilang ginagawa at sinasabi, kung gayon nararapat
nang paalisin sila sa lalong medaling panahon.
Ang iba pang mga pangatnig na panlinaw na lalong gamitin ay: alalaong baga,
alalaong sana, sa katagang sabi, sa tahasang sabi at iba pa na pawing binubuo ng
mahigit sa isang salita.
Pangatnig na panapos
Kapag ang diwang iniuugnay ay nagsasaad ng kawakasan, ang pangatnig na
ginagamit ay pangatnig na panapos.
Halimbawa: Nayari na ang lahat ng Gawain sa loob ng linggong ito, at at saw
akas kami ay makauuwi na.
Ang mga dala-dalahay makahanda nang lahat, sa lahat ng uti, nagpapaalan na
kami sa inyo.
PANDAMDAM
Ang pandamdam ay isang bahagi ng panalitang nagpapahayag ng damdaming
di karaniwan. Maaring isang kataga, salita o lipon ng mga salita ang isang pandamdam.
Halimbawa: Ay! Hanggang kalian pa kaya ang hirap na ito.
Mabuhay! Tiyak na siya ang panalo.
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Ano k aba! Bakit ka nakatulala?
SUGNAY AT PARIRALA
ANG SUGNAY ay kalipunan ng mga salitang may simuno at panag-uri na maaring may
buong diwa o di-buong diwa.
1. Sugnay na makapag-iisa- may simuno at panaguri na may diwa.
Halimbawa: 1. Nang si Leo ay dumating
2. Sapagkat siyay nanalo
2. Sugnay na di-makapag-iisa – may simuno at panaguri ngunit walang buong diwa
Halimbawa: 1. Umawit siya.
2. Mabalis silang magtrabaho.
ANG PARIRALA ay lipon ng mga salitang walang simuno at panaguri. May ibat ibang
uri ito ayon sa kayarian.
1. Pariralang pang-ukol- binubuo ng pang-ukol na sa at layon
( pangngalan o panghalip)
Halimbawa: 1. Sa Legaspi
2. Ng ibon
3. hinggil sa tubig
2. Pariralang pawatas – binubuo ng pantukoy at pawatas na pandiwa
(may panalapi)
Halimbawa: 1. Sa nanatili
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2. Ang mga tumayo
3. Ang mga lumabas
3. Pariralang pangngalang-diwa – binubuo ng pantukoy at pangngalang
pandiwa (pag+salitang ugat)
Halimbawa: 1. Sa pagtuklas
PANITIKAN
Ang salitang Tagalog na panitikan ay galling sa unlaping pang (na nagiging pan-
kapag ang kasunod na salita ay nagsisimula sa d, l , r , s, t sa ugat ng titik (letra) na
nawawalan ng simulang T sa pagkakasunod sa pan; at sa hulaping an, samakatuwid:
ugat na dating litera na ang kahulugan ay letra o titik.
Ayon kay Hon. Asarias sa kanyang aklat na “Pilosopia ng Literatura”, ang
panitikan ay pagpapahayag ng mga damdamin ng tao hinggil sa mga bagay-bagay sa
daigdig, sa pamumuhay at pamahalaan at sa kaugnayan ng kaluluwa sa Bathalang
Lumikha.
Mga Impluwensya sa Panitikan
1. Klima
2. Gawain
3. Kinatitirha
4. Lipunan at Pulitika
5. Relihiyon at Edukasyon
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Labindalawang Kilalang Akda sa Buong Daigdig
1. ANG BANAL NA KASULATAN- mula sa Palestina at Gresya na nagging batayan sa
sangkakristiyanuhan
2. Ang QUR’AN- banal na aklat ng mga Muslim na galling sa Arabia
3. ANG ILIAD AT ODYSSEY- ni Homer, batayan ng kaligiran ng mitolohiya o
paalamatan ng Gresya.
4. ANG MAHABHARATA ng India, kasaysayan ng mga dating Indo at ng kanilang
pananampalataya.
5. ANG DIVINA COMEDIA – ni Dante ng Italya, na nagtataglay ng ulat hinggil sa
pananampalataya, moralidad at pag-uugali ng panahon ng kinauukulan
6. ANG EL CID CAMPEADOR – ng Espanya, nagpapahayag ng katangian panlahi ng
mga kastila at ng kanilang alamat at kasaysayang pambansa noong unang panahon.
7. ANG SONG OF ROLAND – kinapapalooban ng Roncesvalles at Doce Pares ng
Pransya na nagsasalaysay ng gintong panahon ng kakristyanuhan at ng dating makulay
na kasayasayan ng mga Pranses.
8. ANG BOOK OF THE SUN (ANACLETS) – ni Confucius, nagging batayan ng
pananampalataya, kalinangan at karurunungan ng mga Intsik.
9. ANG BOOK OF THE DEAD – Ehipto, na kinapapaalaman ng Kulto ni Osiris mga
mitolohiiya at teolohiyang Ehipsyo.
10. ANG 1001 TALES OF ARABIAN NIGHTS – ng Arabiaat Persya, na nagsasaad ng
mga ugaling pampamahalaan, panlipunan, pangkabuhayan at panrelihiyon ng mga
Silanganin.
11. ANG CANTERBURRY TALES – Chaucer, sa Inglatera, na naglalarawan ng
pananampalataya at pag-uugali ng mga Ingles noong unang panahon.
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12. ANG UNCLE TOMS CABIN- ni Harriet Beecher Stowe, ng Estados Unidos na
nakatawag ng pansin sa karumaldumal na kalagayan ng mga alipin at nagging batayan
ng simulain ng demokrasya.
ANG AKDANG PANDULAAN NA MAKARELIHIYON
Ipinapalagay na ang dula at ang ppan-aliwang panahon ng mga Kastila ay ang
mga sumusunod
Ang Panuluyan
Ang Panuluyan ay isang uri ng dulang pang relihiyon na palaksak noong
panahon ng Kastila. Ang pinaka diwa rito ay ang paghahanap ng bahay na matutuluyan
ng mag-asawang San Jose at BIrhen Maria noong bisperas ng Pasko.
May mga bahay na sadyang ginagayakan sa ibat ibang panig ng bayan na
nasasakupan ng parokyang nagsasagawa nito. Prusisyon na taglay ang Imahen o
Larawan nina San Jose at Birheng Maria ay inihihinto sa tapat ng bahay na sadyang
ginagayakan at doon idinaraos ang pagsasagutan sa panunuluyan.
Ang Senakulo
Ang Senakulo ay isang uri ng dulang makarelihiyon na ang pinakamanuskrito ay
ang Pasyon. Itinatanghal ito kung Mahal na Araw, kadalasay nagsisimula sa Lunes
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Santo at nagtatapos ng BIyernes Santo. (Kung minsan itoy umaaboot din sa isang
ipinasdyang entablado).
Ang Moro-Moro
Ang Moro-Moro ay itinatanghal sa entablado. Dalawang pangkat ang
naghahamok dito: ang pangkat ng mga Kristiyano at pangkat ng mga Muslim.
Ang Tibag
Ang Tibag ay may kaugnay sa senakulo sapagkat itoy nauukol sa paghahanap
sa krus na kinamatayan ni Kristo sa bundok ng Kalbaryo. Ang mga tauhan ditoy sina
Emperatris/Elena at ang kanyang anak na si Emperador Constantino. Tinatawag na
Tibag din ng moro-moro, ang Tibag ay nagging kawili-wiling libangan noong una dahil
sa malimit na paglalaban ng Kristiyano at Moro.
Ang Panubong
Itoy isang mahabang tulang pang-awit bilang handog sa isang dalagang may
kaarawan. Sa tagalog itoy nangangahulugang Pamutong – dahil sa pagpuputong ng
korona ng mga bulaklak sa dalaga.
Ang Ensilada
Ang Ensilada ay isang paligsahan sa pagtula bilang pang aliw sa namatyan. Itoy
ginagawa ng gabi gabi habang nagsisiyam sa namatay. Bago maglaro ang mga
kalahok binibigyan ng pangalan ang mga lalaki. Ang paglalaro ay sa pamamagitan ng
pagtula, pag-awit, o paghalik sa kamay sa lahat ng kalahok.
Ang Awit
Sinasabing dinala ng mga Kastila rito ang isang uri ng panitikang hawig kay
Miguel de Cervantes na “Don Quijote de la Mancha”. Nang sumapit ito sa kapuluang
Pilipinas, ang romansang patulang ito ay nahati sa dalawa na kung tawagin ay awit at
kurido.
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Ang awit ay isang uri ng tulang binubuo ng labindalawang pantig bawat taludtod
sa isang saknong at kung inaawit ay marahan o “andante”. Ang kagandahan ng awit ay
walaa sa kasaysayan o kuwento kundi nasa magandang aral, maririkit na mga talinhaga
at mga piling salita. Ang “Florante at Laura” ay siyang pangunahing halimbawa ng awit.
Ang kurido namang ay binubuo ng walong pantig bawat taludtod ng isang
saknong at inaawit ito ng mabilis o “allegro”. Ang mga kurido ay kilala sa kagandahan
ng kuwento o kasaysayan. Isang mabuting halimbawa nito ay ang “Ibong Adarna”
MGA BANTOG NA MAKATA
Tatlong makatang napabantog sa larangan ng panulaang pang aliwan, sina
Francisco Baltazar, Jose dela Cruz, at Ananias Zorilla. Ang tatlong itoy malimit
banggjiting “tungkod” ng tulang Tagalog ng panahong ito.
Jose Dela Cruz
Ang makatang itoy kilala sa tawag na “Husing Sisiw” sa dahilang sisiw ang mga
kanyang hihingin bayad sa mga nagpapatulong sa kanya sa paggawa ng tula. Sa mga
kilalang katha ni Husing Sisiw ay kabilang ang HIstoria Famoso ni Bernardo Carpio at
ang Doce Pares de Francia.
Francisco Baltazar (Balagtas)
Nag-aral si Francisco Balagtas sa Colegio de San Jose ng Canones o batas ng
simbahan, Gramatica, Latina, Doktrina Kristiana, Humanidades Teolohiya at Felosopia.
Nag-aral din siya sa San Juan de Letran, Sinulat niya ang walang kamatayang “Florante
at Laura”, kung saan tinawag niyang “Celia si Maria Asuncion Rivera. Naging huwis
batsilet siya sa Bataan at napangasawa si Juana Tiambeng. Sinulat din niya ang mga
bantog na : La Indiia Elegante y El Negrito amante, isang saynete, Almanzor Y
Rosalinda, Mahomet at Constancia, Don nuno at Zelinda at iba pa.
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TULA
Marami ang naibigay na pakahulugan sa tula, subalit ayon kay Julian Cruz
Balmaceda, ang tula ay isang kaisipang naglalarawan ng kagandahan, ng kariktan, ng
kadakilaan : tatlong bagay na kailangang magkatipun-tipon sa isang kaisipan upang
maangkin ang karapatang matawag na tula.
Kabilang sa mga kilalang makata sa panahong ito sina Teodoro A. Agoncillo (“Sa
Dalampasigan”, “REpublikang Basaha”) Manuel Principe Bautista (“Diwang Pilipino”)
Bienvenido A. Ramos (“Ito ang Ating Panahon”) , Ruben Vega (“Sa Pagkaparool”)
Lamberto E. Antonio (“ Sangsipil na Unay”) Bienvenido Lumbera (“Sunog sa Lipa”)
Teo T. Antonio (“Maskara at Mahika”) Mar Al Tiburcio (“Mga Talababa ng Panahon”)
Rolando S. Tinio (“Mahabang Kuwento”), at ang mga sumusunod na may aklat-
katipunan o namatnugot ng mga katipunan ng tula: Crio H. Panganiban (Salamisim),
Basilio Sarmiento ( Sagimsin), Inigo Ed Regalado (Damdamin), Aniceto F. Silvestre
(Kalikasan), Rufino Alejandro (Pangitain; Kudyaping Banyaga-salin nila Federico Licsi
Espino), Jose Villa Panganiban ( Mga Butil na Perlas; Tanaga, Haiku,Pantun; salin ni
Julio Caesar)
INIGO ED. REGALADO
Si Iñigo Ed. Regalado, mamahayag, patnugot, kuwentista, nobelista at makata
ay may aklat-katipunan ng mga tula, ang Damdamin, na nahahati sa limang uri: Sa
Pag-ibig, Sa panibugho, Sa Talambuhay, Sa Bayan; Sa Buhay.
Kabilang sa “Sa Bayan” ang “ SA may Dakong Bukid” narito ang ibang bahagi:
Anupat ang lahat sa aking paningin ay mutayang larawang may sariling
ningning, ang ayon ko pala at ang Bayan natin ay may katutubo sa sariling Atin, kung
tinatahak man ng hapong –damdamin nangungubli lamang, hindi nalalaing. “Sa Buhay”
naman galling ang “Ang Ganda ng Lahi” na ang ilang bahagi ay sinipi rito. Sa Dinami-
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dami ng ipinupula ng padpad ng agos sa dalampasigan ng di makalayang Bayan ng
Tagalog; sa dinami-dami ng iniiwan ng sundalo ng salot sa pusong Malaki, wagas at
dakila ng lahi kong irog; sa dinami-dami ng isinira ng labing hinubog sa ibang ugali, sa
sariling Diwa.
ANICETO F. SIVESTRE
Ayon sa makata at gurong si Rufino Alejandro, ang tradisyon at modernism ay
ang mga landas na nagsalikup at ang tagpo sa tulaan o panulaan ng makatang sii
Aniceto F. Sivestre sa tulang apat na unang gantimpala bago nagkadigma, ikatlong
gantimpala sa Republika, at unang gantimpala sa Palangka o Palanca noong 1969.
Ang mga tula niya sa katipunang kalikasan ay pinag pangkat-pangkat sa mga
sumusunod: 1. Malaya, 2. Maalindog, 3. Larawan ng buhay 4. Pintig ng pag-ibig, 5.
Tatag ng pananalig, 6. Tanda ng pag-asa, 7. Batas sa Landas ng Kadakilaan, 8. Dugo
sa Ningning ng Araw.
TEODORO A. AGONCILLO
Pangunahing manunulat ng kasaysayan si Teodoro A. Agoncillo – tinatawaf
siyang madamdaming mananalaysay” ni Carmen Guerrero Nakpil, kilalang manunulat
sa Ingles, marami siyang nasulat na mga salaysay na pangkasaysayan sa ibat ibang
mga magasin gaya ng panitikan, Diwang Pilipino, atbp BUkod sa mga tula, si Agoncillo
ay nagsulat din ng mga maikling katha at sanaysay. Siya rin ang iginalang na patnugot
ng mga mar uring magasing Malaya na nauklas ng mga bagon manunulat na s
kasalukuyan ay may sarili ng pangalan sa ating panitikan.
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MANUEL PRINCIPE G. ABADILLA
Marahil ng bagong panahon na nakapagbpabago sa tulang Tagalog nang higit
karino man ay si Alejandto G. Abadilla. Isinilang siya sa KAbite ngunit sa MAynila higit
na nakikilala dahil sa mapanghimagsik na impkuwensya niya sa anyo at nilalaman ng
tulang Tagalog. Hindi iilang bantog na manunulat sa kasalukuyan ang napasailalim ng
kanyang kalinga at impluwensya. Ipinagpakasakit ni AGA ang kaunlaran at may-iromg
panitikan.
Sa panulaan ay tinalikuran niya ang kinamulatang sukat at tugma ng kumbesnsiyonal
na tula; sa halip ay pinalaya nila ang o pinalaganap nila ang malayang taludturan at ang
mapaghimagsik na diwa ng impersyonismo
ANG PANITIKANG PILIPNO
BAGONG DUMATING ANG MGA KASTILA
Ayon sa mga taong gumawa ng pananaliksik sa ksaysayan ng matandang
kultura ng Pilipinas ang naggpapatoo na ang mga Pilipino ay mayroon ng panitikang
bago dumating sa mga pulong it ang mga Kastila. Isang KAstilang mananalaysay na
nagngangalang Las Casas ang nagsabi na “ang mga KAstila ay maraming nakuhang
“akda” na pawing gawa ng ditablo, at ang mga iyon ay sinuong nila bilang isang aral sa
mga nalalabubuang taong-bayan” Ang pinaka-papel ng mga Pilipino noon ay ang mga
“Kawayan o kayay mga dahong palaspas ,at ang pinaka-panulat nila ang dulo ng isang
lansita o iba pang bahagi ng kawayan … “ SA kasigasigan ng mga paring Kastila at
hangad nilang maopalaganap sa lalong medaling panahon ang Pananampalatayang
Kristiyano, ang mga nasusulat na matandang panitikang Pilipino ay sinira.
Sa mga naiwang labi ng matandang panitikang Pilipino, na nakaligtas sa
pamiminsala at paninira ng tao, ay kabilang ang mga bugtong at kasabihan, nga
salawikain, mga awit sa pamamangka (gaya ng “suliranin” at talindaw”). “Diona”
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“Awit” at iba pa) isang uri ng komedya (na ibat ibang anyo, gaya ng “duplo”, karagatan”
at dalit) ang awit- pandigma (ang tinatawag na “kumintang” “tikam”, at “Tagumpoay” ) at
iba pa.
Ang matandang panitikang moroy may iniingatang daranga, o mga tulang-Epiko,
gaya ng “Bantugan:. Indapatra at Sulayman”, at iba pa, at gayon din ang mga Ipugaw.
Ang mga Bisaya naman ay may Katipinan ng mga Batas ni Kalantiaw.
1. mga kantahing-bayan
2. mga kuwentong-bayan
3. mga karunungang-bayan
PANAHON NG KASTILA
Bagama’t narrating ni Magallanes ang Pilipinas noong Marso 17,1521, itinuturing
naman ang pananakop ng mga Kastila ay nagsimula lamang noong taong 1565 kung
saan itinatag ni Legaspi ang unang Kastilang pamayanan sa Cebu. Dito sa panahong
ito nagsimula ang kasaysayan ng panahon ng Kastila.
Maraming pangyayaring pangkasaysayan ang nasasalig sa pag-aaral nating ng
panitikang Pilipino sa panahong ito, tulad ng unang pangunahing hangarin ng mga
Kastila ang palaganap ang relihiyong Katoliko Romano sa buong kapuluan, mapalawak
ang hanapbuhay at ganon din ang layuning mapalawak ang mga nasasakupang lupain.
Si Villalobos ang nagbigay ng pangalang “Filipinas” sa ating kapuluan, bilang
pagparangal sa nuoy Haring Felipe II ng Espanya, at sapagkat di-bihasang bumigkas
ng “F” ang mga katutubo ang nagging palasak ay “Pilipinas” sa Hapip na Filipinas”
Nang nagging GObernador HEneral si Narciso Claveria (1848) ay nagbunsod
siya ng maraming pagbabago na nagging dahilan upang ang pag0uugali maging ng
pamumuhay ng mga tao ay sumunod sa ngayon sa kanyang palatuntunang
pampamahalaan at mamayan at ang malawakan pagpapabinyag sa mga katutubo
upang maging mga Kristiyano.
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Bunga nito, unti unting nawala ang kaugaliang paghahandog ng mga pruta, mga
hayop, maging ng maliit na bata sa mga diyos-diyosan o mga anitong kanilang
pinaniwalaan at pagsasama ng mga taong walang kasal.
Matatandaan pa rin na noong 19 na siglo, matapos mabuksan ang Pilipinas sa
pandaigdig na kalakalan, nagtamasa ng kasaganaan ang mga tao, nakapagtayo sila ng
tahanang mga konkreto, nakapagsuot ng ibat ibang uri ng kasuutan at mga alahas na
yari sa ibang bansa at nalagyan nila ang mgamuwebles ang kani kanilang mga
tahanan tulad ng piyano at magagarang kagamitan o kasangkapan.
Nakapaglalakbay sila na lulan ng noong wala pa sila sa ilalim ng panahon ng
kapangyarihan ng Kastila. Nagkaroon din sila ng pangkakataong makabasa ng mga
aklat at pahayagan galling sa Europa, magdikurso tungkol sa mga problema ng
gobyerno, at higit sa lahat ay napag-aral nila ang mga anak nila sa mahuhusay na
kolehiyo sa Maynila at sa ibat ibang bansa man.
PANAHON NG MGA AMERIKANO
Nawagi ang mga Pilipinong mapaghimagsik laban sa mga kastila. Nagkaroon
tayo ng kalayaan, noong ika-12 ng HUnyo, 1898 at ang nagging unang pangulo ay so
Heneral Emilio Aguinaldo, suibalit ang lahat ang ito ay panandalian lamang sapagkat
tayo sinakop ng mga Amerikano.
Naigupo ng mga Amerikano an gating republikang itinatag at napasuko nila an
gating mga kababayang mapaghimagsik stulad ni Hen. Miguel Malvar noong 1903,
subalit ang diwa ng damdaming makabayan ay hindi nakuhan igupo ng sandatahang
amerikano. HIgit pang naging maalab ang pagmamahal sa ating bayan.
Mapapatunayan at mabbasa ito sa panitikang namamalaksak noon.
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Halos ang lagat ng larangan nito ay pinasok n gating manunulat tulad ng tula, talumpati,
sanaysay, kuwento, dula at iba pa. Maliwanag na mababasa sa kanilang mga akda ang
pag-ibig sa bayan, inaasam na kasarinlan ng bansang Pilipino at ang pagtutol sa
kolonyalismo.
Nagsimula ang masiglang kilusan sa larangan ng panitikan sa mga sumusunod
na pahayagn:
1. En Nuevo Dia- nangangahulugan “bagong araw” na itinatag ni Setgio
Osmena noong 1900. BInalaan ditto si Osmena at ang kanyang mga kasamahan na
nagsusulat na ipatapon dahil sa mga lathalang makabayan. Makalawang ipinatigil ng
mga sensor na Amerikano ang pagpalahala nito.
2. El Grito del Pueblo – nangangahulugang “Ang sigaw ng Bayan” ay itinatag
naman ni Pascual Poblete noong 1900
3. El Renacimiento – itinatag noong 1901 ni Rafael Palma sa Tagalog ay
“Muling Pagsilang”
Maraming mga akda ang nasulat na tumutuligsa sa pamahalaang Amerikano sa
bansa, ilan ditto ay ang mga sumusunod:
1. WALANG SUGAT – 1902- ni Severino Reyes
2. TANIKALANG GINTO – Juan Abad
3. MALAYA – ni Tomas Remegio
4. KAHAPON, NGAYON AT BUKAS ni Aurelio Tolentino. Nasakdal sa salang
sedisyon ang may akda nito.
May mga itinatag na kapisanan o samahan ang mga manunulat sa Tagalog nang
panahong yaon, tulad ng
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1. Samahan ng mga Mananagalog
2. Aklatang Bayan
3. Ilaw at PAnitikan o Panitik
4. AKademya ng Wikang Tagalog
5. Diwa ni Rizal
5. Kapulungang Balagtas
Sa mga unang taon pa rin ng pananakop ng mga Amerikano, ang mga wikang
ginagamit sa panulat ay Kastila, Tagalog. Kapampangan, Iloko, Bikol, Bisaya, at iba
pang wikain n gating kapuluan. At I nga naglaon, ay bigla ring pumailanlang ang Ingles.
Sa kasalukuyan, ang mga naging taluktok na wikang ginagamit sa pagpapahayag ng
diwat damdaming makabayan sa larangan ng panitikan ay an gating tatlong opisyal na
wika,ang Kastila, Tagalog at Ingles.
ANG PANAHON NG HAPONES
Nang sakupin ang Pilipinas ng mga Sandatahang Hukbong HApones, mabiis na
ipinagbawal ng mga mananakop ang paggamit ng wikang Ingles. Nakabuti naman para
sa ating mga manunulat at muling nagkaroon ng pagkakataong magamit an gating hindi
maikakailang ginamit nilay ang wikang maka- INGles. Sa maikling panahon ay lubusang
ipinaturo sa paaralan ang wikang pambansa. Ang mga paksain ng mga sulatin tulad ng
mga kuwentp, tula, dula, sanaysay at iba pa ay natutungkol sa buhay sa lalawigan mga
katutubong kullay mga uri ng pamumuhay. Hindi rin pinahihintulutang ipalabas ang mga
pelikulang Amerikano. Hindi gaanong namala ang mga nobela at iba pang mahabang
sulatin dahil sa kakapusan mga kagamitan sa pagsulat. Ang LIwayway at ang Taliba
ang nag bukas ng pagkakataong maipalathala ang mga tula at kuwento. Nakatulong ito
sa mga manunulat at makata, bagaman hindi kubhan matatas sa Tagalog. Ang isa sa
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pinakamahisay sumulat nang maayos at mabisa sa Tagalog ay si Juan C. Laya na
naging tanyag sa larangan ng Panitikang Tagalog.
PANAHON NG IKATLONG REPUBLIKA
Tinupad ni Heneral Douglas MacArthur ang kanyang pangakong muling
magbalik sa Pilipinas. Ang mga Pilipino na karamihan ay nasa kabundukan ng bansa ay
nagsipagdiwang sa muling pagbabalik na ito ng mga Amerkano. Ang mga gerilyang
namundok ng tatlo o mahigit pang taon ay kasama-sama ng hukbong mapaglayang
Amerikano
Ngunint ang ligaya na bayan sa muling pagbabalik ng mga Amerikano ay hindi
agad nakapagbigay ng tinig sa panitik sapagkat ang mga akdang pandaigidig ng mga
kawal at ng bagong pamahalaan, mga akdang gutom na nilamon ng manunulat ay
pawing mga katangian at kasulungang hindi karugtong ni gahibla n gating inspirasyong
nalagot noong 1941, kayat kinakailangan ang isang taong muling pag aaral at
pagsasanay ng mga manunulat bago magkamayaw at magkatinig an gating panitik.
Sang-ayon sa pagsusuri nina Jose Villa Panganivan at Consuelo Torre
Panganiban sa kanilang aklat Panitikan ng Pilipinas, ipinagbatid nila na sa panahong
ito, ang panitikang Pilipino ay nahaharap sa malaking suliranin sapagkat ang manunulat
na akda “Ang panitikang ito ay isinusulat ayon sa kung gaano ang makukuhang
gantimpala, ang manunulat,b bago pa sumulat ng bago ng akda, ay nag-iisip muna
kong anong masasabing walang wala nang sinumang nagtataglay ng pag ibig sa sining
ng panulat . Ang kapansin-pansing pangyayari sa Panitikang Pilipino sa panahong ito
ay ang pagsipot sa larangan ng panulat ng kabataang nag aaral sa pamantasan at ang
pagpasok nila sa sariling panulatan ng mgapamantayan ng PAnitikang Pandaigdig.
Subalit ang mga nagiging uliramg manunulat ay ang mga Amerikano katulad nina
Ernest Hemingway, Wilam Saroyon, at John Steineback, na oo nga at paksang hinggil
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sa sex, ang paksang ito ay hindi kilala o sadyang hindi kinikilala ng mga manunulat
noong araw, maliban sa ilang ilang gaya ni Jose Garcia Villa na naparusahan sa
kanyang kapangahasan.
Ang panunulad kina Hemingway ,Sarayon at Stenbeck ay nagbigay ng ideand
mapaghimagsik at pangahas sa panitikang Pilipino. Sa kanilang akla na ang Panitikang
Ongoco ang suliran sa wika na siya ding pinakasakit ng bansa sa mga panahong ito.
Ang suliran sa wika na di dapat mamayani sa isang bansang nagsasarili ay isang
scenario o larawan ng kahungkagan n gating pamahalaan. Ang batay sa Tagalog na
Wikang Pilipino ay pambuntot lamang sa Ingles sa pagkawikang pambansa. At alang
alang sa pagkalinangang kahapon ay patuloy na itinuro sa paaralan ang wikang Kastila.
Sa may walongpo na wikang sinasalita ng mga dalawamput walong milyong Pilipino
ayon sa senso ng 1960, 44.5% ang nagsasalita ng Tagalog samantalang 39.5 ang
gumagamit ng Ingles 2% ang Kastila. Gayunman, ang wika ng pamahalaan ay Ingles.
Ang lahat ng pang-ulo o heading ng mga papel pangkomuniskasyon hanggang
pangwawakas ay sa Ingleses nakasulat. Maging ang mga kautusan mula sa kagawaran
ng Pagtuturo na ipinag diwang ang Linggo ng Wikang Pambansa ay sa Ingles
nakasulat”.
Ang wikang ay may malaking bias sa kaisipang – bansa, sa disiplinang
pambansa dahil sa patuloy na paggamit sa Ingles na wikang panturo, ang Filipino First”
ng Pangulong Macapagal ay naging hungkag, sapagkat sa wikang opisyal ng bansa, ay
nakapagbasa sa pagka-Pilipino, di lamang sa paningin ng dayuhan kundi sa paningin
na rin ng Pilipino.
\ Dahil sa wika, ang tinatawag na universal education, o pag-aaral na para sa
lahat ay gaya lamang sa panahon o sa turing. Ang edukasyong pormal ay para lamang
sa mga may salaping maitutustos hanggang makatapos ng karera o propesyon. Ang
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libu-libong umalis na mababang paaralan matapos ang ikalawa o ikatlong baytang ay
nakalilimot sa kanilang wikang sinimulan o sisimulan palang nilang matutuhan at
nababalik sa pagka-illiterate sa wikang ito, at maging sa sariling wika.kung minsan”,
Sa kabilang dako, inulat pa rin nin Pineda-Pineda-Ongco: “Mula ng bumalik ang
hukbong tagapagpalaya ng Amerika hanggang sab ago magka martial law sa Pilipinas
ay laganap sa pamahalaan ang katiwalian. Kung sa bagay, ang katiwalian ay itinatak sa
atin ng mga Kastila na siyang nagsimula sa Sistema ng padrino at suhol”.
Ito ang larawan ng buhay sa Pilipinas, ang ikalawang digmaang Pandaigdig at
hanggang sab ago magkaMartial Law (1972) sa Pilipinas. At sa kapaligirang ito
nagsimulang lumikha ng piling akda an gating manunulat. Ang labi ng Digma at larawan
ng Pilipinas matapos ang Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig ang naging ispirasyon ng
mga manunulat sa kanilang mga kuwento, tula, dula, na binigyang buhay sa mga drama
sa radio at sa mga pelikula at nitong huli ay sa telebisyon.
PANITIKAN SA KASALUKUYAN
Kakaibang panahon ito sas mga nakaraang panahon ng panitikan. Higit na
nalantad ang mga Pilipipno sa pelikula, telebisyo, tanghalan, radio, pahayagan, at ibat
ibang babasahin. Hindi gaanong napag-ukulan ng pansin ang mga maikling kuwento at
tula sa mga aklat. Unting-unting umuusbong ang pagsulat ng nobela na ang karaniwang
paksa ay pag-ibig. Ito ay isinaaklat at ipinagbibili sa haling P30.00 bawat sipi. Napilitan
lamang na basahin ang mga tula at maikling kuwento dahil sa kailangan itong talakayin
ng mga guro at mag aaral sa paaralan.
Batay sa isang pag-aaral, ang Pilipinas ang nangungunang bansa na may pinaka
mataas na bahagdan o porsyento ng mamamayan na madalas manood ng pelikula.
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Ang mga sumusunod ay mga posibleng dahilan ng pagka hilig ng mga Pilipino sa
pelikula.
1. Ito ang pinakamurang uri ng libangan at isang paraan sandaling paglimot sa
mabibigat na suliranin.
2. Nahihilig sila rito dahil sa kadalasang ang tema nito ay di nalalayo sa kanilang
bahay.
3. Isa sa impluwensya ng mga Kastila sa mga Pilipino ay ang pagiging panatiko.
Naging kaligayan na nila na mapanood ang mga iniidolong artista sa harap ng malaking
“screen”
4. Bagamat di lahat ng sinehan ay “air-conditioned”, naangkop ang lugar na ito
para maka-relaks.
May mga positibo at negatibong epekto ang pelikula sa tao. Unahin natin ang mga
positibo:
a. Nakapupulot sila ng aral sa napanood na pelikula
b. Napapalawak ang kanilang kaalaman sa kasaysayan ng bansa.
c. Napapahalagahan nila ang buhay.
d. Bahagyang nakatutulong ito sa ating kalusugan.
ANG DI-MAGANDANG EPEKTO
NG PELIKULA SA TAO AY:
a. Nakapupulot sila ng masamang tekniko tungo sa masamang Gawain.
b. Ginigising ang maka-mundong kaisipan na humahantong sa kriminalidad.
c. Bumaba ang kanilang antas ng pang-unawa.
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d. NAwawala o kundi man ay bumaba ang pagpapahalang ispiritual, moral at
pansarili.
Sa mga epektong nabanggit isa lamang ang maaring mangyari o maging
konklusyon: nangahulugan lamang na mayroon tayong mahusay at basurang pelikula
sa kasalukuyan. Kung ating susuriin ang mga pelikula, malaking bahagdan ditto ay
nahihinghil sa pagmamasaker o kriminalidad tulad ng panggagahasa, pagkidnapp at
pagpapahirap. Mainam kung ang mangingibabaw sa pelikula ay aral na mapupulot ng
mga manonood.
Taliwas sa inaasahan ang kinahihinatnan. Mas marami ang itinutuon sa pagpapakita ng
malaswang bahagi ng pelikula at brutal na pamamaraan ng pagpapahirap sa mga
tauhan. Karamihan sa pelikula sa pangkasalukuyan ay pangkomersyalismo ang layon.
Tinatangkilik hindi lamang dahil sa masining na pagkakagawa at kapupuluitan ng aral,
kundi sa dahilang mamamalas nila sa malaking “scree” ang paghuhubad o pagpapakita
ng katawan at bagong tekniko sa kriminalidad.
Sino ang dapat sisihin sa katayuang ito ng pelikulang Pilipino? Ang pag-unlad at
pagbasak ng pelikula ay nakasalalay di lamang sa mga producers, artista at director
kundi sa mga manonood na marunong kumilatis nang mahusay at maayos na pelikula.
Muling sumigla ang dulaang pangtanghalan sa pagwawagi ni Lea Salonga sa
ibang bansa sa “Miss Saigon”. Sa pamamagitan niya muling nakilala ang kahusayan ng
mga Filipino. Di gaanong nabigyan ng halaga ang wikang Filipino sa tanghalan, sa
dahilang lahat o nakahihigit sa dulang pangtanghalan ay hango sa istorya sa ibang
bansa.
P a g e | 164
MATHEMATICS
The Mathematics component of the General Education portion of the Licensure
Examination for Teachers include Fundamentals of Math, Plane Geometry, Elementary
Algebra, Statistics and Probability
DEVELOPING PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS
1. Understand the problem
2. Plan what to do
3. Do it
4. Look back
In planning what to do, there are a number of strategies that can be selected
from.
Following is Partial list.
1. Draw a diag ram 6. Look for a pattern
2. Guess and check 7. Solve a Simpler problem
3. Work Backwards 8. Apply logical reasoning
4. Organize a list 9. Simulation or experimentation
5. Make a table 10. Write and solve equations (s)
While the above strategies have bearing on mathematics, they are not particular
to mathematics alone. One may not need to solve any mathemitcal problems in his
adult life, but he may apply the strategies and have generality and power.
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Converntional mathematics, being concerned more with content and algorithms,
focuses on the last two strategies. Unfortunately, conventional mathematics does not
give adequate attention to the other problem-solving strategies, and therefore fails to
five a realistic flavor to the problem-solving process. Experience with a variety of
problem-solving strategies promotes the improvement of many of the processes involed
in mathematical/scientific thinking.
Experience in looking for patterns helps students develop their ability to make
generalizations on the basis of examples. Experience in drawing diagrams improves the
student’s ability to visualize ability to formulate hypotheses and conjectures. Many of the
strategies enable students to recognize and remedy errors. There are no set rules or
algorithms for solving problems that involve these processes, therefore experience in
problem solving develops the student’s capability to cope with situations about which
they have not been taught.
This collection of mathematical problems has been obtained from many sources,
has been classified for the benefit of the teacher, according to different strategies in the
list given previously. This collection should not give the impression that there is only one
way to solve a problem. A problem with sucj cataloging in mind will develop in the
teacher/supervisor some confidence in the use of each strategy and some appreciation
of its power.
Ultimately, focusing on these problem-solving strategies may convince you that
teaching mathematics is not just imparting knowledge and skills but also inculcalaing
way of looking at things, a desirable attitude of mind.
Problem
A snail is at the bottom of a 10-meter well. Each day it crawls up 3 meters, but at
night it slips down 2 meters. How many days will it take the snail to get out of the well?
Understanding the problem
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1. What is the snail doing?
2. How deep is the well? How does the depth compare to the height in this room?
Planning the solution
The drawing if the well is divided into 10 equal parts. Each part representing a
meter. The drawing shows that in 2 days the snail reaches a height of 4 meter.
1. How far up the well is the snail in 3 days? 4 days? 5days?
Guess and Check
Often when no direct procedure for a solution comes to our minds the guess-and-
check strategy keeps us from losing hope – the strategy is always applicable. This
strategy involves guessing, checking, guessing again, checking again repeating until a
reasonable answer is arrived. The first guess may be a random one, but successive
guesses should become better and better, based on results from the precious guesses.
It is in these successive “educated” guesses where careful thinking becomes a
necessary ingredient.
Problem
Ticket were sold for a school activity. Adult tickets cost P12 while student tickets
cost P8. Ana sold 14 tickets for P132. How many tickets for each type did she sell?
Understanding the Problem
1. What did Ana do?
2. Could all the tickets Ana sold have been adult ticket? All student’s tickets?
P a g e | 167
Planning the solution
We try 10 adult tickets.
This leaves 3 students ticket (i.e, 14-10).
10 adult tickets cost P120 (i.e, 8x4)
This gives a total cost of P152, more than Anas collection.
1. We make a second guess. Shall we try more than 10 adult tickets or less than 10?
2. Make a second guess. Check your guess.
3. If you still didmt get the right answer you third guess should be better. Continue
guessing, but don’t forget to check each time.
The guessing strategy may suggest an algebraic solution as shown below:
X adult ticket.
This leaves (14-x) student tickets.
X adult tickets cost 12x pesos.
(14-x) student ticket cost 8(14-x)pesos.
This gives a total cost of 12x+ 8 (14 – x) pesos.
Therefore 12x+8(14 – x) = 132
Make an organized list
The make an organized list strategy often facilitates a systematic approach to
certain types of problems. Emphasis is on the word organized, as apposed to “Random”
Problem
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The five disks shown are placed in a box and mixed. Three disks at a time are
then drawn out. The score is the sum of the numbers drawn. How many different scores
are possible?
What are the possible scores?
3 6 2 5 1
Understanding the problem
Here are pictures of few draws.
2 6 1 2 6 5 1 5 3
1. What is the score in each draw shown above?
2. The picture show 3 different draws. Are the 3 different?
3. What are the possible scores?
Planning the solution
We can make a list of draw as follows. First we list all draws that start with 3 and
6. Then we list all draws that start with 3 and 2.
The draw “ 3,2,6” was crossed out because it gives the same score as 3,6,2 So
also, “3,2,5” was crossed out since it gives the same score as , “3,6,1”
Draw | Score
____________________________________________________
3 6 2 | 11
3 6 5 | 14
3 6 1 | 10
3 2 6 | 11
3 2 5 | 6
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Draw | Score
____________________________________________
3 5 …
We continue to list all the other draws beginning with 3. In the same manner we list all
the drawings beginning with 2. Complete the table.
Make a table
The making a ble strategy often helps to organize a data of a problem. It may be
useful in relation to other strategies such as guess-and-check or look for a patten
Problem
Lita read every 100g of sea water contains 3g of salt. Using this information, how
much sea water would be needed to obtain 10g of salt?
Understanding the problem
1. How much a salt can be obtained from 200g sea water?
2. Is the relation 100g sea water to 3g salt the same as:
a) 50g sea water to 2g salt
b) 50g sea water to 1g salt
c) 30g sea water to 1g salt
d) 300g sea water to 9g salt
Planning the solutiob
Let us make a table
Sea water | 100 | 200 | 300 | 400 | 500
___________________________________________
Salt | 3 | 6 | ? | ? | ?
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Then use the information to arrive at an answer.
Look for a pattern
Look for patterns helps students develop their inductive reasoning ability –i.e
Making tentative generalizations on the basis of examples. As a start, the make a list or
make a table strategies may be used to bring up some examples; the list is not
exgaustive.
Problem
A rich neighbor gave jerry a choice of P600 for a 16 day painting job, or 1
centavo the first day, twice as much the second day, and so on, doubling the amount
each day to the 16th day. Which arrangement should jerry choose?
Understanding the problem
1. According to the double the pay plan, how much will jerry make on the second
day? The third day?
2. According to the double the pay plan, what will be jerrys total pay after two
days? After 3 days?
Planning solution
We need to find out how much jerry will make in 16 days according to the double
the pay plan. We canb make a table of the pay Jerry gets each day.
1. Continue the table a few more days
a. Do you see a patter?
b. How do we find out how much jerry will make on the 16th day?
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DAY |1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | ….
_______________________________________
Pay | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
2. We add another row to our table to record the total pay.
a. Continue the table a few more days, Do you see a pattern?
b. How do we find the total pay for 16 days?
Day | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |5 | 6 |
___________________________________________________
Pay | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
___________________________________________________
Total Pay | 1 | 3 | 7 | | |
Solve a simple problem
If you can’t solve the problem posed, try to solve a simpler related problem.
Basically, the strategy consist of breaking up a problem.
The strategy could be used together with other strategies, e.g., draw-a-pic;
Make an organized list, make a table, look for pattern.
Problem
Bener and 8 friends decided to play chess. If each of them plays one and only
with each of others, how many chess games will be played?
Understanding the problem
1. How many people are in the group?
2. How many people are involved in one chess game?
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3. Will Ben play in all the games?
4. How many games will Ben play?
Planning the solution (1)
We can make the problem sumpler by reducing the number of people in
the group.
What if there are only 2 people in the group? 3 people? 4 people?
Diagrams may help us. Here p1, p2, p3, Indicate the players and the loops indicate the
games.
P1 P2 P1 P2 P3 P1P2P3P4
2 players 3Players 4Players
1 game 3 games ?games
1. Draw a diagram for the P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 number of games among 5 players.
2. Look at the diagrams. Counting the loops gives us the number of games. Let us
arrange our information in table.
Players | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
_________________________________
Games | 1 | 3 | 6 |? | | | | |
| | | |
----- ------ ------
2 3 ?
Look at the successive differences (indicated by | |).
What is the pattern to find in the successive differences?—
3. Continue the pattern to find the number of games among 9 people.
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Planning the solution (2)
Another way to analuze the problem is to focus on the number of games added
each time one more person is added to the group-indicated in the diagram below by
hold loops.
P1 P2 P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
2players 3Players 4 Players 5Layers
1 game 2 games added 3games added 4games added
By this thinking process, each diagram builds on the one immediately preceding,
therefore the eventually of forgetting a loop is lessened
We can then rearrange the table like this :
Players | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | . . . . . . .
Games | |1+2 | 1+2+3 | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 |
------- -------- ------------
Working backwards
Sometimes it is easier to start at an end result and work backward to an initial
condition, taking nite if the steps on the working backwards process.
Problem
A studemt obtain a grade of 75% in each of 3 tests. He needs to take one more
test, and he wants an average of 80% for the four tests.
What grade should he work for in the fourth test?
Understanding the problem
1. What is meant by “average”?
2. Can the grade in the 4th test be lessem than 75% equal to 75%?
3. What should be the total grade of the 4 tests?
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Planning ethe solution
To obtain the average we proceed as follows.
Grade in 4th test = add grades in first 3 tests minus 4
Working backwards
81x 4 then subtract grades in first 3 tests = grade in 4th test.
Logical Reasoning
Problems solved using logical reasoning are usually problems “to prove” or those
requiring little computations but uses mostly reasoning in their solutions. Many puzzles
can come under this strategy.
Problem
There are three boxes, one containing 2 black marbles, one containing 2 white
marbles and another one white and one black marble. The boxes were labeled for their
contents – BB, WW and BW – but someone has switched the labels so that every box
now is incorrectly labeled. If you draw one marble from particular box without looking
inside, how will you know the contents of all the boxes?
Understanding the problem
1. How can the boxes be mis-labeled?
2. From which box should you pick a marble?
Planning the solution
There are two ways in which the boxes could have veen mis-labeled.
If we select a box labeled BB, it might contain either WB or a WW box. Thus if
you pick marble and it turned to be white, you will not be able to tell wether it is indeed a
WB box or a WW box. The same thing is true if you select a box labeled WW.
HOweever, you select the box labeled WB, then you know that is either a WW box or
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BB box. Thus, upon picking a marble and nothing its color, one can tell the correct label
of the box. You can then easily correct the labels of the two remaining boxes.
Write and solve equations
Many of the usual “word problems” can be solved using this strategy. After
determining what is the “unknown”, we represent it by some letters ( or variable) ang
then set up the equation which can be obtained from the conditions given in the
problem. The final solution then depends on whether the resulting equations (s) can be
solved or not.
Problem
Today, Allan spent 10 more minutes asleep in class then he spent awake. If the
class period is one hour, how long was Allan asleep?
Understanding the problem
1. What is the unknown?
2. What are the conditions in the problem?
3. What quantities are equal?
Planning the solution
If we let x represent the time Allan was awake in class then x + 10 is the time he
was asleep. The total time he was awake and asleep was the total class period. Hence,
X + x + 10 = 60
Time awake time asleep Class Period
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Continue to solve the equation to get the answer.
Simulations and experiment
Sometimes, the solution of a problem involves setting up and carrying out an
experiment, gathering data and making a decision based on an analysis of the data.
When the undertaking of an experiment is too unrealistic or oo costly, simulation is an
appropriate and powerful problem-solving strategy
Problem
Form a square the segment shown as a side
Understanding the problem
In this problem, we have to “experiment” actually the instruction given. In how
many ways can this be done?
Planning the solution
Dirst, draw the square with one of its side at the top of the left most nails. Then
translate the square one nail to the right. How many times can you translate to the
right? Down?
Activity 1. Problem Solving: Learning to Use a Strategy
Problem: Juan, Mario, Gary and Ralph each read four magazines. They read a
different magazine each week, always choosing from a group of four magazines. During
Week 2, Juan read Travel ang Gary read Auto Guide. During Week 3, Mario read
Update and Ralph read Listen. During Week 4, Gary read Listen and Ralph read Auto
Guide. What week did each boy read each magazine?
Situtaion:
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1. Each boy read _________- magazines.
Did any of them read the same magazines more than once a week? ________
2. What are you asked to find? ___________
Data:
3. During Week, Juan read ______________ and Gary read _________
Note how it is shown in the table below.
4. During Week 3, which magazine did Mario read? Which magazine did Ralph read?
Record that information in the table below:
5. During Week 4, which magazine did Gary read? Which magazine did Ralph read?
Plan:
6. What strategy is being used to solve the problem? _______________
Boy Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
Duke Travel
Rene
Franklin Auto Guide
Allan
7. During Week 4, Gary read Listen and Ralph read Auto Guide. Since Juan read Travel
during Week 2, which magazines in the table.
8. During Week 3, Mario read Update and Ralph read Listen. Since Juan read Travel
during Week 2, which magazine did he read third? So which magazine did Gary read
third?
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Record the magazine in the table.
9. Use logical reasoning to find which boy read which magazine. Record the magazines
in the table.
Answer:
10. Read across in the table to tell which magazine each boy read in each week
Check:
11. Make sure that no magazine appears more than once in each column and that no
magazine appears more than once in each row.
TIPS AND STRATEGIES IN SOLVING MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS
1. Round off and estimate whenever possible. Simplify your calculations 3,978 x 289
can be roundned off to 4,000 x 300. Then if only one of the answer choices is slightly
less than 1,200,000
2. Look for shortcuts. These are often built into problems. For example, you know that
an odd number multiplied by an odd number will give you and odd number. If only one
of the answer choices is an odd number, it has to be the right answer.
3. DO not panic if a question has an unusual sumbol. Replace the symbol with the
specially designed definition that accompanies the symbol.
4. Work in consistent units. If one side of a square measures 30inches and the other
measures 2 feet, don’t try mmmuuultiplying until you have both measurements in feet or
in inches
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5. Have important rules and formulas at your fingertips. Use the information supplied at
the top of the first page of each mathematics section. Or better yet, memorize these and
other important facts and formulas before the test date.
6. Read the question carefully. DO not assume anything that is not actually stated.
Some questions are not similar to questions you usualy encounter in regular mat
classes.
7. Beware of positive and negative number. If the problem does not specifically state
that the value of an unknown is positive, then it could also be negative. The square root
of a number can be positive or negative.
8. Use your time wisely. If you absolutely have no idea on how to solve a particular
problem, do not waste time on it. Circle it and leave it. If you have time at the end of the
tests, you can go back and try again.
9. Avoid lengtly computation. None of the questions on the test will require terribly
complicated computations. If you find yourself about to start on a long string of
complicated computations. To solve a problem, you are doing something wrong. Either
you missed a shortcut, or you are solving the wrong problem. Read the question again.
10. Use the exam booklet wisely. Don’t try to do all computations in your head. Write in
the test booklet. Mark up any diagrams if it will help you.
11. Chech the diagrams. The diagrams may be drawn accurately or they may be
accompanied by a statement saying that figure is not drawn to scale. In the altter case
you may redraw the diagram slightly to make it accurate.
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12. Be on the look out for irrelevant material in a word problem. There probably will be
at least one question that gives you more information that you need. Don’t assume that
you have to use it all to solve the problem. If what you need si how many people were
wearing red hats, it does not matter how many were wearing blue shoes.
13. Don’t rush to get the most challenging problems. Questions get harder as you go
along in the math section.
14. Don’t hesistate to work back from the answers. On this test you don’t have to show
how you arrive at the answer. First plug in the answer which is easiest to try. Usually
this is the correct choice.
15. DO not panic when you are faced with mathematical terminology. Try putting the
problem into simpler words. “S” is a set of integers on the number line1-100 inclusive
“just means” S is all the numbers from I through 100.”
16. Substiture for unknowns, if necessary, If you are having trouble solving a problem
with several unknowns, try substituting simple number for theunknows.
MATHEMATICS REVIEW
SYMBOLS
= equals
≠ is not equal to
> is more than
< is less than
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≥ is greater than or equal to
_ is congquent to
≈ is similar to
│ is perpendicular to
║ is parallel to
± plus or minus
Important Definitions
Sum is the result of addition.
Difference is the result of substraction.
Product is the result of multiplication
In division, Divident Quotient + Remainder
___________ = ____________________
Divisor Divisor
A fraction is an indicated division
A decimal is an implied fraction a denominator of 10, 100,1000.. .. . . .
A Percent is a fraction with a denominator of 100
A Ratio compares two quantities by dividing one by the other.
A Proportion is an equation, both sides of which are fractions
A Positive numver is one that is greater than zero, a Negative number is one that is less
than zero. The meaning and the use of signed numbers are basic in the study of
Algebra.
Positive numbers are preceded by a plus sign (+); negative numbers, a minus sign (-).
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Arithmetic Concepts
Any quantity multiplied by zero is (x. 0 =0)
Any quantity = 4, except zero raised to the zero power is 1 (xº =1 if x=0)
If x2 then x= +2 or -2
Any fraction multiplied by its reciprocal equals 1: (x/y) (y/x) = 1.
Odd and Even Numbers
Even + odd = even
Odd + odd = odd
Even + odd = odd
Even x even = even
Even x odd = even
Odd x odd = odd
Adapted from:
Krulik, Stephen and Rudnick, Jesse. Problem Solving: A Handbook for Teachers
Allyn and Bacon, Inc.Boston, Mass. 1980
FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
Whole Numbers
Number is an idea of a given quantity.
Numeral is a symbol to represent a number.
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A digit is any numeral from 0 to 9 and can represent different numbers
depending on its position. This is called the place value.
The Factors of a given number are numbers which when multiplied together
from the given number.
Example: The complete set of factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5 and 15.
Prime factors are those numbers which have no other factors except one and
itself.
Example: The prime factor of 36 are 2,2,3,3
The Greatest Common Factor is the largest common factor of two or more
numbers. It is the product of all the prime factors which they have in common.
Example: Find the GCF of 25 and 125
25= 5 x 5
125 = 5 x 5 x 5, therefore the GCF is 5 x 5 = 25
ADDITION
The numbers that are to be added are called addends. The number resulting in
the addition of these numbers is called the sum of the numbers.
Example:
45
395
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+ 4396
890
_____________________
5726 SUM
SUBSTRACTION
Minuend is the number from which another is to be subtracted. Subtrahend is the
number to be subtracted. Differemce is the answer or the result in the process of
substraction.
Example:
5283 minuend
- 4997 subtrahend
____________
286 DIFFERENCE
MULTIPLICATION
Multiplicand refers to the number to be multiplied. Multiplier refers to the number
of times another number is to be multiplied. Product is the answer in the process of
multiplication.
Example:
1937 Multiplicand
X 86 Multiplier
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__________
11622
15496
166582 Product
DIVISION
Dividend refers to the number to be divided into equal groups. Divisor refers to
the size of each group. Quotient refers to the number of groups resulting from division
Example:
54,528 ÷ 64 = 852
↓ ↓ ↓
Dividend divisor quotient
Multiples
The multiples of a number are those numbers that are divisable by the given
number.
Characteristics:
1. A number has an infinite number of multiples.
2. A number is always a multiple of itself.
Example: The multiples of 3 are 3,6,9,12,15,18,21,24 . . .
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Divisibility are ways of quickly determining factors without havinf to perform a
complete division.
Divisibility Test for 2
A number divisible by 2 is an even number.
Example: 300, 12, 254, 1008
Divisivility Test for 3
A number is divisable by 3 if the sum of the digits of the number is divisable by 3.
Example: 186585 is divisable by 3 because 1+8+6+5+8+5=33, and 33 is divisible by 3.
Divisibility Test for 4
A number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by its last 2 digits is divisible
by 4.
Example: 128 & 524 are divisible, by 4 since 28 and 24 are divisible by 4.
Divisiblity Test for 5
If the ones digit is 0 or 5, then the number is divisible by 5.
Example: 300, 505, 2090 are divisible by 5.
Divisibilty Test for 6
A number is divisible by 6 if it is an even number and divisible by 3.
Example: 634128 is an even number. It is divisible by 3 since 6+3+4+1+2+8=24
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And 24 is divisible by 3
Divisibility Test for 7
Steps:
1. Double the last digit.
2. Subtract the product in step 1 from the number without the last digit.
3. If the difference is a multiple for 7, then the number is divisible by 7.
Note: If the difference is big, repeat steps 1 to 3.
Example: Is 6853 divisible by 7?
Solution:
1. 3(2) =6 3.(Repeat 1 & 2) 9(2)=18
2. 685-6=679 4. 67-18=49 is divisible by 7,
Divisibility Test for 8
If the last 3 digits of a number is divisible by 8, then the number is divisible by 8.
Example: Is 4912 a multiple of 8?
The last 3 digit is 912 & 912 = (114)(8). Therefore, 912 is divisible by 8 and 4912 is
divisible by 8.
Divisibility for 9
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A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is a multiple of 9.
Example: 845721 is divisible by 9 because 8+4+5+7+3+1 = 27 and 27 is a multiple of 7
Divisibility for 10
If any number except 0 end in 0, the nmber is divisible by 10.
Example: 3,000, 10,000, 000, 200, 500 are divisible by 10
Divisibilty for 11
A number is divisible by 11 if after subtracting and adding the digits successively,
the answer is divisible by 11.
Example: Is 4972 divisible by 11?
4-9 +7 -2 = 0, 0 is divisible by 11. Therefore, 4972 is divisible by 11.
ORDER OF OPERATIONS
Very often two or more numbers are grouped together to indicate that they are to
be considered together as a single number. To avoid confusion, grouping, grouping
sumbols are used.
The grouping symbols are:
() parenthesis [] brackets
{} braces ─ vinculum
Rules:
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1. Simplify expression inside parentheses and other grouping symbols first.
2. Do multiplication and division next, in the order they occur that is, from left to
right.
3. Do addition and substraction last, in the order they occur, that is from left to
right.
In short, you can remember this by using the mnemonic “Please Mind Dear Aunt
Sally’. The first letters will remind you of “Parentheses, Multiplication and Division,
Addition and Subtraction.’ (PMDAS)
Example:
Simplify 16 x 2 ÷ 8 + 12 x 3 – 48 ÷ 6 x 3 = 32
EXPONENTS AND POWERS
An exponent is the number that indicates how many times a whole number is used as a
factor.
Example:
25 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
FRACTIONS
The symbol a/b, where a,b are the elements of whole nos. and b ≠ 0, is called a
fraction.
The number above the bar is the numerator and the number below the bar is the
denominator. The word fraction if derived from the latin word fraction, meaning’ to break
into parts.
Kind of Fractions:
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1. Proper Fractions – is a fraction in which the numberator is less tan the denominator.
Example: 1/3, 2/3, 15/28, 105/201
2. Improper fraction – A fraction in which the numerator is greater than the
denominator.
Example: 5/2, 25/8, 128/121
3. Mixed Fractions – is composed of a whole number and a fraction.
Example: 2 1/3, 3 2/5, 15 16/17, 100 25/31
4. Equivalent Fraction – fractions that show the same value.
Example: 2/5 = 8/20, 16/20 = 32/40, 101/120 = 303/360
Addition and Substraction
Adding and Subtracting Fractions with similar or Like Denominators
To add or subtract fractions with similar or like denominators, add or subtract rhe
numerators. Write the sum or difference over the common denominator.
Examples:
1. 14/27 + 11/27 = 25/27 2. 7/18 , 4/18 = 3/18 = 1/6
Adding and Subtracting Frantions with Dissimilar or Unlike Denominators
1. Find the leat common denominator (LCD)
2. Change each fraction to equivalent fraction using LCD.
3. Add or subtract the numberators and write the result over the LCD
4. If necessary, reduce the answer to lowest terms.
Example: Calculate 4 ¼ + 2 4/5 – 1 1/3
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4 ¼ = 4 15/60
+ 2 4/5 = +2 48/60
- 1 1/3 + -1 20/60
__________________________
5 43/60
Multiplication and Division
Rules for Multiplying Fractions
To multiply two fractions, multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators.
Write the product of the numerators over the product of the denominators. If necessary,
reduce the answer to lowest terms.
Example: Find the product
a. 2/9 x 5/8 = 5/36
b. 3/5 of 5 = ¾ x 5 = 15/14 = 3 ¾
c. (2/3) 3 = 2/3 x 2/3 x 2/3 = 8/27
d. 49/10 x 2/3 x 15/77 = 49/10 x 2/3 x 15/17 = 7/11
Rules for Multiplying Mixed Numbers
1. Change each mixd number to an improper fraction
2. Multiply the numerators.
3. Place the result over the product of the denominators.
4. Express the answer as a mixed number or as a proper fraction reduced to lowest
terms.
Example: Simplify 1 ½ x 1/ 7/9= 3/2 x 16/9
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3/2 x 1 6/9 = 8/3 = 2 2/3
Rules for Dividing Fractions
If a, b, c and d are all real numbersm and if b≠ 0, c≠0, d≠-, then a/b ÷ c/d = a/b x d/c
Example: Divide: 3 3/8 by 2 ¼
= 27/8 ÷ 9/4= 27/8 x 4/9 = 27/8 x 4/9= 3/2 = 1 ½
DECIMALS
A decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator can be expressed as a power
of ten
Examples
(1) 6/10 = 6/101 = .6 (2.) 16/100 = 16/102= .16 (3.) 425/1000 = 425/ 103 =
.425
Operations on Decimals
To add Decimals
1. Write the numbers to be added vertically and line up the decimal points.
2. Add all digits with the same place value, beginning with the rightmost column.
3. Be sure to place a decimal point in the sum in the correct location
Example: Add 6.47 + 340.8 + 73.523
To Subtract Decimals
1. Write the numbers to be subtracted vertically such that the decimal points are in a
column.
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2. If the number of decimal places in the subtrahend exceeds that in the minuend, insert
the necessary number of zeros to the right of the last decimal place in the minuend.
3. Subtract all digits with the same place value, beginning with the rightmost column and
regroup when necessary.
4. Write the decimal point in the difference. This should be in line with the other decimal
points.
Example: Subtract 462 – 26.528
To Multiply Decimals
1. Calculate the product, in the same manner as whole numbers.
2. Put a decimal point in the appropriate location so that the number of decimals places
in the product equals the sum of the number of decimal places in all the factors.
Examples: Find the product of 43.7 and 0.00035
To Divide Decimals
1. Move the decimal point in the divisor up to the necessary number of places to the
right to make it a whole number.
2. Move the decimal point in the dividend to the same number of places to the right.
3. Put a decimal point in the quotient immediately above the new decimal point in the
dividend.
4. Proceed with the technique for dividing whole numbers, take note of the location of
the decimal point in the quotient,
Example: Find the quotient of 0.02904 ÷ 0.04
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INTEGERS
The set of integers consists of the positive whole numbers, negative whole
numbers, and zero. { . . . . , -5, -4 , -3, -2 , -1 ,0 ,1 ,2 ,3 , 4 ,5 . . . }
Examples: +45 or 45 ‘Positive forty-five’
-57 ‘negative fifty-seven’
0 ‘Zero’
THE NUMBER LINE
- 9 – 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Negative Integers Positive Integers
For any numbers a, the opposite of a is denoted by –a.
Examples: The opposite of 100 is -100
The opposite of -99 is 99
6 stands for a gain of P6, while -3 stands for a loss of P3
OPERATIONS ON INTEGERS
Addiition
1. if the addends have the same signs, add the numbers disregarding the signs. The
sign of the sum will be the common sign of the addends.
Example: +138 + + 200 = 338
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If the addends are of different signs, subtract the smaller number from the larger
number and write the sign of the larger number.
Example: - 285 + 100 = -185
Subtraction
1. In subtracting signed numbers, change the sign of the subtrahend then proceed to
addition of integers.
-10,348
Example - - 9,753
_______________
-595
Multiplication
1. When two numbers of the same signs are multiplied, the product is positive.
2. When two numbers of opposite signs are multiplied, the product is negative.
Example: Multiply + 12 by + 4 = 48
Multiply -16 by 5 = -80
Division
1. In dividing numbers of the same signs, their quotient is a positive number.
2. In dividing numbers of different signs, their quotient is a negative number.
Examples: Find the quotient
-96 -84
a. ______ = -32 b. - _______ = 12
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3 -7
Cognitive Reasoning and Problem Solving
- Finding Patterns
Objectives
-Recognize simple non-mathematical patterns
- Recognize number patterns
- Recognize patterns that will help gain mathematical maturity
Many discoveries in mathematics are based on patterns. A mathematician often
uses the strategy of generalizing to form a rule based on a few exampes.
The process of finding patterns is not quick or direct as following a recipe or list
of instructions. It requires the concept of sequence.
A sequence is a set of numbers in a particular order. The numbers in a sequence
are called terms of the sequence. If we have the sequence 1,3,5,7,9 . . . The first term in
1, the second term is 3, the third is 5 and so on.
Example
Given the following sequence of letters,A, C, D, F, G, I
What are the next two letters?
Solution:
To discover the pattern for this problem, let us look at the first nine letters of the
English alphabet, A B C D E F G H I, Let us cross out those letters that are not included
in the sequence, A B C D E F G H I. Following this pattern, J should come after I. Then
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we should skip K and write L. A B C D E F G H I J K L. Hence, the two succeeding lettrs
are J and I.
From the examples shown, it is seen that patterns involve not only numbers, but
also non-mathematical objects like letters, words, and figures.
Reasoning based on patterns is sometimes called cognitive reasoning. Students
often use cognitive reasoning when they answer tests. Employees also often use this
type of reasoning in the performance of their jobs. All of us, in one way or another, use
cognitive reasoning in our daily lives.
A collection of numbers arranged in order from left to right, such that there is a
first term, second term, etc, and are separated by commas, is called a number
sequence.
Example:
What are the next three terms of this sequence?
1, 1, 2,4, 8, 16 ,32 ,64
Solution:
To describe a sequence, we often try to find a pattern that relates the number of
a term to the term itself. Now for the sequence 1, 1, 2, 4,8 , 16, 32 ,64, the pattern is not
obvious. First, let us look at the relationship between the terms. The first term, I and the
second term, 1, are equal but the third term is 2, which may be treated as the sum of
the forst two terms.
Considering the sums of the terms, we have
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1 + 1 = 2
And if we add the first, the second, and the third terms, we have 1 + 1 + 2 = 4,
which is fourth term. Continuing the patterm
1 + 1 + 2 + 4= 8, fifth term
1 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 16, sixth term
1 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 32, seventh term
1 + 1 + 2+ 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 = 64,eight term
Hence for the next three terms,
64 + 64 = 128 ninth term
128 + 128 =256 10th term
256 + 256 = 512, eleventh term
READING FOR UNDERSTANDING AND ANALYSIS
Objectives
Analyze the problem to be solved step by step with the aid of a picture or a
diagram. Sometimes a math problem looks more difficult than it really is. You must dirst
understand the problem before you attempt to solve it. It often helps to rewrite the
problem using only the important information. This makes it easier to figure out what
you must do.
Guideline for comprehension
1. Jot down the key words or phrases.
2. Write down what is being asked for.
3. Restate what you have read in your own words.
4. Prepare a visual representation
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Example Given the numbers 6, 2 ,3 ,1 ,4 and 5. If the second number is less then the
fourth circle the number that is the difference between the first numbers, circle the
second number.
Solution:
To do this, we have the following:
1. The key word is less than.
2. We are to circle a number in 6 2 3 1 4 5.
3. If the second number is less than the fourth number, then circle the number
that is the difference between the first and the sixth numbers. Circle the second number
if the third is less than the first. 5th no.
4. Now Consider:
6 2 3 1 4 5
1st no.
2nd no. 3rd no. 4th no. 6th no,
2. (2nd number) > (4th number)
3. (3rd number) < 6 (1st number)
Thus, 6 2 3 1 4 5
PLANE GEOMETRY
Plane geometry deals with shapes like lines, circles and triangles . . . shapes that
can be drawn on a flat surface called a Plane.
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Common Symbols Used in Geometry
Symbol Meaning Example In Words
∆ Triangle ∆ABC has Triangle ABC has three
equal sides
Angle ∟ABC is 45º The angle formed by Abc
. is 45ºdegress
┴ Perpendicular AB┴CD The line AB is . .
. perpendicular to line CD
║ Parallel EF║GH The line EF is parallel to line GH
º Degrees 360º makes full circle
∟ Right Angle is 90º A right angle is 90 degrees
AB Line Segment AB The line between A and B
AB Line “AB” AB The Infinite line that includes
. A and B
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AB Ray AB AB The line that start at A. goes.
. through B and continues on
≅ Conguent ∆ABC≅∆ Triangle ABC is congruent to
. triangle DEF
~ Similar ∆DEF~∆ Triangle DEF is similar to triangle
. MNO
∴ Therefore a=b ∴ b = a a equals b, therefore b equals a
Glossary of Gemometric Terms
Line
A line is one of the basic terms in geometry. We may think of a line as a “straight”
Line that we might draw with a ruler on a piece of paper, except that in geometry, a line
extends forever in both directions. We write the name of a line passing through two
different points A and B as “ line AB”, the two headed arrow over AB signifying a line
passing through points A and B.
Example: The following is a diagram of two lines: line AB and line HG
B
A
G
H
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The arows signify that the lines drawn extend indefinitely in each direction.
Point
A point is one of the basic terms in geometry. We may think of a point as a “dot”
On a piece of paper. We identify this point with a number or letter. A point has no length
or width, it just specifies an exact location.
Example: The following is a diagram of points A, B, C and Q:
A
C
Q
B
Intersection
The term is used when lines, rays, line segments or figures meet, that is they
share a common point. The point they share is called the point of intersection. We say
that these figures intersect.
Example: In the diagram below, line AB and line GH intersect at point D.
G B
A D
H
Examople: In the diagram below, line 1 intersects the square in points M and N:
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M
N
Example: In the diagram below, line 2 intersects the circle at point P:
P
Line segments
Lines segments is one of the basic terms in geometry. We may think of a line
segment as a straight line that we might draw with ruler on a piece of paper. A line
segment does not extend forever, but has two distinct endpoints. We write the name of
a line segment with endpoints A and B as “line segment AB” Note how there are no
arrow heads on the line over AB such as when we denote a line or a ray.
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Example: The following is a diagram of two line segments: line segment CD and
line segment PM, or simply segment CD and segment PN.
P
C
D
N
Ray
A ray is one of the basic terms in geometry. We may think of a ray as a straight
line that begins at a certain point and extends forever in one direction. The point where
the ray beginz is known as its endpoint. We write the name of a ray with endpoint A and
passing through point B as “ray AB”. Note how the arrow heads denotes the direction
the ray extends in: there is no arrow head over the endpoint.
Example: The following is a diagram of two rays: ray HG and ray AB.
B
G
H
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A
End point
An endpoint is a point used to define a line segment or ray. A line segment has
two endpoints: a ray has one.
Example: The endpoints of line segment DC below are points D and C, and the
endpoint of ray MN is point M below:
D
C M
N
Parallel Lines
Two lines in the same plane which never intersect are called parallel lines. We
say that two line segments are parallel if the lines that they lie on are parallel. If line l is
parallel to line 2, we write this as line 1 || line 2
When two line segments DC and AB lie on parallel lines, we write this as
segment DC || segment AB.
Example: Lines 1 and 2 below are parallel
1
2
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Example: The opposite sides of the rectangle below are parallel. The lines passing
through them never meet.
Pythagorean Theorem
Pythagorean theorem or Pythagora’s theorem is a relation in Euclidaean
geometry among the three sides of a right triangle (right angled triangle). It states:
In any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side
opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides
are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle).
The theorem can be written as an equation:
a2 + b2 = c2
where c represents the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b represent the lengths of
the other two sides.
The Pythagorean theorem is named after the Greek mathematician Pythagoras,
who by tradition is credited with its discovery and proof although it is often argued that
knowledge of the theorem predates him.
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ALGEBRA
Algebra is the brand of mathematics concerning the study of the rules of
operations and relations, and the constructions and concepts arising from them,
including terms, polynomials, eqyations and algebraic structures. Together with
geometry, analysis, topology combinatorics, and number theory, algebra is one of the
main branches of pure mathematics.
The part of algebra called elementary algebra is often part of the curriculum in
secondary education and introduces the concept of variables representing numbers.
Statements based on these variables are manipulated using the rules of operations that
apply to numbers, such as addition.
This can be done for a variety of reasons, including equation solving. Algebra is much
broader than elementary algebra and studies what happens when different rules of
operations are used and when operations are devised for things other than numbers.
Addition and multiplication can be generalized and their precise definitions lead to
structures such as groups, rings and fields.
Elementary Algebra
Elementary algebra is the most basic form of algebra. It is taught to students who
are presumed to have no knowledge of mathematics beyond the basic principles of
arithmetic. In arithmetic, only numbers and their arithmetical operations (such as +, - , x
÷), occur. In algebra, numbers are often denoted by symbols (such as a.x or y). This is
useful because it allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as a+b=b+a
for all a and b), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of
the real number system.
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It allows the reference to “unknow” numbers, the formulation of equations and the
study of how to solve these (for instance, Find a number x such that 3x+1 = 10º or going
a bit further “Find a number x such that ax+b=c”. Step which lets to the conclusion that
is not the nature of the specific numbers the one that allows us to solve it but that of the
operations involved.
It allows the formulation of functional relationships (such as “If you sell x tickets,
then your profit will be 3x-10 dollars, or f(x) = 4x – 10, where f is the function, and x is
the number to which the function is applied.”).
Polynomial
A polynomial (see the article on polynomials for detail) is an expression that is
constructed from one or more variables and constants, using only the operations of
addition, subtraction, and multiplication (where repeated multiplication of the same
variables is standardly denoted as exponentiation with a constant non-negative integer
exponents) For example, x2 + 2x – 3 is a polynomial in the single variable x.
An important class of problems in algebra is factorization of polynomials, that is
expressing a given polynomial as a product of other polynomials. The example
polynomial above can be factored as (x –1) (x + 3). A related class of problems is
finding a; gebraic expressions for the roots o a polynomial in a single variable.
NATURAL SCIENCE
The natural Science component foR the General Education oart if the Licensure
Examination for teachers includes Biological Science-General Biology: Physical Science
with Earth Science
DEFINITION OF SCIENCE
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Science is derived from the Latin scientia, which means knowledge. It is defines
as a systematic procedure of gathering knowledge about the world and organizing and
condensing that knowledge into testable laws and theories.
As knowledge increased, some methods have proven morereliable than others,
and today the scientific method is the standard for science. The use of the scientific
method make new discoveries is called scientific research and the people who carry out
this research are known as scientist.
STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Define the problem.
2. Gather preliminary data, find out all abailable and accessible sources.
3. Formulate a hypothesis.
4. Test the hypothesis, gather sufficient data to be able to solve the problem or explain
the phenomenon.
5. Analuze and interpret the data in No.4
6. Draw a generalization or conclusion.
7. Verify generalization by applying to similar situations.
Illustration:
While playing house with her sister, Dorothy boiled some seaweeds.
When they’ve finished playing, she threw the cold seaweed extract away, but it
accidentally splashed on the vegetable seedbed of her father. A few days later, Dorothy
was surprised to see that some portion of the seedbed have faster growing vegetables
than the other portions.’
To find out the seaweed extract has anything to do with the phenomenon, Dorothy
decided to use the scientific method in her investigation. What would be her first step?
1. gather preliminary data
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2. formulate a scientific hunch
3. state the problem
4. look into the seedbed intrinsictly to find the answer right away.
5. design an experiment to prove her theory
To get accurate results from her experiment, Dorothy should conduct:
1. a controlled experiment
2. atrial and error experiment
3. an uncontrolled experiment
4. a structured laboratory activity
5. an unstructured activity
What scientific attitude was exhibited by Dorothy?
1. thrill of finding something new
2. curiousity and intuitiveness
3. critical outlook
4. willingness to sstudy and work hard
5. keen power of observation
BIOLOGY
Biology is the scientific study of living things and their environment.
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms,
including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.
Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines
among the most important topics are five unifying principles that can be said to be the
fundamental axioms of modern biology:
1. Cells are the basic unit of life
2. New specied and inherited traits are the product of evolution
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3. Genes are the basic unit of heredity
4. An organism will regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable and
constant condition
5. Living organisms consume and transform energy.
Subdisciplines of biology are recognized on the basis of the scale at which organisms
are studied and the methods used to study them:
1. Biochemistry examines the rudimentary chemistry of life:
2. Molecular biology studies the complex interactions of systems of biological
molecules;
3. Cellular biologu examines the basic building block of all life, the cell;
4. Physiology examines the physical and chemical fundtions of the tissues,
organs and organ systems of an organism; and
5. Ecology examines how various organisms interrelate with their environment.
Historical Development
Modern Biology appearsto have been introduced independently by Karl Friedrich
Burdach (1800), Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologic order Philosophie der lebeden
Natur, 1802), and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Hydrigeologie, 1802). It was inspired by the
Greek word Bioc, bios, “life” and the suffix-Aoyia, - logia, “study of”
Although biology is a relatively recent development, sciences related to and
included within it have been studied since ancient times. Natural philosophy was studied
as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egyt, the Indian subcontinent, and
China However, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature
are most often traced back to ancient Greece.
The formal study of medicine dates back to Hippocrates (ca, 460 BC-ca, 370 BC)
it was Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) who contributed most extensively to the development
of biology. Worth mentioning is Aristotles History of Animals and other works where he
showed naturalist leaning, and later more empirical works that focused on biological
causation and diversity of life.
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Aristotle successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on
botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into
the middle Ages. Significant advances in the study and development of biology were
promoted through the efforts of such Muslim physicians as the Afro-Arab scholar al-
Jahiz (781-869) in zoology, Kurdish biologist Al-Dinawari (829-896) in botany, and the
Persian physician Rhazes (865-925) in anatomy and physiology.
These philosophers elaborated on, especially well studied by Islamic scholars working
in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian
thought, especially in upholding a ixed hierarchy of life.
Biology began to quickly develop and grow with Antony van Leeuwenhoek’s
dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered
spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the sheer stangenesss and diversity of
microscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology
and and built the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and stainin. Advances in
microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking itself. In the early 19th
century, a number of biologist pointed to the central importance of the cell.
In 1838 and 1839, Scheilden and Schwann began promoting the ideas that (1) the basic
unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characterisitics of
life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other
cells.
Through the efforts of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, by the 1860’s most
biolofists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory.
On the other hand, taxonomy and classification became a focus in the study of
natural history. Carolus Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in
1735, and in the 1750’s introduced scientific names for all his species.
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Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Bufofon, treated species as artificial categories and
living forms as malleable-even suggesting the possibility of common descent. Though
he was opposed to evolution,Buffin suggesting the possibility of common descent.
Though he was opposed to evolution, Buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary
theories of both Jean-Baptise Lamarck and Charles Darwin.
Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptise lamarch,
However, it was the british naturalist Charles Darwin, combining the biogeographical
approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Thomas Malthus’s writings in
evolutionary theory based on natural selection ; similar evidence led Alfred Russel
Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions.
The discovery of the physical representation of heredity came along with
evolutionary principles and population genetics. In the 1940’s and early 1950’s,
experiments pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that held genes. A
focus on new model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery
of the double helical structure of DNA in 1953, marked the transition to the era of
molecular genetics.
From the 1950’s to present times, biology has been vastly extended in the molecular
domain. The DNA code was cracked by Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley and
Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA Was proven to contain codons.
Finally, the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of
mapping the general human genome. This project was essentially completed in 2003,
with further analysis still being published. The Human Genome Project was the first step
in a globalized effort to incorporate accumulated knowledge of biology into a functional,
molecular definition of the human body and the bodies of other organisms.
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CELL THEORY
Cell theory states that the cell is the fundamentall unit of life, and that all living
things are composed of one or more cells or the secreted products of those cells. All
cells arise from other cells through cell division. In multicellular organisms, evry cell in
the organism body derives ultimately from a single cell in fertilized egg. The cell is also
phenomenon of energy flow occurs in cells in processes that are part of the function
known as metabolism. Finally, cells contain hereditary information which is passed from
cell to cell during cell division.
Biotic Community
Biotic community refers to all the different kinds of organisms, or species, which
live together and interact with one another in a region
Members of the Biotic Community
1. producers – chlorophyll-bearing organisms.
- capable of producing their own food
2. consumers – this is the group which animals, as well as plant without chlorophyll
belong.
- these organisms are not capable of producing fod from non-living materials.
3. decomposers – a special group of consumers that feed on dead things and in so
doing return the substances of those dead things back to the environment.
Food Chain – a sequence of organisms in a biotic community each of which uses the
preceding organisms in the sequence as a source of food, the ultimate of which is plant.
Example : banana – monkey – decomposers
Food Web – several food chains interlace
ECOLOGY
Ecology is derived from the Greek words “oikos” meaning house and “logos”
meaning the study of. It is the scientific study of the interrelationship of plants and
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animals and the environment. This word in recent years has beenmisused as a
synonym for environment.
Ecology includes wildlife management, agriculture, forestry, pollution control and
conservation.
Ecological Classification of Organisms
Autotrophs (“self-nourishers or producers”). These are mainly green plants which
manufacture their own food from carbon dioxide, water, mineral and sunlight.
Heterotrophs are organisms which lack metabolic machinery to synthesize their
own food and must obtain it from other sources.
Classification of Heterotrophs
Herbivores – plant eater
Carnivores – predators / animals eater
Omnibores – eat both plants and animals
Scavengers – eat large dead organisms
Decomposer – smaller heterotrophs that feed on dead organisms
Parasites – eat living organisms but unlike predators, they do not devour their hosts at
one
IMPORTANT TERMS IN ECOLOGY
Ecosystem refers to an area whose chemical, physical and biological traits and
forms of energy present, like air, water and soil including the oraganisms big and small
are interrelating in a natural way showing specific characteristics that distinguish the
area from adjacent communities. It is a community of living things in an area at a given
time, where the environment affects the growth and development of living things. An
ecosystem is a life support system in equilibrium.
Community is the term applied to the assemblage oof roganisms
Biomes refers to the most extensive communities which occuoy a wide
geographic area
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Conservation is the planeed and wise use of water, forest and other natural
resources so that they will not be wasted.
Recycling means using something more than once, either just the way it is, or
treated and made into something else.
Pollution is the contamination of air, water or soill by material that can injure
health, the quality of life or the working of the ecosystem.
Deforestation means the cutting down of most of the trees from forested land so
that the land can be use for another purpose.
Reforestation means plating new trees in the place where other trees have been
vut down.
Groundwater is the water that flows in the spaces between soil particles and
tocks this upplies water for wells and springs.
Fossil fuel is anything that comes from once living matter deep in the earth such
as coal, gas and oil.
Endangered species refers to roganisms whose population is so reduced that
they are threatened with extinction.
Extinction is the complete disappearance of a species of a plant or animal from
the earth.
Causes of Extinction
1. Environmental change
2. Human activities such as hunting, fihing and clearing of lands and forests.
3. Pollution
Pollution is the addition of chemical, physical or biological agent into the air, water or
soil in an amount or rate that threatens human health, wildlife and plants or disrupts the
orderly functioning of the environment. The main pollutants are industrial wastes and
plastics.
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Biodegradable are substances which can be broken down by the decomposing
action of living organisms like bacteria.
Non-Biodegradable are substances that cannot be broken down by
decomposers. They are pollutants like plastics and other manmade chemicals.
Ozone Depletion. The zone layer protects the earth from too much radiation of
the sun. When ozone layer is destroyed, the ultraviolets rays coming through pose great
health risk to people and other living organisms on earth.
Global warming is the increase in earths temperature due to a build up of certain
gases in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse effect is the warming of the earth caused by certain gases that form
a blanket in the atmosphere high over the earth.
Compost heap is a pile of food scraps and yard wastes broken down by worms, tiny
insects and other microorganisms which can be used to enrich the soil.
Acid rain refers to the rainfall with a pH less than 5.6 in a measuring scale that
runs from 0-14. Pollutants and other emissions coming from industrial and electric
plants increase acidification. The usual sources of acid rain are electricity generating
plants and large burning of coal and oil.
El Niño is the term applied to the change in the circulation of pacific currents
caused by the dropping of pressure in the giant high pressure system centered near
East Pacific of South America. This brings warmer weather on certain areas and colder
weater to other areas in the circulation of the Pacific currents. This phenomenon seems
to occur every 4-7 years which brings drought to affected areas. This is named after the
Child Jesus, as at this occurs often on Christmas season.
La Niña is the opposite of El Niño. This brings heavy torrential rains on affected
areas.
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Sustainable Development is the term applied to the idea od securing the need of
the present but without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their
own needs.
SOIL PROBLEMS
Erosion
Erosion is defined as the process which rock fragments and sediments (products
of wheathering) are acarried along by such agents as running water and wind.
When does erosion become harmful? Only when it is extensive. This is brought
about by several activities of the people such as the following:
1. Shifting cultivation to kaingin system – burning the field after harvest leaving
the soil bare and planting rootcrops on steep slopes.
2. Construction projects – e.g. roads, dams, reservoirs, irrigation and drainage
projects, hydroelectric plants, resorts and other related facilities.
3. mining – mining operations dig out and loosen rocks in the mountains,
exposing them to further erosion.
4. overgazing and burning of grassland – grass as soil cover reduces the rate of
run off. Uncontrolled grazing of animals removes the grass cover and packs and soil
more. What happens when the soil is tightly packed?
Effects of Soil Erosion
1. Deterioration of farmlands
2. Deterioration of forests
3. Occurrence of floods and droughts
4. Siltation of rivers and water reservoirs
5. Destruction of houses and infrastructure
Soil Erosion Control
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A. Preventive type of soil erosion for slightly eroded areas
1. forest fore prevention
2. proper land use
3. correct range and forest management
4. proper road construction
5. education of the people
B. Rehabilitation types
1.1 reforestation
1.2 aforestation
1.3 covercropping
1.4 crop rotation
1.5 strip cropping
2. Mechanical method
2.1 terracing
2.2 contourinng
2.3 riprapping
2.4 constrution of dikes along river banks
2.5 constructing farm ponds
Soild Pollution
The addition of materials to the soild that may be harmful to people and other
living things. Pesticides are the main source of soil pollution in our country.
WATER PROBLEMS
It is estimated that the total amount of water in the universe is a constant 1.5
billion cubic kilometers and that only 1/30 of this total amount is fresh water. Of the total
amount of water (fresh), only 1/3 is available for domestic and industrial use. This is
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because most of the fresh water sources are locked up in glaciers and ice caps in the
worlds tallest mountains, and the rest is too far underground or contains too much
mineral to be useful.
WATER POLLUTION
a. Domestic sewage
b. Industrial wastes
b1. Organic substances
b2. Inorganic substances – acids and toxic substanecs
c. Mine tailings – consist of silt, toxic metals, acids, bases and inorganic salts.
d. Agricultural run off
d.1 fertilizer residues
d.2 pesticide residues
e. Soil erosion
f. Salinization
g. Water vessel discharges
h. Thermal pollution
FORCES THAT SHAPE THE EATH’S CRUST
DIASTROPHISM
Diastrophism is the process which involves movements of the earth’s crust such
that a portion is pushed up, pushed down or forced sideways.
Theories on what causes diastrophism
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1. Theory if Isostacyt maintains that the continents, mountains, plain and ocean basins
are in a balanced state. Any changes in any of the components of the earth’s crust
affects the balance and therefore, the other components must also adjust.
2. Contraction Theory states that the earth is slowly shrinking, which is caused either by
lowering its temperature or the squeezing of its parts into smaller volume by great
pressure.
3. Convection Theory maintains that a powerfyl convection currents may occur in the
earth’s crust causing the flow of, materials from underneath upward and the sinking of
heavier materials.
4. Continental Drift Theory states that originally, the earth was composed of only one
continent. Due to the movements of material under the earth’s crust, the continent was
divided.
EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is the shaking of the earths surface as a result of the sudden release
of stresses built up in the earth’s crust
Seismology is the branch of science that deals with earthquakes.
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere in a particular place at a specific
time.
Climate is the average weather condition in a region over a long or a number of
years.
Meteorology is the scientific observation and study of the atmosphere so that
weather can be accurately forecast.
WATER CYCLE
1. evaporation
2. condensation
3. precipitation
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Weather Disturbances
The Philippines is known for the many cyclones (or low pressure area) that come
our way. Our country is located in the North Pacific Ocean where the greatest number
of cyclones form. An average of 22 cyclones form in this area every year, about 19 of
which enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility.
Kinds of Cyclones :
1. tropical depression – wind speed of less than 63kpph
2. tropical storm – wind speed of 63 to 118kph
3. typhoon – wind speed of more than 118 kph
Naming of Tropical Cyclones
Prior to 1890, the worlds tropical cyclones were named arbitrarily. An, atlantic
storm which dismasted a boat named “ Antje” in 1842 became “Antje’s hurricane”,
A typhoon which devastated Samar and Leyte on the 12th of October 1897 was called “
El Baguio de Samar y Leyte” Before the end of the 19th Centy, Clement Wragge, an
Australian
Weatherman, started giving tropical cyclones female names. Those which formed
elsewhere were given male names. Normally Wragge was said to bestow this honor
upon poli[ticians who had incurred his disfavor.
In 1941, a storm was named after Maria in the novel “storm” by George B.
Stewart.
Naming storms became quite popular in the United States during the Second World
War. A number of air force and navy weather forecaster gave their wives and girlfriends
the supposed distinction of having storms name after them.
In 1942, a storm was named after the President Truman by the U.S press and
later in the season another one was named after the presidents wife, Bess.
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In July 1946, a rare case occurred where in three storms develop most
simultaneously in the western North Pacific basin where the Philippine territory is
located. Instead of names, all three were identified based on their location (latitude-
longtitude). After sometime confusion prevailed over which storm was being reported.
Earlyy the next year, forecasters decided to identify storms using name in
alphabetical order in which the first of the year will be dubbed Agnes, then Beverly ,
then Carmen, etc. Military communicators suggested female names for those forming in
the Northern Hemisphere and male names for those in the southern half.
Names issued by the US Air Force weather squadron statione in Guam was then
adopted by the Philippine Weather Service until 1963.
Thus in the 1963 tropical cyclone season, the Philippin Weather Bureau adopted
four sets of Filipino womens nickname ending in “ng” from A yo Y to name all tropical
cyclones occurring within the Philippine area of responsibility.
These for groups of names have been prepared and arranged according to the Filipino
alphabet. Names from each set group is accompanied by an auxiliary list from A to G
just in case the number of tropical cyclones for the year always begin with A, the second
begins with letter B and so forth. The said system of naming tropical cyclone is quite
practical in many ways.
Name selected cannot be confused with American name – they being unique and
applicable only to Philippine Tropical Cyclones.
The Filipino names will indicate that the storm is within the forecast responsibility
of the Philippine Weather Bureau and would have a high probability of affecting the
Philiippines.
The Filipino alphabet has 20 characters which is about the average number of
tropical cyclones occurring in the Philippine area of responsibility in a year. Hence, at
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the end of the year one can tell the umber if storms occurring in the Philippine area of
responsibility in a year. Hence, at the end of the year one can tell whether the number
of storms occurring in the area is above or below normal by noting how far the name of
that last cyclone of the year was from the first letter of the alphabet. Further, the name
of the tropical cyclone will indicate how many cyclones have occurred within the area
since the start of the year. Thus, for 1993 typhoon Tasing will be the 16th tropical
cyclone of the year.
In February 1979, the names of extraordinarily destructive storms were retired or
decommissioned and a revised list of names for tropical cyclones entering the Philippine
area of responsibility was adopted. A tropical cyclone causing a total damage of one
billion pesos or greater and claiming three hundred or more lives was then classified as
destructive and consequently decommissioned. The said list was again revised in 1985
to help minimize confusion in the historical records.
Weather Advisory For Tropical Cyclones contains the general information on the
presence of a cyclone even if it is still too far away from the country to pose a threat in
the next three days. This gives the people ample time to become aware of a potential
threat.
When is it issued?
As soon as a severe weather system is detected and the forecaster decide that
this might affect the Philippines.
The advisory is issued once a day at 3:30 pm except for the initial issuance
which may come out anytime when the severe weather system is detected
The Weather Advisory For other Severe Weather System is an advisory for the
occurrence of monsoons, active low pressure area and a complex weather system
which is a combination of two or more interating systems. These systems are capable of
causing floods because of the prolonged rains it may bring.
When is it issued?
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There is, no lead time in these cases. It is issued only when there are indications
that the rain may prolong and capable of causing fllods. The Advisory is issued once a
day at 3:30 pm except for the initial ussuance which may come out at anytime when a
severe weather system is detected
SEVERE WEATHER BULLETIN
A sever weather bulletin is of two levels:
a. Tropical Cyclone Alert
b. Tropical Cyclone Warning
A Tropical Cyclone Warning is the third stage of the cyclone warning. It indicates
that there is real and immediate cy lone threat to a part or parts of the country from a
cyclone. It provides detailed information about the tropical cyclone.
This includes a description of the cyclones current location, movement and intensity.
Further, it indicates the areas where public storm signals are in effect. Finally , it advises
the public to take appropriate safety. The warning includes a 24-hour forecast or outlook
that gives more details in terms of future cyclones location and movement with respect
to a particular area of reference.
When is it issued?
The warning is issued for times a day, at 5 AM, 11 AM , 5PM, 11Pm or at any
time as conditions warrant.
MEANING AND DESCRIPTION OF THE MODIFIED PUBLIC STORM SIGNALS
Puclic Storm Signal No. 1
Meteorolofical Condition:
- A tropical cyclone will affect the locality
- Wind of 30-60 KPH may be expected in atleast 36 hours.
Impacts of the Winds:
- Twigs and branches of small trees may be broken.
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-Some banana plants may tilt or land flat on the ground
- Some houses of very light material (nip and cogon) may be partially unroofed
- Very light or no damage at all may be ustained by the exposed communities.
- Rice in flowering stage may suffer significant damage.
Precautionary Measure:
People are advised to listen to the latest Severe Weather Bulletin issued by
PAGASA every six hours. Business may be carried out as usual. When the tropical
cyclone is strong, intensifying or is moving close, this signal may be gradyally increases.
Disaster preparedness is activated to alert status.
Public Storm Signal No. 2
Meteorological Conditions:
- A moderate tropical cyclone will affect the locality
- Winds of greater than 60 KPH and up to 100KPH may be expected in at least 24hours
Impacts of the Winds:
- Some coconuts trees may be tilted with few others broken
- Few big trees may be uprooted.
- Many banana plants may be destroyed
- Rice may be adversely affected
- Large number of nipa and cogon houses may be partially or totally unroofed
-Light to moderate damage to palay in flowering stage.
Precautionary Measure:
- The sea and coastal water are dangerous to smaller seacraft. Fishermen are adbised
not to go out to sea.
- Avoid unnecessary risks. Travelling by sea or air is risky.
- Stay indoors.
- Secure Properties.
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Special attention should be given to the latest position, direction and speed
movement and intensity of the tropical cyclone as it may intensify and move towards the
locality. Disaster preparedness agencies and othe organizations are alerted.
Public Storm Signal No.3
Meteorological Conditions:
- A strong tropical cyclone will affect the locality.
- Winder greater than 199KPH up to 185 KPH may be expected in at least 18 hours
Impacts of the Winds:
- almost all banana plants may be destroyed and a large number of trees amy be
uprooted
-Rice and corn crops may suffer heavy damage
-Majority of nipa and cogon houses may be unroofed or destroyed and there may be
considerable dmage to structure of light to medium construction
- There may be widespread disruption of electrical power and communication services
-In general, moderate to heavy damage may be expected in both the agricultural and
industrial sectors.
-Travel by sea and by air is very risky.
- Sea and coastal water will be dangerous to all seacrafts
Precautionary Measure:
- People are advised to evacuate and stay in strong buildings
- Evacuate low lying areas.
- Stay away from coasts and river banks
- Watch out for the passage of the “EYE” of the typhoon
- During the passage of the “eye” do not venture away from the safety of the shelter
- Suspend classes in all levels and make sure children stay in the safety of strong
buildings
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The disturbance is dangerous to threatened or affected communities. The passage of
the “eye” of the typhoon is indicated sudden change from bad to fair weather. Fair
weather ,ay last for one or two hours after which the worst weather will resume with very
strong winds generally coming from the opposite direction. Disaster preparedness and
response agencies/organizations are activated to respond appropriately.
Public Storm Signal no.4
Meteorological Conditions:
- A very intense typhoon will affect the locality
- Very strong winds of more than 185 KPH may be expected in at least 12 hours
Impact of the Winds:
- Coconut plantaions may suffer extensive damage
- Many large trees may be uprooted
- Rice and corn plantations may suffer severe damage
- Most residential and institutional building of mixed construction may be severely
damaged
- Electrical power distribution and communications services may be disrupted
- Damage to affected communities can be very heavy
Precautionary Measures:
- Cancel all travel and other outdoor activities
- Stay in the safety of houses or evacuation center
The situation is potentially very destructive to the community. Disaster
coordinating councils concerned and other disaster response organization must
respond to emergencies very intense typhoon. The description of each signal is
enhanced with the addition of statements pertaining to the perceived degree of
associated damage based on typhoon passage surveys and empirical analysis
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THE NEW PUBLIC WEATHER FORECAST
In its continuing effort for enhance service delivry to the public, PAGASA recently
modified the Public Weather Forecast. In lime with this, it has set new guideliunes for its
issuance to sustain the improvement of weather forecasting services.
Under the modified weather forecast, a brief statement of the synoptic situation
that may influence the weather during the forecast period is included.
IT still contains the weather conditions, as mit normally had the in the past,
expected in different areas of the country like Metro Manila, Bauio City, Metro Cebu and
Metro Davao.
ECLIPSE
Eclipses are due to the revolution of the moon around the earth and the
revolution of the earth around the sun, While the strong influence of the moon upon the
earth’s water sphere produces tides.
Solar Eclipse happens when the moon passes directly between the sun and the
earth, the moon casts a shadow onearth. It happens during day time and during new
moon.
Perigee is the period when the moon must be at, or very near so that the darkest
part of its shadow will touch the earth.
Apofee is the period when the moon is very far from the earth
Lunar exlipse occurs when the earth happens to be in the same line as the sun and the
moon, then the earth casts a shadow on the surface of the moon. It happens at night
time and during full moon. If the moon is covered by the earth umba, a total lunar
eclipse occurs. If the moon gets within the earths penumbra partial lunar eclipse occurs.
TIDES
Tides are the effects of the rise and fall of the ocean level due to the strong
influence of the moon upon the earths water sphere.
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During The new moon and the full moon every month, the sun, the earth and the
moon are in line with one another. The tidal effects during such time are much stronger
because the gravitational pulls of the sun and the moon are combined. This is the time
when spring tide occurs. While a neap tide occurs when the high tides do not go up very
high and the lowrides do not go down very low.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The sun and all the other bodies held by its gravitational pull inmcluding
the nine know planets make up the solar system
Sun
The sun is a huge ball of hot gases 148,800,800 kilometers away from the earth
it is the center of the solar system.
Planets
There are nine known planets in the solar system: Mercury, Venus , Earth, Mars ,
Jupiter , Saturn, Neptune and pluto. Among the other planets the eart is the only one
that can sustain life because of the presense of oxygen in its atmosphere.
Other Celestial Bodies
Planetoids or asteroid are the tiny celestial bodies found between the orbits of mars and
Jupiter
Comets are celestial bodies composed of rocks and frozen gases and having very
eccentric orbits.
Example:
Halley comet- it has a “head” of burning gases believed to surrounding
some loose rock fragments.
Hyakutakes comet – scheduled to pass within 15 million kilometers of eartg.
Meteors are rock like particles in space. They are the smallest member of the solar
system.
Meteorite is a meteor which actually strikes the earth surface.
Galaxy is a huge congregation of billions of stars.
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SOCIAL SCIENCE
The Social Science component to the Licensure Examination for Teachers includes
Philippine Government New Constitution with Human Rights; Philippine History; Basic
Economics, Taxation, Agrarian Reform; Society, Culture with Family Planning; Rizal and
Other Heroes; Philosophy of Man; Arts; General Psychology; Information and
Communication Technology
PHILIPPINE HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
The Philippines as a nation has passed through several stages and has been
under different colonial rule in the course of its history. Discussed hereunder is the
evolution of the Philippines together with the different forms of government that had
been implemented by the different colonizers.
THE PRE-SPANISH GOVERNMENT
Before the Spaniards came to the Philippines there were settlements composed
of villages called barangay consisting of more or less 100 families. Evey barangay was
virtually a State for it possessed the four basic elements of the state.
Each barangay was ruled by a datu. He is the chief excecutive, law-giver, chief judge
and military head. He was assisted by the council of Elders called the Maginoos which
served as his advisers. In form the government in a barangay is monarchial nature with
the datu as the monarch.
Social classes in the barangay are divided into four: the nobility or the maharlika;
the freemen or the timawa; the serfs or the aliping namamahay; and the slaves or
aliping saguiguilid.
The early laws were both written and unwritten. The written were promulgated by
the datus. The two known written laws are the Maragtas Code written by Datu
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Sumakwel in 1250 AD and the Kalantiaw Code written by Datu Kalantiaw is 1433 AD
both in Panay. The unwritten laws can be seen in Filipino culture, but the authenticity of
the Code of Kalantiaw is doubtful.
The name Kalantiaw was heard first in an article entitled CIvilizacion prehispana
written by Manuel Rtigas and published in Renancimiento Filipino in July of 1913. It was
mentioned in the said article that Daty Kalantiaw built a fort in Galangin, negros which
was destroyed by an earthquale in the year A.D 435 he was also said to have enacted
16 laws in 1433 he used to goverm his constituents.
Kalantiaws prominence started in 1914 when a certain Jose Marco donated five
manuscripts to the Philippine Library & Museum which included Las antiguas leyendes
de la Isla de Negros, a two volume leather bound to work which was supposedly written
by a Friar Jose Maria Pavon between 1838 and 1839. Jose Marco has no definitive
explanation where how and when he got Fr. Pavons manuscripts.
The Code of Kalantiaw was presumed to be one of the six documents that were
supposedly translated before the arrival of the Spaniard in the Philippines. The Original
Code was claimed to have been discovered in the possession of a Panay datu in 1614.
In 1839 when Pavon wrote the documents the original copies were supposedly in hands
of a certain Don Marcelio ORfila of Zaragoza. Howeever, when the Philippine
government asked he government of spain for the return of the original Code of
Kalantiaw in 1966, the descendants of Marcelio Orfila cannot be located and no records
of that person or his descendants coulb be found in the city of Zaragoza.
To further confound the already confusing issue, Henry Otley Beyer, former head of the
Anthropology Department of the University of the Philippines related a story to a certain
colleague name Mauro Garcia. Otley Beyer told his friend that around 1840 a certain Fr.
Pavon the parish priest of Hiammaylan, Negros was on possession of some important
documents that supposedly forces Jose Marco’s father wh was the looters , stole what
they thought was a chest of coins or jewelries.
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When the chest was opened they discovered that it was full of papers which were
apparently the Pavon Manuscripts.
When Marco explained the origin of the manuscripts to the Philippine Studies
Program at the Univiersity of Chicago in 1954, he declarefd that the manuscripts were
handed to him by an old cook who once worked at the convent in Himamaylan
wherePavon had lived. He added that the cook who was the one who had stolen the
manuscripts during the looting of the convenient in 1899 sold rthem to Marco in 1913,
but this tory remains unverified to this day.
Modern historians no longer believed the authenticity of the Pavon Manuscripts
or the story of the Jose Marco. One major reasons to reject the authenticity of the Code
of Kalantiaw is the inadequancy of historical evidence that would support its existence.
More oever, there are no written or pictorial documents from that time in Philippine
history that will even suggest the existence of the Code. There are also no documents
from other countries that mention the existence of great ruler baned Kalantiaw. On the
other hand the punishments in the cide were so barbaric and not regelctive of the
humane nature of ancient customs at that time allowed even the most serious
lawbreakers just to pay a fine or be placed into servitude for a period of time in cases of
debt.
The second reason is the lack of evidfence for a Kalantiaw legend. Many ardent
admirers of the Datu, who disdain all historical evidence to contrary, claim that he has
long been a part of Visayan culture and heritage. This is simply not true .
The Spaniards never recorded any Filipino legend about KAlantiaw. If they were aware
of such legend they had no reason to suppress it bevause those Spaniards who were
sympathetic to the Filipinos could have presented the mere existence of the Code as
proof that their ancestors were civilized, just as many Filipinos do today, while
detractors could have pointed to the maniacal Datu himself as proof of their savagery.
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Even eminent scholars like Scott who docused his inverstigation by tracing the
original source of every reference to the pre-Hispanic history of the Philippines in the
available college text books in use at that time was not convinced in the existence og
the Code. Scott examined the original documents available during his time and
searched almost all archives to find out the truth about Kalantiaw but Scott fount out that
Jose E. Marco contributions to Philippine historiography appear to be deliberate
fabrications with no historic validity. There is therefore no present evidence that any
Filipino ruler by the name of Kalantiaw ever existed or that the Kalantiaw penal code is
any older than 1914.
For these and other causes, there is no compelling reason supported by tangible
evidence to believe the existence of this code or to include the study of the code in
Philippine history classes (Duka, 2008)
THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT
Spain’s title to the Philippines was based, on the discovery of the Philippines by
Ferdinand Magellan on march 16, 1521 and consummated by the conquest of Miguel
Lopez de Legaspi forty-five years later, Spain kept the Philippines for almost four
centuries until 1898 when the Philippines was ceded by Spain to the United States
byVirtue of the Treaty of Paris.
The Philippines was governed by the King of Spain through Mexico from 1565, to
1821, When Mexico gained its independence, the Philippines was ruled directly by
spain through the council of Indies from 1821 to 1837. In 1837, legislation for the
Philippines was temporarily performed by the Council of Ministers. From 1863, the
Ministry of Ultramar exercised general power of supervisions over Philippine affairs.
The Spanish government in the Philippines was centralized structure and
national in scope. The barangays were consolidated into pueblos (towns) and headed
by a gobernadorcillo popularly called as Capitan and the towns into provinces headed
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by Gobernador who represents the Governor-General in the province. Cities governed
under special Charters were created. Each of these cities had an Ayuntamiento or
Cabildo (city council) Cebu was the first city to be established in 1565 in the Philippines.
These second Manila in 1571.
The powers of government was exercised by the Governor-General and ably
assisted by the Board of Authorities and the Council of Administration. The first Spanish
governor-general was Miguel Lopez de Legaspi and the last was Gen.Diego delos Rios.
To strengthen the judicial system, Spain established the Royal Audiencia in 1583
in Cebu and Vigan, which exercised appellate jurisdiction over criminal cases coming
from the surrounding areas. In 1886, the Courts were established in the town level.
Special courts were also organized.
THE REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT
During the Spanish period, several forms of de facto government were
established.
Among them were:
The Katipunan-The Katipunan was a secret society that precipitated the
Philippine revolution against Spain on August 26, 1896. The Katipunan was organized
by Andres BOnifacio. The central government of the Katipunan was vested in the
Supreme Council. A Provincial Council was established in each province. A Popular
Council was established in the town level. The judicial power was exercised by a
Judicial Council or the Sangguniang Hukuman. After the execution of Bonifacio, another
government was established by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo who acted as the first President
of the Philippine Republic by virtue of the election in the Tejeros Convention on March
22, 1897.
The Biak-na-Bato Republic- On November 1, 1897 a republic was established by
Gen. Aguinaldo in Biak na Bato. It had a Constitution which was to take effect for two
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years only. The republic lasted up to December 15, 1897, with the conclusion of the
Pact of Biak na BAto.
The Dictatorial Government – Following the outbreak of the Spanish-American
War on April 25, 1898, Gen. Aguinaldo established the Dictatorial Government on May
24, 1898. The most important achievements of the government were the proclaimation
of Philippine Independence at Kwait, Cavite on June 12, 1898 and the reorganization of
the local governments.
The Revolutionary Government – On June 23, 1898, Gen. Aguinaldo established
the Revolutionary Government replacing the dictorial government. The aim of the new
fovernment was to struggle for the independence of the Philippines, until all nations
including Spain ex[ressly recognize it and to prepare the country for the establishment
of a real republic.
The First Philippine Republic – On September 15, 1898, a revolutionary congress
of Filipino representatives met in Malolos, Bulacan and framed the so-called Malolos
Constitution. The Constitution established a free and independent Philippine Republic
which was inaugurated on January 23, 1899 with Gen. Aguinaldo as President. The
Republic was not recognized by the family of nations. It was nevertheless an organized
government because it actually existed from January 23, 1899 to March 23, 1901. In
February 1899, the United States annexed the Philippines as a result of the Spanish-
American War and in April 1901, Gen. Aguinaldo was captured.
THE AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
There were three kindsof government implemented by the Americans during their
period:
The Military Government – The American military rule in the Philippines started
on April 14, 1898 the day after the capture of Manila. The existence of war gave the
President of the United States the power to establish a Military government. His
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authority was delegated to the military governor who exercised, as long as the war
lasted, all powers of government – executive, legislative, and judicial. The three
American Military governors were: Gen. Wesley Merrit, Gen. lElwell Otis and the last
was Gen. Arthur McArthur.
The Civil Government – The spooner Amendment ended the military regime in
the Philippines. On July 4, 1901 a Civil government was inaugurated headed by a Civil
Governor. On febryary 6, 1905, the title was changed to Governor-General, who
exercised legislative powers.
He remained as President of the Philippines Comimission, the sole lawmaking body of
the government from 1901 to 1916. The Philippine commission acted as the upper
house of the legislative branch with the Philippine Assembly serving as the lower house.
With the passage of the Jones Law in 1916, these two bodies gave way to the
Philippine legislature.
The Philippines was reoresented in the United States by two Resident Commissioners
where elected by the Philippine Legeslature. These Comissioners had seats in the
United States of Representatives, receiving the same emolumenrts and other previlages
as the American memvers of theat body, but without the right to vote.
The first Civil Governor was Judge Wlliam H. Taft (1901-1903). He was
succeeded by Luke F. Wright (1904-1906) who was the first American to enjoy the title
of Governor-General of the Philippines. The last Governor-General was Frank Murphy
(1933-1935) who was also the first Hig Commissioner of the United States to the
Philippines upon the inauguration of the Commonwealth government of the Philippines.
The Commonwealth Government- The next stage in the political development of
the Filipinos was the establishment of the Commonwealth government of the Philippines
the Filipinos was the establishment of the Commonwealth government of the Philippines
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pursuant to an act of the United States Congress on March 24, 1934, commonly known
as the Tydings-Mcduffie Law.
The law provided for a transition period of ten years during which the Philippine
Commonwealth would operate until July 4, 1946, where in the independence of the
Philippines would be proclaimed and established. The new government of the
Philippines was anaugurated on November 15, 1935, following the first national election
under the 1935 constitution held on September 12, 1935 with Manuel L. Quezon and
Sergio Osmeña as President and Vice President respectively.
The Commonwealth government of the Philippines was republican in form under the
presidential type. The legislative power was vested in a unicameral National Assembly
and later in a bicameral Congress composed of the Senate and the House of
Representatives. The Judicial power was vested in the Supreme Court and inferior
courts provided by law. The government of the Commonwealth was automous in nature.
The Filipinos had almost complete control over the domestic affairs, the United States
retaining control only over matters involving foreign affairs.
During World War II, the Commonwealth government functioned in exile in
Washington from May 13, 1942 to Octover 3, 1944. Iw was reestablished in Manila on
February 27, 1945 when Gen. Douglas McArthur turned over to President Osmeña the
full powers and responsibilities of the Commonwealth government under the 1935
Constitution.
THE JAPANESE GOVERNMENT
The Japanese Military Administrator was established in Manila on January 3,
1942, one day after its occupation. The Japanese High Command immediately
terminated the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines.
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A Civil government known as the Philippine Executive Commission was
established with Jorge B. Vargas as its chairman. The Comission exercised both the
executive and the legislative power. However, laws enacted were subjected to the
approval of the Commander-in-chief of the Japanese forces. The Judiciary continued in
the same manner as it had traditionally enjoyed independence.
On Octover 14, 1943, the so called Japanese sponsored Republic of the
Philippines was inaugurated with Jose P. Laurel as President. Like the Comission, the
ultimate source of its authority was the Japanese military authority and government. On
August 17,1945, President Laurel dissolved the Republic.
THE THIRD PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
When the Philippines was finally liberated from the hands of the Japanese, the
Third Philippine Republic was inaugurated on July 4 1946 with Manuel A. Roxas as
president and Elpidio Quirino as Vice President. Roxas died on April 16 1948, paving
the way for the Quirino presidency which lasted until 1953.
Quirino was followed by Ramon Magsaysay, who was not able to finish his term when
he died in a plane crash on March 17, 1957. Carlos Garcia succeeded Magsaysay.
Garcia was followed by Diosdado Macapagal who served the country for only term.
Macapagal was defeated by Ferdinand Marcos in the presidential election of 1965.
The Marcos Years. Marcos took his oath of office on December 30 1965. He was
reelected in 1969, due to his outstanding performance as chief executive. However,
before the end of his second term, Marcos made serious efforts to amend the 1935
Constitution which was in effect at that time. A Constitutional Convention was created
which drafted the 1973 Constitution. But even before the framing of this charter was
finished, Marcos issued Proclamation No. 1081 which placed the entire archipelago
under Martial Law. By virtue of this declaration, the Congress was abolished, the
opposition leader disappeared.
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Marcos assumed the executive, lesgilative, and even judicial powers of the government.
He virtually controlled all the aspects of the Philippine politics through his Presidential
Derees and through the Batasang Pambansa.
The Aquino Presidency. On February 7, 1986, Marcos called for a snap
presidential election which was marked by rampant cheating presumably on both the
administration candidates led by Marcos for President and Arturo Tolentino for Vice
President and the opposition candidates led by Corazon Aquino for President and
Salvador Laurel for Vice President.
This event led to the so called EDSA Peoples Revolution from February 22-25, 1986
that paved the way for the downfall of the 20years of Marcos presidency. Corazon
Aquino was inducted as the first lady President of the Philippines on February 25,1986
in Club Filipino, San Juan, Matro Manila. Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3 on March
25, 1986 promulgating the Freedom Constitution. Thereafter, on June 2, 1986, she
appointed a Constitutional Commission composed of fifty memvers which drafted the
1987 Constitution.
On February 2, 1987 the people voted to ratify the Charter, thereby legalizing the
restoration of democratic government and institutions in the country. This was followed
Ramos , the formor Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and the anointed successor of
Corazon Aquino was elected president.
Ramos Administration
On May 11, 1992, the first presidential elections undetthe 1987 Constitution were
held. The elections were generally peaceful and resulted in the lawful and orderly
transfer of the presidency. Ramos earlier joined the Majority LDP pParty but bolted
when he losts in the part nomination for president. Thereafter he formed his own Lakas-
NUCD Party and went on to wil by just 23.6% of the vote, over Miriam Defensor-
Santiago of the Peoples Reform Party (PRP), Eduardo Cojuangco, Jr. of the Nationalist
Peoples Coalition , House Speaker Ramon Mitra of the Laban ng Demokratikkong
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Pilipino (LDP), former First lady Imelda Marcos of the Kilusang Bagong Lipiunan (KBL),
Senate President jovito Salonga of the Liberal Part(LP) and Vice President Salvador
Laurel of the Nationalista Party (NP)
President Fide Ramos took his oath to as the 12th President of the Republic of
the Philippines onm June 30, 1992at the Quirino Grandstand in Rizal Park. Early in his
administration, Ramos declared “national reconciliation” as his highest priority. He
legalized the communist party and created the National Unification Commission (NUC)
to lay the groundwork for talks with the communist and other insurgent groups.
Ramos, learning from the experiences under the Aquino government, focused his
efforts on the restoration of peace and order and the stabilization of the economy.
Ramos has made big stride in bringing about a new social and political order by actively
reaching out to even political opponents and insurgents to unite the nation behind a
common bision. His framework of governance is sustainable development; energy and
power generation; environmental protection; and a streamlined bureaucracy.
The Estrada Presidency
On May 11, 1998, the former movie star, former Senator and the Vice
President during the Ramos administration, Jose Marcelo Ejercito alsno know by his
screen name Joseph Estrada won in the second democratic presidential election since
the EDSA revolution. He bested Jose De Venecia of Lakas NUCD, Raul Roco of
Aksyon Demokratiko, Juan Ponce Enrile, an independent candidate, Alfredo Lim of the
Liberal Party, Miriam Santiago of the People’s Reform Party, Imelda Marcos of the
Kilusang Bagong Lipunan, Cebu Governor Emilio Osmena of PROMDI, sweepstakes
Chairman Manuel Morato of Partido Bansang Marangal and Santiago Dumlao of
Kilusan Para sa pambansang Pagbabago.
Estrada was the popular choice for President and not the preferred candidate of the
outgoing President. On June 30, 1998, Estrada took his oath of office as the 13th
President of the Republic of the Philippines in Barasoain Church, Malolos, Bulacan, the
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same place where Emilio Aguinaldo took his oath as the first presiden of the Philippines
a hundred years ago.
When Estrada delivered his inaugural speech at the Rizal Park later that day, mostly in
the Tagalog language, the people especially his supporters – the masa, were ecstatic
specially when he promised that in his administration “walang kumpare, walang kamag
anak …huwag ninyo akong subukan.” Estrada’s popularity started its decline in the
middle 1999, as mounting allegations of cronyism and a badly managed attempt to
change the constitution to attract more foreign investment led to a sharp drop ratings.
On June 19, 2000, Estrada was accused by the chairman of the Securities Exchange
Commission Perfecto Yasay of pressuring him to clear a friend accused in the country’s
worst insider trading scandal. Yasay was later forced to quit and the stock market
flounders.
Then on April 23,2000, the Abu Sayyaf Muslim extremist group abducted 21 hostages
from seven nations from the nearby Malaysia resort of Sipadan and brought them to
Jolo, Sulu two days later.The crisis frightened foreign investors and puts Estrada under
pressure for months as foreign governments expressed concern over the safety of the
hostages.The situation worsened when Estrada’s friend, Ilocos Sur Governor Luis
“Chavit” Singson revealed on October 9,2000, that Estrada wa receiving bribes from the
jueteng lords all over the country ,pocketing more than 400 million pesos in bribes from
illegal gambling syndicates and about 130 million pesos in kickbacks from tobacco
excise taxes meant for his province.
Estrada of course denied the accusations but announces an end to state sponsored
gambling and privatized a government –run casino firm. On October 18, 2000 the
opposition legislators filed an impeachment complaint against Estrada in the House of
Representatives over the scandal as thousands of anti-Estrada activists led by former
president Corazon Aquino called for Erap’s resignation.
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Estrada thereafter, announced sweeping reforms in government and offered Arroyo the
country’s top economic post as a gesture of reconciliation. Arroyo rejected the offer,
saying he should step down to prevent an economic collapse.
Estrada was adamant and vowed that he will not resign and will defend himself in
Congress. Estrada’s key supporters in Congress, Senate President Franklin Drilon and
House of Representatives Speaker Manuel Villar, quit the ruling coalition with 45 other
legislators on November 3, 2000. On November 4, 2000 Vice President Gloria Arroyo,
the leaders of the Catholic Church and other key member of the opposition lead some
60,000 people in a peaceful protest in Manila calling for Estrada’s resignation.
Arroyo Assumed Presidency
In the morning of Sunday, January 20, 2001, the fourth day since EDSA People
Power 2 started, the militant groups marched from EDSA towards Malacanang Palace
against the admonition of Cardinal Sin. The Supreme Court led by Chief Justice Hilario
Davide declared tha the office of the president was vacant.
At noon, Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo took her oath of office before Chief
Justice Davide in the presence of the crowd at EDSA, becoming the 14th president of
the Republic of the Philippines. At around two o’clock in the afternoon, Estrada released
a letter saying he had “strong and serious doubts about the legality and constitutionality
of her proclamation as president”, but saying he would give up his office to avoid being
an obstacle to healing the nation.
Thereafter, Estrada, First Lady Luisa Ejercito and their children left Malacanang via the
palace gate at the Pasig River. General Angelo Reyes was in Malacanang to secure the
safe exit of the deposed President and his family.
Amidts the chaos, Estrada and his wife were still smiling, Waving to reporters and
shaking hands with the remaining members of the Cabinet and other palace employees.
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On April 4, 2001 Ombudsman Aniano Desierto charged Estrada with perjury before the
Sandiganbayan for filing a false Statement of Assets and Liabilities and Net Worth
(SALN) for the year 1999.
Estrada was accused of declaring a net worth of only P35 million, when evidence
indicated that he had ammased billions of pesos from jueteng payoffs, tax kickbacks
and questionable business deals. On April 18, 2001, the Ombudsman file a case
against Estrada, his son Jinggoy and several others before the Sandiganbayan for
viaolating Republic Act No. 7080 or the Anti Plunder Law.
May 1, 2001 Rebellion
From the time of Estrada’s arrest on April 25, 2001, his supporters from all over
the country converged at the EDSA Shrine, the site of the EDSA People Power 2 that
toppled Joseph Estrada from Malacanang on January 20, 2001. Agitated by the political
allies of Estrada like Senators Miriam Santiago, Juan Ponce Enrile, Gregorio Honasan,
Ernesto Maceda, Pamfilo Lacson, Tessie Oreta, John Osmena, Nikki Coseteng, Tito
Sotto and Robert Jaworski the throngs of angry mob marched towards Malacanang
Palace on May1, 2001 to demand the ouster of Arroyo.
At least two police officers and one protester were killed and 16 others have been taken
to hospital when supporters of Joseph Estrada tried to storm the gates of Malacanang.
Riot police managed to clear the area after a few hours, but not before more protesters
were injured.
Arroyo declared a state of rebellion within Metro Manila, to try to quell the
demonstrations and restore peace and order. The police identified the opposition
leaders believed to have encourage the crowds to attack the presedential palace.
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These included Senator Juan Ponce Enrile, Gregorio Honasan and Miriam Defensor-
Santiago and former Ambassador Ernesto Maceda and former PNP Chief Panfilo
Lacson. All are seeking a senate seat in the May 14, electios.
The government ordered their arrest but only Enrile and Maceda were apprehended but
they were able to post bail and were thereafter released from detention.
The Oakwood Rebellion
In the early hours of July 27, 2003 the Glorieta shopping complex and the
Oakwood Premier hotel in Makati City were taken over by a group of young rebel
soldiers and officers who organized themselves into the Magdalo group. Their
spokesman, Lt. SG. Antonio Trillanes of the Philippine Navy, accused the government
of staging bombings in Davao City and pinning the blame on the Moro Islamic Liberation
Front in order to label the group a terrorist organization and secure military aid from
United States.
The rebels also demanded the resignation of Col. Victor Corpus, the chief of Intelligence
Service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (ISAFP) and AFP Chief of Staff General
Narcisco Abaya. After a 24-hour standoff, the Makati siege was lifted with the rebel
troops peacefully returning to their barracks. The rebel troops agreed to go back to the
barrack after marathon meeting with former AFP Chief of Staff Roy Cimatu and middle
lever officers from the Navy and the Scout Rangers.
2004 National Elections
On May 14, 2004, the Filipinos trooped to the polling precincts once more to
choose their leaders from the president down to the municipal councilors. Arroyo won
the presidential derby by 12,905,808 votes over movie actor and Estrada’s friend
Fernando Poe, Jr., Senator Panfilo Lacson, Raul Roco and Evangelist Eduardo
Villanueva, amidst charges of massive fraud, vote buying and violence especially in the
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rural areas, while Arroyo’s running mate, newscaster turned senator Manuel “Noli” De
Castro won the vice presidential race over Loren Legarda and Herminio Aquino.
On June 30, 2004, Gloria Arroyo took her oath of office as president of the Republic of
the Philippines for the second time but this time in her own right as duly elected by the
Filipino people. She was inaugurated on the island of Cebu, the first Philippine
President to be inaugurated there.
This was done in gratitude for the support given to her by the people of Cebu during the
election. Fernando Poe, Jr. filed an electoral protest against Arroyo before the
Presidential Electoral Tribunal of the Supreme Court, but during the pendency of his
protest, Poe died early in the morning of December 14, 2004 after he was rushed to St.
Luke’s Hospital in Quezon City the night before.
Poe, fell into a coma after a massive stroke over the weekend and never recovered.
Poe’s lawters filed a petition before the Supreme Court to substitute Susan Roces,
Poe’s wife and continue the protest; however, the Highest Tribunal dismissed on March
29, 2005 the petition and the lectoral protest lodged by the deceased actor. Scandals
and corruption rocked the arroyo government.
These include the “Garci recordings”, various human right violations which prompted the
United Nations to send Philip Alston, the United Nations special rapporteur on
extrajudicial killings who reported that there are compelling reasons supported by
evidence that human rights violations including extra judicial killings were done by the
military, the National Broadband Network –ZTE scandals among others.
These led to the filing of three impeachment cases in the three consecutive years
against Gloria Arroyo. However, the impeachment cases did not prosper due to the fact
that majority of the members of the House of Representatives were faithful allies of
Gloria Arroyo.
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Estrada was Convicted and Pardoned
On Septemver 12, 2007, Joseph Estrada was convicted of Plunder by the
Sandiganbayan and was sentenced to reclusion perpetua (imprisonment for 20years
and one day to forty years). However, even before he could serve his first day of
imprisonment, Gloria Arroyo granted former president Joseph Estrada’s application for
pardon on October 25, 2007.
Arroyo invoked “National unity, the rule of law, justice with accountability “as the
guideposts she used in deciding to grant pardon to her ousted predecessor due to
plunderer. The pardon was given a little more than a month after Estrada was convicted
by the Sandiganbayan and sentenced to reclusion perpetua, which carries a jail term of
20 years and a day to 40 years.
Aroyo said that she was aware that her decision would be “debated, welcomed,
criticized and given all sorts of meanings and motives,” but stressed freeing the nation
from bitter political rivalry has been her administration’s agenda sincere she assumed
office. Arroyo also invoked Estrada’s wish to be with his ailing 102-year-old mother,
Mary Ejercito.
The 2010 National Elections
On May 10, 2010, The Filipino people once again went to the polling places to
exercise their right of suffrage and choose their next leaders from the President to the
municipal and city coucilors. The 2010 national elections was the first time when the
counting of the ballots was done by Precinct Count Optical Scan (PCOS) machines
pursuant to the Election Automation Law (Republic Act No. 9369).
The candidates for president were Benigno Simeon Aquino III, of the Liberal Party,
Manuel VIllar of the Nacionalista Party, Joseph Ejercito Estrada of the Partido ng
Masang Pilipino, Gilberto Teodoro of Lakas – Kampi, Eduardo Villanueva of Bangon
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Pilipinas, Richard Gordon of Bagumbayan Party, John Carlos Delos Reyes of Ang
Kapatiran Party, Nicanor Perlas, an independent candidate and Jamby Madrigal,
another independent candidate.
While the candidates for vice president were Manuel Roxas of the Liberal Party, Loren
Legarda of the Nacionalista Party, Jejomar Binay of the Partido ng Masang Pilipino,
Eduardo Manzano of Lakas- Kampi, Perfecto Yasay of Bangon Pilipinas, Bayani
Fernando of Bagumbayan Party, Dominador Chipeco of Ang Kapatiran Party and Jose
Sonza of Kilusang Bagong Lipunan. After the votes have been counted, Senator
Benigno Simeon Aquino III, emerged as the winner in the presidential race while Makati
MayorJejomar Binay, emerged as the Vice President.
Their term of office will start on June 30, 2010 and will end on June 30, 2016. The 2016
national elections saw the victory of a city mayor into the office of the President.
Davao City Mayor Rodrigo Roa Duterte bested four other candidates for the highest
office- Manuel Roxas III of the then ruling Liberal Party, Grace Liamanzares Poe,Vice
President Jejomar Binay and Senator Miriam Santiago. While Congresswoman Maria
Leonor Gerona Robredo was elected Vice President but her victory was under election
protest filed by one of the losing candidates for Vice President Senator Ferdinand
Marcos Jr.
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political Science is the systematic study of the State and government. Politics is a
science because it gives us a basic knowledge and understanding of the state and the
principles and ideals underlying its organization and activities.
Therefore, in political science, we study the affairs of the State and how the system
work. Politics becomes a science because it undergoes scientific methodologies and
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strategies in the process of governmental operations and the relations between men
and the State.
THE STATE AND GOVERNMENT
The State
The state is a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently
occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of external control and possessing
na organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience.
The Elements of the State
The following are the elements of the state:
People – It refers simply to the inhabitants of the State.
Territory – It is the fixed portion of the surface of the earth inhabited by the people of
the State. The national territory of the Philippines is comprised of the following;
1. The Philippine archipelago with all the islands and waters embraced therein.
2. All the other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or
jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial and aerial domains, including its territorial
sea, the seabed, the subsoil and other submarine areas; and
3. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago,
regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters of the
Philippines.
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Government – It is the agency or instrumentality through which the will of the
State is Formulated, exressed and realized. The government of the Republic of the
Philippines is composed of the Following:
1. National Government- refers to the entire machinery of the government.
2. Local Governments – refer to the political subdivisions such as provinces,
ceties, municipalities, and barangays.
3. Autonomous Regions – refers to the autonomous governments or regions in
the country.
4. Metropolitan Authority – refers to the special political subdivisions composed
of all local fgovernment units comprising Metro Manila.
Sovereignty – is the supreme power of the state to enforce its will upon the
people and the freedom from external or foreign control.
Origin of the State
There are several theories concerning the origin of the state, among them are:
Divine Right Theory – It holds that the state is of Divine creation and the ruler is
ordained by God to govern the people. Reference has been made to the laws which
Moses received at Mt.Sinai.
Necessity or Force Theory – It maintains that the state must have been created
through force, by some great warriors who imposed their will upon the weak.
Paternalistic Theory – It attributes the origin of the state to the enlargement of
the family which remained under the authority of the father or mother. By natural stages,
the family grew into a clan, then developed into a tribe, and then broadened into a
nation, and the nation became a state.
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Social Contract Theory – It asserts that the early states must have been formed
by deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form a society and organize
government for their common good. This theory justifies the right of the people to revolt
against a bad ruler.
Distinction between a State and a Nation
The state is a political concept while nation is an ethnic concept. A nation is a group
of people bound together by common culture and who believe that they are one and
distinct from other.
A nation may or may not be independent of external control, while a state may consist
of one or more nations and a nation may be made of several states.
Functions of Government
The government has two functions classified as constituent function and ministrant
function.
1. The constituent functions are those which constitute the bond of society, and
are therefore, compulsory in nature, such as:
a. The keeping of order and providing for the protection of person and property
form a violence and robbery;
b. The fixing of legal relations between man and wife and between parents and
children;
c. The regulation of the holding, transmission and interchange of property and
the determination of its liabilities for debt or for crime;
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d. The determination of constractual rights between individuals;
e. The definition and punishment of crimes;
f. The administration of justice in civil cases;
g. The determination of political duties, previleges and relations of citizens;
h. Dealings of the state with foreign powers; the preservation of the State from
external danger of encroachment and the advancement of its international interests.
2. The ministrant functions are those undertaken by way of advancing the general
interests of society, and are therefore, optional, such as public works, public education,
public charity, health and safety regulations and regulations of trade and commerce.
Forms of Government
The Principal forms of government are:
1. Monarchy – one in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single
person without regard to the source of his election or the nature or duration of his
tenure.
Monarchies are classified into:
1. Absolute monarchy – one in which the ruler rules by divine right;
2. Limited monarchy – one in which the ruler rules in accordance with a
constitution.
2. Aristocracy – one in which political power is exercised by a few privileged class
which is known as aristocracy or oligarchy; and
3. Democracy – one in which political power is exercised by a majority of the people.
Democratic governments are furher classified into:
1. Direct or pure democracy – one in which the will of the state is formulated or
expressed directly and immediately through the people in a mass meeting or primary
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assembly rather than through the medium of delegates or representatives chosen to act
for them;
2. Indirect, representative or republican democracy – one in which the will of the
State is formulated and expressed through the agency of a relatively small and select
body of persons chosen by the people to act as their representatives.
4. Other forms of government
As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national government:
1. Unitary – one in which the control of national and local affairs is exercised by
the central or national government: and
2. Federal – one in which the power of the government is divided between two
sets of organs, one for national affairs and the other for local affairs, each organ being
supreme within its own sphere.
As to relationship between the legislative and the executive:
1. Parliamentary – one in which the state confers upon the legislature the power to
terminate the tenure of office of the real executive. Under this system, the Cabinet or
Ministry is immediately and legally responsible to the legislature and politically
responsible to the legislature and politically responsible to the electorate, while the
titular or nominal executive – the Chief of State – occupies a position of irresponsibility;
and
2. Presidential – where the executive is independent of the legislative as to tenure,
policies and acts. He is directly elected by the people.
Kinds of Government
1. De Jure – has general support of its people and is founded on existing
constitutional laws of the state.
2. De Facto – is founded not on existing constitutional laws of the state.
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2.1 De facto government by usurpation – gets possession and control of, or
usurps by force, or by voice of the majority, the rightful government and maintains itself
against the will of the latter.
2.2 De facto government by insurrection – established as an independent
government by the inhabitants of a country who rise in insurrection against the parent
state; and
2.3 De facto government by invasion – established and maintained by military
force which invades and occupies a territory of the enemy in the course of war, and
which is dominated by a government of paramount force.
CONSTITUTION
A constitution is a written instrument by which the fundamental powers of
government are established, limited and defined, and by which the powers are
distributed among several departments for their safe and useful exercise for the benefits
of the body politics.
It is a written charter, enacted and adopted by the people of the state, through a
convention of representatives or in any way the people may choose to act, which a
government for them is ordained or established, and by which the people give organic
and corporate form to that ideal thing – the state.
Types of Constitution
There are several types of a constitution.
1. Written constitution is a kind of a constitution whose provisions are all
contained in a single document. A good example of this constitution is the Philippine
constitution.
2. Unwritten constitution is a kind of constitution where the provisions are not
contained in a single document but rather in different documents which are considered
as part of the fundamental law of the land. A more appropriate term for this kind would
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be un-compiled constitution. The constitution of United Kingdom is fine example of this
type of constitution.
3. Conventional or enacted constitution is a type of constitution that was
formulated by a constitutional convention that is called to draft the constitution.
4. Cumulative or evolved constitution is a constitution which is not drafted by
a positive act of the state but it developed as a part of the history of the nation.
5. Rigid or inelastic constitution is one which cannot be easily amended
unless such amendment is provided for by the constitution itself.
Parts of a Constitution
The Constitution is a fundamental law has three major parts namely:
1. Constitution of Government which refers to those provisions which set up the
government structure specifically, Articles VI,VII,VIII,IX and X of the 1987 Constitution.
2. Constitution of Liberty are the provisions which guarantee indibidual fundamental
liberties against governmental abuse specifically provided in Articles III,IV,V,XII,XIII,XIV
and XV of the 1987 Constitution and
3. Constitution of Sovereignty which refers to those provisions which outline the
process whereby the sovereign people may change the constitution. These are
provided in XVII and Article II Section 1 of the 1987 Constitution.(Duka,2010)
Essential Qualities of a Written Constitution
A desirable written constitution must be broad, brief and definite. It must be
broad in the sense that it provides for the organization and structure of the entire
government. It must embody the political history of the nation, the present realities and
future prospects of the nation’s destiny.
The constitution must be brief for it must limit itself to the basic principles and leave the
implementations o such fundamental principles to the sound judgement of the legislative
department. It must be definite in order to avoid unnecessary ambiguities which would
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later on lead to confusion, brought about by the different interpretations and
constructions of its provisions (Cruz, 2003).
THE 1987 CONSTITUTION
The 1987 Constitution is founded upon certain fundamental principles of
government which have become part and parcel of our cherished democratic heritage
as a people. A knowledge of these principles is, therefore, essential to proper
understanding of our organic law. Among these principles as contained in the new
Constitution are the following:
1. Recognition of the aid of the Almighty God. (See Preamble)
2. Sovereignty of the people (Art. II, Sec 1):
3. Renunciation of war as an instrument of nation policy (Art.II, Sec 2);
4. Supremacy of civilian authority over the military (Art II, Sec 3);
5. Separation of church and state (Art II, Sec 6);
6. Recognition of the importance of the family as a basic social institution and of
vital role of the youth in nation-building (Art. II, Sec. 12,13; Art. XV);
7. Guarantee of Human Rights (Art. III, Sec 1-22)
8. Government through suffrage (Art V, Sec 1);
9. Separation Powers ( Art VI, Sec 1);
10. Independence of the Judiciary (Art VIII, Sec 1);
11. Guarantee of local autonomy ( Art X, Sec 2);
12. High sense of public service morality and accountability of public officers (Art XI,
Sec 1);
13. Nationalization of natural resources and certain private enterprise affected with
public interest (Art XII, Sec 2, 3 ,17 , 18);
14. Non-suability of the State (Art. XVI, Sec. 3);
15. Rule of the majority; and
16. Government of laws and not of men
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PREAMBLE
Te term preamble is derived from the Latin word “preambulare” which means to
walk before. It is the introduction to the main subject.
It is the prologue of the Constitution. The preamble of the 1987 constitution is
reproduced hereunder:
“We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to
build a just and humane society and establish a government that shall embody our
ideals and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our
patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of independence
and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love,
equality and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution”
ARTICLE I – NATIONAL TERRITORY
The National Territory comprises the Philippine Archipelago, with all the islands
and waters embraced therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines has
sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial, and aerial domains ,
including its territorial seas, the seabed, subsoil, the insular shelves, and other
submarine areas. The water around, between and connecting the islands of the
archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters
of the Philippines.
ARTICLE II – DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES
The function of the Declaration of Principles and State Policies in the constitution are:
1. To shed light on the meaning of the other provisions of the constitution; and
2. To guide all departments in the implementation of the Constitution
ARTICLE III – THE BILL OF RIGHTS
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The Bill of Rights may be defined as declaration and enumeration of the
individual rights and privileges which the Constitution is designed to protect against
violations by the government or by individual or groups of individuals. It is a charter of
liberties for the individual and a limitation upon the power of the state.
Classification of Rights
1. Natural Rights – right possessed by every citizen without being granted by the
State for they are conferred by God to human being so that he may live a happy
life. Ex. The right to live and the right to love.
2. Contitutional Rights – rights conferred and protected by the Contitution. Since
they are part of the fundamental law, they cannot be modified or taken away by
the law- making body.
Classification of the Contitutional Rights
1. Political Rights – rights which give citizens the power to participate directly or
indirectly, in the establishment or administration of the government. Ex: rights of
citizenship and suffrage.
2. Civil Rights – right which the law will enforce at the instance of private individuals
for the purpose of securing them the enjoyment of their means of happiness.
2.1. Social and Economic Rights – rights are intended to insure the well being
and economic security of the individual.
2.2. Rights of the Accused – Intended for the protection of a person accused
of any crime.
3. Statutory Rights – provided by law promulgated by the law making body and
consequently, may be abolished by the same body.
Ex: rights to receive a minimum wage and to inherit property.
The Rights of the Individual As Provided by the Bill of Rights
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1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law nor
shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
2. The right of person to be secured in their persons, houses, papers, and effect against
unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be
inviolable, and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall be issued except upon
probable cause to be determined personally by the judge after examination under oath
or affirmation of the complaint and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly
describing the place to be search and the persons or things to be seized.
3. The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon
lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise as prescribed
by law. Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be
inadmissible for any purpose in proceeding.
4. No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the
press, or right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for
redress of grievances.
5. No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof.
6. The liberty of abode and changing the same within the limits prescribed by law shall
not be impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to travel be
impaired except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health, as
may be provided by law.
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7. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be
recognized. Access to official records, and to documents, and papers pertaining to
official acts, transactions, or decisions, as well as to government research data used as
basis for policy development shall be afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as
may be provided by law.
8. The right pf the people, including those employed in the public and private sectors, to
for union, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not be
abridged.
9. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just competition.
10. No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
11. Free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and adequate legal assistance
shall not be denied to any person by reason of poverty.
12. (1) Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the
right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to have competent and independent
counsel preferably of his own choice. If the person cannot afford the services of
counsel, he must be provided with one.
These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the presence of counsel. (2) No
torture, force violence, threat, intimidating, or any other means which vitiate the free will
shall be used against him.
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Secret detention places, solitary, incommunicado, other similar forms of detention are
prohibited. (3) Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this or section 17
hereof shall be inadmissible in evidence against him (4) The law shall provide for penal
and civil sanctions for violations of this section as well provide for penal and civil
sanctions for violations of this section as well as compensation to and rehabilitation of
victims of torture or similar practices, and their families.
13. All persons, except those charged with offenses punishable by reclusion perpetua
when evidence of guilt is strong, shall before conviction, be bailable by sufficient
sureties, or be released on recognizance as may be provided by law. The right to bail
shall not be impaired even when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is
suspended. Excessive bail shall not be required.
14. No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense due process of law. In all
criminal prosecution, the accused shall be presumed innocent until the contrary is
proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and by counsel, to be informed
of the nature and cause of accusation against him, to have a speedy, impartial, and
public trial, to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process to
secure the attendance of witness and the production of compulsory process to secure
the attendance of witness and the production of evidence in his behalf. However, after
arraignment, trial may proceed notwithstanding the absence of the accused provided
that he has been duly notified and his failure to appear is unjustifiable.
15. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in case of
invasion or rebellion when the public safety requires it.
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16. All persons shall have the right to a speedy disposition of cases before all judicial,
quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies.
17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
18. (1) No person shall be detained solely by reason of his political beleifs and
aspiration. (2) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except as a punishment
for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.
19. (1) Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel, degrading or inhuman
punishment inflicted. Neither shall the death penalty be imposed, unless for compelling
reasons involving heinous crimes, the Congress hereafter, provides for it.
Any death penalty already imposed shall be reduced to reclusion perpetua. (2) The
employment of physical, psychological, or degrading punishment against any prisoner
or detainee or the use of substandard or inadequate penal facilities under subhuman
conditions shall be dealth with by law.
20. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
21. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment for the same offense.
22. No expost facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
ARTICLE IV – CITIZENSHIP
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Citizenship denotes membership of a permanent character in a political
community. A citizen of a state is one who owes allegiance to it and is correspondingly
entitled to its protection.
Modes of acquiring citizenship
A person’s citizenship may be acquired either by birth or by naturalization. Those
who acquired citizenship by birth are considered as natural born citizens.
There are two principles in acquiring citizenship by birth – jus snguinis and jus
soli principles.
1. Citizenship by birth
A person’s citizenship is determined at the time of his birth by following either of
the following principles:
A. jus sanguinis – under this principle a child follows the nationality or citizenship
of the parents regardless of the place of his birth.
B. jus soli – under this principle a child citizenship is determined by the place of
his birth.
The Philippines adheres to the jus sanguinis principle
The Philippine law on citizenship adheres to the principle of jus sanguinis.
Thereunder, a child follows the nationality or citizenship of the parents regardless of the
place of his/her birth, as opposed to the doctrine of jus soli which determines nationality
or citizenship on the basis of place of birth. (Valles vs Commission on Elections, G.R.
No.137000, August 9, 2000)
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2. Citizenship by naturalization
Naturalization refers to an act whereby a person acquires a citizenship different
from that person’s citizenship at birth. Naturalization is most commonly associated with
economic migrants or refugees who have immigrated to a country and resided there as
aliens, and who have voluntarily and actively chosen to become citizens of that country
after meeting specific requirements.
A. Administrative Naturalization under Republic Act No. 9139, also known as
the Administrative Naturalization Act of 2000.
Special Committee on Naturalization
There shall be constituted a Special Committee on Naturalization herein referred to as
the “Committee”, with the Solicitor General as chairman, the Secretary of Foreign
Affairs, or his representative, and the National Security Adviser, as members, with
the power to approve, deny or reject applications for naturalization as provided in this
Act. (Section 6, R.A.9139)
b. Judicial Naturalization under Commonwealth Act No. 473
The applicant for naturalization must file his petition for naturalization with the Court.
c. Citizenship by Congressional grant
The Congress of the Philippines may enact a law which would grant an alien an
outright Philippine citizenship.
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An example of this mode of acquiring Philippine citizenship by an alien is Republic Act
No. 8266 which was approved on February 20, 1997 and granted Filipino citizenship to
Rev. Fr. Paul Van Parijs, CICM, a Belgian citizen and a Roman Catholic Priest of the
Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (CICM). (Duka, 2010)
Natural born citizens
Based on the express provisions of the 1987 Consitution, the following are
natural born citizens of the Philippines:
1. Citizens of the Philippines from birth without having to perform any act to
acquire or perfect their Philippine citizenship;
2. Those born before January 17, 1973 of Filipino mothers, who elect
Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age majority.
Duties and Obligations of a Citizen
1. To be loyal to the Republic
2. To defend the State
3. To contribute to the development and welfare of the State
4. To uphold the Constitution and obey the laws
5. To cooperate with the duly constituted authorities
6. To exercise rights responsibly and with due regard for the rights of toher
7. To engage in gainful work
8. To register and vote
ARTICLE V – SUFFRAGE
Suffrage is the right and obligation to vote of qualified citizens in the election of
certain national and local officers of the government and in the decision of public
questions submitted to the People.
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Scope of Suffrage
1. Election – A political exercise whereby the sovereign people chose a
candidate to fill up an elective government position.
2. Plebiscite – A political right of the sovereign people to ratify or eject
constitutional amendments or proposed laws.
3. Referundum – the right reserved to the people to adopt or reject any act or
mesure which has been passed by a legislative body and which in most cases would
without action on the part of the electors become law.
4. Initiative – the power of the people to propose bills and laws, and to enact or
reject them at the polls, independent of the legislative assembly.
5. Recall – a system by which an elective official is removed by popular vote
before the end of his term.
Persons Disqualified to Vote. Any person who has been sentenced by final
judgment to suffer imprisonment for not less than one year, such disability not having
been removed by plenary pardon or granted amnesty. But such person shall
automatically reacquire the right to vote upon expiration of five years after service of
sentence;
Any person who has been adjudged by final judgement by competent court or
tribunal of having committed any crime involving disloyalty to the duly constituted
government such as rebellion, sedition, violation of the anti subversion and firearms
laws, or any crime against national security, unless restored to his full civil and political
rights in accordance with law. Such person shall likewise automatically regain his right
to vote upon expiration of five years after service of sentence; and
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Insane or incompetent persons as declared by competent authority.
ARTICLE VI – LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT
Legislative power is essentially the authority under the Constitution to make laws
and to alter and repeal them. Under the present set-up, the legislative department is
divided into two chambers: the Senate with 24 members and the House of
Representatives with note more than 250 members, 20 percent of which comes from
the party list representatives.
Qualification of Senators
1. Natural born Citizens of the Philippines
2. At lest 35 years old on the day of election
3. Able to read and write
4. A registered voter
5. A resident of the Philippines for 2 years preceding the day of election
Qualifications of Representatives
1. Natural born Citizens of the Philippines
2. Atleast 25 years old on the day of election
3. Able to read and write
4. A registered voter in his district (except the party list)
5. A Resident of the Philippines for at least a year before the day of election
HOW A BILL BECOMES A LAW
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LEGISLATIVE PROCESS FLOW CHART
HOUSE SENATE
FILING OF BILLS FILING OF BILLS
FIRST READING Assigned number,title,author Committee Referral
FIRST READING Assigned number,title,author,Committee referral
COMMITTEE HEARINGS Approval without Amendments,substitutions, Consolidations COMMITTEE REPORT
COMMITTEE HEARINGS Approval without amendments,substitutions, Consolidations COMMITTEE REPORT
COMMITTEE ON RULES COMMITTEE ON RULES
SECOND READING Period of Debate: -Reading of Bill -Sponsorship -Interpellation -Turno en Contra -Rebuttal PERIOD OF AMENDMENTS -Committee amendments -Individual amendments APPROVAL ON SECOND READING
SECOND READING Period of Debate: -Reading of bill -Sponsorship -Interpellation -Turno en Contra -Rebuttal PERIOD OF AMENDMENTS -Committee amendments -Individual amendments APPROVAL ON SECOND READING
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THIRD READING -Distribution to members -In printed final form -Approval ROLL CALL VOTE
THIRD READING -Distribution to members -In printed final form -Approval ROLL CALL VOTE
CONFERENCE COMMITTEE Compromise version prepared and set to each Chamber for final approval Compromise version approved and ordered printed in enrolled form
PRESIDENT Sign into law or vetoes and sends back to Congress with veto message
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The Party – list system Based on Article VI, Section 5 (2) of the Constitution as implemented by Republic Act No. 7941, the different sectors of the Philippine society like the farmers, labors, education, women, youth and others except the religious sector shall be represented in the congress. The different sectors from a party and register their respective parties with the Commission on Elections.The voters for the party that they want in the ballot on election day and the Party who garners at least two per cent of the votes will be entitled to one party list representative in Congress. ARTICLE VII – EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT The executive power is vested in the President of the Philippines. Executive power is defined as the power to administer the laws, which means carrying them into practical operation and enforcing their due observance. Qualificatios of the President and Vice-President 1. A natural born citizen of the Philippines 2. A registered voter 3. Able to read and write 4. At least forty (40) years of age on the day of the election for President 5. A resident of the Philippines for at least ten years immediately preceding such election. List of Philippine Presidents 1. Emilio Aguinaldo (January 23, 1899 – April 1, 1901) 2. Manuel L. Quezon (November 15, 1935 – August 1, 1944) 3. Jose P. Laurel (October 14, 1943 – August 17, 1945) 4. Sergio Osmeña (August 1, 1944 – May 26, 1946) 5. Manuel A. Roxas (May 26, 1946 – April 15, 1948) 6. Elpidio Quirino (April 17, 1948 – December 30, 1953)
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7. Ramon Magsaysay (December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957) 8. Carlos Garcia (March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961) 9. Diosdado Macapagal (December 30, 1961 – December 30 1965) 10. Ferdinand Marcos (December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986) 11. Corazon Aquino (Febuary 25, 1986 – June 30, 1992) 12. Fidel Ramos (June 30, 1992 – June 30, 1998) 13. Jose Ejercito Estrada (June 30, 1998 – January 20, 2001) 14. Gloria Arroyo (January 20, 2001 – June 30, 2010) 15. Benigno Simeon Aquino, III (July 1, 2010 – June 30, 2016) 16. Rodrigo Roa Duterte (July 1, 2016 – June 30, 2022) List of Philippine Vice Presidents 1. Mariano Trias (January 23, 1899 – April 1, 1901) 2. Sergio Osmeña (November 15, 1935 – August 1, 1944) 3. Benigno Aquino Sr. and Ramon Avancena (October 14, 1943 – August 17, 1945) 4. Elpidio Quirino (May 26, 1946 – April 15, 1948) 5. Fernando Lopez (April 17, 1948 – December 30, 1953) 6. Carlos Gacria (December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957) 7. Diosdado Macapagal (March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961) 8. Emmanuel Pelaez (December 30, 1961 – December 30, 1965) 9. Fernando Lopez (1965 – 1969 and 1969 – 1972) 10. Salvador Laurel (Febuary 25, 1986 – June 30, 1992)
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11. Jose Ejercito Estrada (June 30, 1992 – June 30, 1998) 12. Gloria Arroyo (June 30, 1998 – January 20, 2001) 13. Teofisto Guingona (January 20, 2001 – June 30, 2004) 14. Manuel De Castro (July 1, 2004 – June 30, 2010) 15. Jejomar Binay (July 1, 2010 – June 30, 2016) 16. Maria Leonor Robredo (July 1, 2016 – June 30, 2022) ARTICLE VIII – JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT The Judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be established by law. Judicial power is the power to apply the laws to contests or disputes concerning legally recognized right or duties between the state and private persons, or between individual litigants in cases properly brought before the judicial tribunal. The Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. It may sit en banc or in its discretion, in division of three, five or seven members. Qualifications of the Justices 1. A natural born citizen of the Philippines 2. At least 40 years old 3. A judge or a law practitioner for 15 years in the Philippines 4. A person of proven competence, integrity, probity and independence The Judicial and Bar Council nominates at least three candidates to the President for every vacant position in the Supreme Court and other lower courts. It is the body that screens and nominates to the president prospective appointees to Philippine courts. It is composed of: 1. Chief Justice – ex- officio chairman 2. Secretary of Justice 3. Representative from Congress 4. Representative from integrated Bar of the Philippines 5. A professor of law 6. A retired member of the Supreme Court 7. A representative of the private sector
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The Philippines Court System
REGIONAL TRIAL COURTS SHAREA DISTRICT COURTS
MUNICIPAL METROPOLITAN SHAREA CIRCUIT
TRIAL COURT TRIAL COURTS COURTS
IN CITIES MUNICIPAL TRIAL MUNICIPAL CIRCUIT TRIAL COURTS TRIAL COURTS REGULAR COURTS- NOT BOLD
SPECIAL COURTS- BOLD
SUPREME
COURT
COURT OF TAX
APPEALS COURT OF
APPEALS
SANDIGAN
BAYAN
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ARTICLE IX – CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSIONS The Constitutional Commissions which are independent are the Civil Service Commission, the Commission on Election and the Commission on Audit. Their creation is established in the Constitution because of the extraordinary importance of their functions and the need to insulate them from undesired political interference of pressure. Their independence cannot be assured if they were to be created merely by statute. The Civil Service Commission The term civil service embraces all branches, subdivisions, instrumentalities, and agencies of the Government, including government-owned or controlled corporations with original charters. The Civil Service Commission is composed of a Chairman and two Commissioners who shall be: natural-born citizens of the Philippines, at the time of their appointment, at least thirty-five years of age, with proven capacity for public administration and must not have been candidates for any elective position in the elections immediately preceding their appointment. The chairman and the two commissioners are appointed by the president with the concurrence of the Commission on Appointments for seven years without any reappointment. The Commission on Elections (COMELEC) The Commission on Elections is composed of a Chairman and six Commissioners who shall be natural-born citizens of the Philippines, at the time of their appointment, at least thirty five years of age, holders of a college degree, aand must not have been candidates for any elective positions in the immediately preceding elections. However, a majority thereof, including the Chairman, shall be members of the Philippine Bar who have been engaged in the practice of law for at least ten years. The Chairman the Commissioners are appointed by the President with the concurrence of the Commission on Appointments for seven years without any reapoinment. The Commission on Audit (COA)
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The Commission on Audit is composed of a Chairman and two Commissioners, who shall be natural born citizens of the Philippines. At the time of their appointment, at least thirty years of age, Certified Public Accountants with not less than ten years of auditing experience, or members of the Philippine Bar who have been engaged in the practice of law for at least ten years, must not have been candidates for any elective position in the elections immediately preceding their appointment. At no time shall all Members of the Commission belong to the same profession. The chairman and the Commissioners shall be appointed by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments for a term of seven years without reappointment. Appointment to any vacancy shall be only for the unexpired portion of the term of the predecessor. In no case shall any Member be appointed or designated in a temporary or acting capacity. ARTICLE X – LOCAL GOVERNMENT The term local government refers to a political subdivision of a nation or state which is constituted by law and has substantial control of local affairs, with officials elected or otherwise locally selected. The implementing law for this Article is Republic Act 7160 or the Local Government Code of 1991. Region- A sub-national administrative unit comprising of several provinces having more or less homogenous characteristics, such as ethnic origin if inhabintants, dialect spoken, agricultural produce, etc. Province – The largest unit in the political structure of the Philippines. It consists, in varying numbers, of municipalities and, in some cases, of component cities. Its functions and duties in relation to its component cities and municipalities are generally coordinative and supervisory. City – There are three classes of cities in the Philippines: the highly urbanized, the independent component cities which are independent of the province, and the component cities which are part of the provinces where they are located and subject to their administrative supervision. Municipality – Is a political corporate body which is endowed with the facilities of a municipal corporation, exercised by and through the municipal government in conformity with law.
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It is a subsidiary of the province which consists of a number of barangays within its territorial boundaries, one of which is the seat of government found at the town proper (poblacion). Barangay – The smallest political unit into which cities and municipalities in the Philippines are divided. It is the basic unit of the Philippine political system. It consists of less than 1,000 inhabitants residing within the territorial limit of a city or municipality and administered by a set of elective officials, headed by a barangay chairman (punong barangay). City Classification Highly urbanized Cities – Cities with a minimum population of two hundred thousand (200,000) inhabitants, as certified by the Philippines Statistics Authority, and with the latest annual income of at least One Hundred Million Pesos (100,000,000,) as certified by the city treasurer. Independent Component Cities – Cities whose charters prohibit their voters from voting for provincial elective officials. Independent component cities shall be independent of the province. Component Cities – Cities which do not meet the above requirements shall be considered component cities of the province in which they are geographically located. If a component city is located within the boundaries of two (2) or more provinces, such city shall be considered a component of the province which it used to be a municipality. LIST OF PROVINCES As of December 31, 2017 there are 17 regions, 81 provinces, 144 cities, 1490 municipalities and 42029 barangays Region I (Ilocos Region) Region II (Cagayan Valley) Ilocos Norte Batanes Ilocos Sur Cagayan La Union Isabela Pangasinan Nueva Vizcaya Quirino REGION III (Central Luzon) REGION VIII (Eastern Visayas) Aurora Eastern Samar
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Bataan Leyte Bulacan Northern Samar Nueva Ecija Samar (Western Samar) Pampanga Southern Leyte Tarlac Biliran Zambales REGION IV (Southern Tagalog) REGION IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) Region IV A-CALABARZON Zamboanga Del Norte Cavite Zamboanga Del Sur Laguna Zamboanga Sibugay Batangas Rizal Quezon REGION X (Northern Mindanao) Bukidnon REGION IV B-MIMAROPA Camiguin Occidental Mindoro Lanao Del Norte Oriental Mindoro Misamis Occidental Marinduque Misamis Oriental Romblon Palawan REGION XI (Davao Region) Davao Del Norte REGION V (Bicol Region) Davao Del Sur Albay Davao Oriental Camarines Norte Camarines Sur Davao Occidental Catanduanes Compostela Valley Masbate Sorsogon REGION XII (SOCCSKSARGEN) South Cotabato REGION VI (Western Visayas) Sultan Kudarat Aklan Cotabato (North Cotabato) Antique Sarangani Capiz Guimaras Ilo-Ilo Negros Occidental REGION XIII (Caraga) Agusan Del Norte REGION VII (Central Visayas) Agusan Del Sur Bohol Surigao Del Norte Cebu Surigao Del Sur Negros Oriental Dinagat Islands Siquijor CAR- Cordillera Administrative NCR-NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION
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Region City of Manila Municipality City Abra Quezon City Las Piñas City Benguet Caloocan City Parañaque City Pasig City San Juan City Ifugao Pasay City Taguig City Kalinga Makati City Pateros Mountain Province Mandaluyong City Navotas City Apayao Marikina City Valenzuela City Malabon City ARMM – Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao Basilan Lanao Del Sur Maguindanao Sulu Tawi-Tawi ARTICLE XI – ACCOUNTABILITY OF REPUBLIC OFFICERS A public office is the right, authority and duty created and conferred by law which, a given period either fixed by law or enduring at the pleasure of the appointing power, an individual is invested with some portion of the sovereign functions of the government to be exercised by him for the benefit of the public. This individual so invested is a public officer. Section 1. It enunciates the principle of public accountability. It sets down in unequivocal terms the mandate that all government officials and employees, whether they be highest in the land or the lowest public servants, shall at all times be answerable for their misconduct to the people from whom the government derives its powers. Impeachment is a method of national inquest into the conduct of public men. Impeachable Officials 1. President 2. Vice President 3. Members of the Supreme Court 4. Members of the Constitutional Commissions 5. Ombudsman
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The Grounds for impeachment are 1. Culpable violation of the Constitution 2. Treason 3. Bribery 4. Graft and corruption 5. Other high crimes 6. Betrayal of public trust The Ombudsman (Tanodbayan) There shall be one Ombudsman and one overall Deputy and at least one Deputy each for Luzon, Visayas and Midanano and one Deputy for the military establishment. The Ombudsman and his Deputies shall be appointed by the President from a list of six nominees prepared by the judicial and Bar Council, without the need for confirmation by the Commission on Appointments . The Ombudsman and his deputies must be natural born citizens of the Philippines; at least forty years old at the time of appointment; members of the Philippine Bar (lawyers); and must not be candidates in any elective office in the preceding election. The Ombudsman has a duty to investigate upon his own initiatives or upon complaints of any person any act or omission of any public official, office or agency when such act or omission appears to be illegal, unjust improper, or inefficient. He can direct the officer concerned to take appropriate action against a public official or employee at fault and recommend his removal, suspension, demotion, fine, censure or prosecution ARTICLE XII – NATIONAL ECONOMY AND PATRIMONY The national economy refers to the entire structure of economic life in a country. It encompasses all the activities relating to or concerned with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services, and what are called”factors of production’ which are utilized to carry out these activities.
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The national patrimony refers to the natural resources of our country which under the Constitution includes all lands of the public domain, waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, etc. It is the obligation of every generation to love and care for their national patrimony, to conserve and develop it for the benefit of succeeding generations. ARTICLE XIII – SOCIAL JUSTICE AND HUMAN RIGHTS Social justice is not a mere slogan to express concern for the plight of the poor and the downtrodden. As a mandate imposed by the constitution, it requires the adoption by the State of measures that guarantee the right of all the people to equality of opportunity in all fields of human endeavor and to equitable sharing of social and economic benefits with special emphasis on such measures that ameliorate the standard of living of the under privileged groups. The end of social justice measures or programs should be to assure that those who are less favored in lfe be more favored in law. ARTICLE XIV – EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, ARTS, CULTURE AND SPORTS The states shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all. Establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and society; Establish and maintain a system of free public education in the elementary and high school levels. Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their children, elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age; Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs, subsidies and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in both public and private schools, especially to the underprivileged;
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Encourage non-formal, informal and indigenous learning system, as well as self learning, independent and out of school study programs particularly those that respond to community needs. Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out of school youth with training in civics vocational efficiency, and other skills. All educational institutions shall include the study of the Concstitution as part of the curricula. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency. At the option expressed in writing by the parents or guardians, religion shall be allowed to be taught to their children or wards in public elementary and highschools within the regular class hours by instructors designated or approved by the religious authorities of the religion to which the children or wards belong, without additional cost to the Government. All educational institutions shall be owned by the Filipinos or corporations or associations of which at least 60 percent is owned by such citizens. Control and administration of educational institution shall be vested in citizens of the Philippines. No school shall be established solely for aliens and no group of aliens shall comprise more than one third of the enrolment in any school. All assets of non stock, non profit educational institutions used actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from taxes and duties. Academic freedom shall be enjoyed by all institutions of higher learning.
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Every citizen has the right to select a profession or a course of study subject to fair, reasonable and equitable admission and academic requirements. The state shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancements. The state shall assign the highest budgetary priority to education and ensure that teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the best available talents through adequate remuneration and other means of job satisfaction and fulfilment. ARTICLE XV – THE FAMILY The State recognizes the Filipino family as the foundation of the nation. Accordingly, it shall strengthen its solidarity and actively promote its total development. The family is very important to the state because it is the basic social institution. The family is the very heart of society and the community’s first socializing agency. ARTICLE XVI – GENERAL PROVISIONS The general provisions include the following: 1. The flag of the Philippines and compulsory flag ceremony. 2. The Congress is given the power to adopt a new name for the country, a national anthem or a national seal. 3. The principle of non suability of the State. 4. The Armed Forces of the Philippines to include a citizen armed force. 5. Assistance to veterans, their widows and orphans. 6. Review of pensions and other benefits due to retirees. 7. Protection of consumers. 8. Ownership and management of mass media by Filipino citizens.
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9. Regulation of the advertising agencies. 10. Creation of consultative body for indigenous cultural communities. ARTICLE XVII – AMENDMENTS OR REVISIONS Bot denote a change in the Constitution. Amendment is a change effected in some parts of the Constitution without considering the whole document. Revision is rewriting or substantially changing the Constitution in its entirety. Any amendment to, or revision of, this Constitution may be proposed by: The Congress, upon a vote of three-fourths of all its Members; or A constitutional convention. Amendments to this Constitution may likewise be directly proposed by the people thtrough initiative upon a petition of at least twelve per centum of the total number of registered voters, of which every legislative district must be represented by at least three per centum of the registered voters therein. No amendment under this section shall be authorized within five years following the ratification of this Constitution nor oftener than once every five years thereafter. The Congress shall provide for the implementation of the exercise of this right. The Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of all its Members, call a constitutional convention, or by a majority vote of all its Members, submit to the electorate the question of calling such a convention. Any amendment to, or revision of, this Constitution under section 1 hereof shall be valid when ratified by a majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite which shall be held not earlier than sixty days nor later than ninety days after the approval of such amendment or revision. Any amendment under Section 2 hereof shall be valid when ratified by a majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite which shall be held not earlier than sixty days nor later than ninety days after the certification by the Commission on Elections of the sufficiency of the petition.
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ARTICLE XVIII – TRANSITORY PROVISION The transitory provisions of a Constitution are schedules and ordinances forming part of, or appended to, a Constitution to provide for the trasnsitiom from the old government to the new and put the provisions of the new Constitution into effect, or to qualify, restrict or limit some permanent provisions for a limited period. Their main purpose is to obviate confusion which would otherwise arise during the transition period. They have temporary or transient operation. HUMAN RIGHTS Human rights refer to those rights which human beings have simply because they are human beings. These rights are quite independent of social circumstances or the achievement level which the individual has attained. A person’s human rights cannot be relingquished, transferred or forfeited by the actions of another individual. Additional rights which a person may have are largely derived from the human rights which are basic to each individual. Advocates of Human Rights 1. Cleistenes (600 B.C) made military service and civil administration open to the poor in ancient Greece. 2. Pericles (489-429 B.C) made democracy complete for all freemen of ancient Greece. 3. Aristotle (384-322 B.C) believed that justice and fairness must prevail in all human affairs. Honor and riches in the society must be granted on the basis of the efforts expended or the qualities which were displayed by each individual. 4. Marcus Tulius Cicero (106-43 B.C) proposed a well developed concept of natural law which was eternal and which applied to all people at all times. 5. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) believed that the most important agent of history is the state, which is the creator and protector of values including human rights. 6. Karl Marx (1818-1883) advocated communism as the only way to protect the rights of the proletarian who are constantly oppressed by the bourgeois.
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7. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1842) believed that the government is the one that issues pious declarations about the rights of men, yet it is also the one that hampers the implementatiom of these rights. 8. Thomas Aquinas (125-1274) advanced the idea that men have the right to disobey manmade legislation which violate eternal principles of justice and equality. 9. Francois Marie Arouet Voltaire (1694-1778) contented persuasively for freedom of the person, the press and religion. 10. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) argued that if there was much evil in the world it could not be blamed on man’s natural inclinations but on the social injustice and inequality which drive man to commit every conceivable depraved act. THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS One of the very first achievements of the United Nations is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the General Assembly on December 10, 1948. The Assembly proclaimed the Declaration a “common standard of achievement for all peoples of all nations” It called upon all member states and all people to promote and secure the effective recognition and observance of the rights and freedoms set forth in the Declaration. In 1950, the General Assembly decided that December 10 each year should be observed internationally as Human Rights Day. Articles 1 and 2 of the Declaration state that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and are entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in the Declaration without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Articles 3-21 of the Declaration set forth the civil and political rights to which all human beings are entitled including: The right to life, liberty and security of person; Freedom from slavery and servitude; Freedom from torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; The right to recognition as a person before the law; equal protection of the law; To be brought to an effective judicial remedy; freedom from arbitrary arrest, detetion or exile; the right to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal; the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty;
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o Freedom from arbitrary interference of privacy, family, home or
correspondence;
o Freedom of movement; the right of aslum; the right to a nationality;
o The right to marry and found a family; the right to own property;
o Freedom of thought, conscience and religion; freedom of opinion and expression;
o The right of association and of assembly;
o The right to take part in government and the right of equal access to public
service. Articles 22-27 of the Declaration set forth the economic, social and cultutral rights which all human beings are entitled including:
o The right to social security; o The right to work; o The right to rest and leisure; o The right to standard of living adequate for health and well being: o The right to education; and o The right to participate in the cultural life of the community.
The concluding Articles 28-30 recognize that everyone is entitled to social and international order in which these rights and freedoms may be fully realized, and they stress the duties and responsibilities which the individual owes to the community. The Provisions stipulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights are now adopted and enshrined in the Bill of Rights of the 1987 Philippine Constitution. ECONOMICS Economics is the study of how societies efficiently use scarce resources to produce valuble commodities and distribute them to satisfy the need and wants of their members. It is also defined as the proper allocation and use of available resources for the maximum satisfaction of human wants. BRANCHES OF ECONOMICS Economics is divided into two branches:
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1. Macroeconomics which deals with the economic behavior of the whole economy or its affregates such as government, business and the like. It is concerned about the gross nationanal product, level of production, unemployment rate, etc. 2. Microeconomics deals with the economic behavior of individual units or specific segments of the whole economy such as firms, consumers, price of commodities and the like. DIVISIONS OF ECONOMICS 1. Production – the process of manufacturing goods needed by the people to satisfy their needs. 2. Consumption – the proper utilization of economic goods. 3. Distribution – the marketing of goods and services to different economic outlets for allocation to individual consumers. 4. Exchange – the process of transferring goods and services from one person to another in exchange for something. 5. Public Finance – the activity of the government regarding taxation, borrowings and expenditures FACTORS OF PRODUCTION Factors of producting are economic resources that are necessary to produce economic goods. They are the following: 1. Land – natural resources 2. Labor – human resources or manpower 3. Capital – manmade physical producitive capacity such as plants, machine tools and the like. 4. Entrepreneur – the person who organizes and coordinates all the other factors of production to produce economic goods. 5. Foreign Exchange – the foreign currency reserve used for importing goods and services in the process of production. THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS
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If states that when successive unit of a variable input (like farmers) work with a fixed input (like one hectare of land ) beyond a certain point , the additional product (output) produced by each additional unit of a variable input decreases (Fajardo,1986) SUPPLY AND DEMAND Supply is the flow of goods and services which the firms are willing or can make available in the market at a given price structure. Demand is the relationship between market price and the quantity demanded, expressing how much of the same commodity or services one consumer or all consumers would buy at a given real price schedule. Price is the value of a product or service The Law of Supply and Demand It states that when the supply is greater than the demand, the price of goods or services decreases; whereas, if the demand is greater than the supply, the price increases, and if the supply is equal to the demand, the price remains constant. MARKET MODELS Market is an impersonal set of pressures bringing together supply and demand. The different market models are the following: 1. Pure competition – a market situation where there is a considerable number of sellers offering the same products. 2. Pure monopoly – a market situation where there is only one seller of a particular good or service 3. Monopolistic competition – a market situation where there is a relatively large number of small sellers offering where similar but not identical products. 4. Oligopoly – a market situation where there are few firms offering standardized pr differentiated goods and services. ECONOMIC SYSYTEMS An economic system is a set of economic institutions that dominates a given economy (Fajardo, 1986). The following are the major economic systems in the world today
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1. Capitalism. In this economic system, the factors of production and distribution are owned by the private individuals or corporations. 2. Socialism. It is the bridge between capitalism and communism. It is a combination of capitalism and communism. Under this system, the major factors of production distribution and industries are owned and managed by the state, while the minor industries are owned by the private sector. 3. Communism. It is exactly the opposite of capitalism, where all the factors of production and all the industries are owned and managed by the state. It is also known as command economy, where private property ownership is not allowed. TAXATION Taxation is the process by which the sovereign, through its lawmaking body, raises income to defray the necessary xpenses of the government. It also refers to the inherent power of the state to demand contributions to finance public expenditures. Tax is the enforced proportional contributions from persons and property levied by the lawmaking body of the state by virtue of its sovereignty for the support of the government and all public needs. Characteristics of tax 1. It is an enforced contribution 2. It is generally payable in money 3. It is levied on persons or property 4. It is proportionate in character 5. It is levied by the lawmaking body of the state 6. It is levied by the state upon persons or property under its jurisdiction Classification of taxes A. According to subject matter or object 1. Personal, poll or capitation- tax of fixed amount imposed on persons residing within a specified territory, whether citizens or not without regard to their property or occupation or business.
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Community tax (residence tax) 2. Property – tax imposed on property whether real or personal in proportion to its value. 3. Excise – any tax than does not belong to the classification of a poll or property tax. It is a charge imposed upon the performance of an act, the enjoyment of a privilege or the engaging in an occupation. B. As to who bears the burden 1. Direct – directly demanded from and paid by the taxpayer. 2. Indirect – demanded form one person in the expectation and intention that he shall indemnify himself at the expense of another. C. As to the determination of amount 1. Specific – tax of a fixed amount imposed by the head or number, or by some standard or weight or measurement. 2. Ad valorem – tax of fixed proportion of the value of property with respect to which the tax is assessed. D. As to purpose 1. General, fiscal or revenue – tax imposed for general governmental purposes and expenditures. 2. Special or regulatory – tax imposed for a special purpose E. As to scope 1. National – tax imposed by the national government. 2. Municipal or local – tax imposed by local government units. F. As graduation or rate 1. Proportional – tax which is based on a fixed percentage vis-à-vis the amount of the property or other bases to be taxed. 2. Progressive or graduated – the tax rate increases as the tax base increases.
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3. Regressive – the tax rate decreases as the tax base increases.
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PART II PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION COMPONENT Part 2 of the Licensure Examination for Teachers covers the professional education which consists of Facilitating Learning and Child and Adolescent Development, The Teaching Profession, Curriculum Development, Social Dimensions of Education Principles, Methods and Strategies of Teaching, Field Study, Educational Technology and Assesment of Learning.
FACILITATING LEARNING, CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT This subject deals with the nature of the learner as the basis of the teaching-learning process. It tackles the growth and development of the child in a life spam approach. COMPONENTS OF THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 1. Learner 2 Teacher (involved in the learning process) 3. School (the learning situation) THE BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION The Beginning of Life Life begins at the moment of conception – the time when a reproductive cell of the female (ovum, plural ova) is fertilized by a male reproductive cell the spermatozoon (spermatozoa, plural).This is approximately 280 days before birth. Within each sex cell (sperm/egg) there are 23 chromosomes. They are threadlike particles which contain between 40,000 and 60,000 genes. The genes contain the DNA and RNA which are considered as blueprint of life and transmitters of hereditary characteristics traits from the parents to the offsprings. Sex Determination
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All the female gametes carry X chromosomes, while half of the male gametes carry the X chromosomes and the other half carry the Y chromosomes. If the X bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XX combination and the sex of the child is female. And if the Y bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XY combination and the sex of the child is male. Multiple Birth/Twins The term multiple birth refers to the birth of two or more babies within a few hours or days. There are two types of twin births – the identical and fraternal twins. The identical or uniovular twins come from a single ovum fertilized by a single sperm cell. Some times, it happens that at the time of the first division of the cell the new cell separates instead of remaining together. Why the speration occurs, no one knows for certain, but there are evidence that it is a result of hormonal disturbances. Non-identical, biovular or fraternal twins on the other hand, are the products of two ova fertilized simultaneously by two separate sperm cells. FACTORS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT The factors affecting the growth and development of the individual are: Heredity – the process by which the new organism is endowed with certain potentials (inherited from the parents) for his later development. Maturation on the other hand is the process by which heredity exerts influence long after birth. Environmental influence – interaction between an individual’s inherited traits his surroundings and his nurture. PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
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Phylogenetic principle – states that development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable and is true to all members of certain race. Predictable trends of development Cephalocaudal trend – development proceed from head to foot direction Proximodistal trend – the parts of the body nearest the center (i.e.) are the parts which develop earlier. Ex. The baby can see first before he can walk. Ontogenetic principle – the rate of development is unique to every individual. It is brought about by one’s heredity as well as environmental influences. Ex. Though both children are of the same age, one might talk earlier than the other. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Hereunder are the stages of development that an individual passes through in his lifetime: 1. Pre-natal Stage – from conception (when the ovum is fertilized by the spermatozoon producing a zygote or fertilized egg) to the time of birth. 2. Infancy/babyhood (birth to two years) It is the foundation age when basic behavior patterns are organized and many ontogenetic skills emerge. 3. Earcly Childhood (two to six years) It is characterized as pre-gang, exploratory and questioning age. Language and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial socialization is experienced. 4. Late Childhood (six to twelve years)
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Gang age, age of creativity, development of social, self help, play and school skill. 5. Adolescence (thirteen to nineteen years) Transition age from childhood to adulthood when sex maturation and rapid physical development occurs resulting to changes in ways of feeling, thinking and acting. 6. Early adulthood (nineteen to forty years) Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse, parent and bread winner. 7. Middle age (forty to retirement) Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are experienced. 8. Old age (retirement to death) Increasing rapid physical and mental decline. Psychological as well as physical illnesses are experienced. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT The following are the major theories of development: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (psycho-sexual development) This was advocated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Austrian psychiatrist who believed that a person’s behavior can be motivated by strong unconscious drive or urges toward self-satisfaction. Stages of Development Based on the Psychoanalytic Theory A. Oral stage (birth to two years) - Mouth is the center of pleasure - Failure to satisfy this stage will result later to smoking and other vices involving the mouth.
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B. Anal stage (two to four years old) -anal region is the center of pleasure -gains pleasure in the elimination of bowel -failure to satisfy this will result to: 1. Frugality (stinginess) 2. Greediness 3. Obstinate/stubborn character C. Phallic stage (four to six years old) This is derived from the Greek work “PHALLUS” which means male sex organ (symbol of strength and power) derives pleasure from the manipulation of sex organs Oedipus complex – rivalry between the son and the father to get the mother’s attention Electra complex – rivalry between the daughter and the mother to get the father’s attention D. Latency stage (six to twelve years old) -Calm stage - Conflicting feelings are confined in the sub-conscious mind - Energies are diverted to school and peer activities E. Genital Stage (twelve years old and above -Starts with the onset of puberty - The individual is now attracted to the opposite sex SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY This is based on Lev Vygotsky’s ideas. Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896 and is responsible for the social development theory of learning. He proposed that social interaction profoundly influences cognitive development.
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He belIeved that this life long process of development was dependent on social interaction and that social learning actually leads to cognitive development. - Cognitive development and language are shaped by a person’s interaction with other. - Children’s knowledge, values and attitudes develop through interaction with other. - Social interactions that assist in learning increase a child’s level of thinking. - Students will learn best through activity. - Students should be encouraged to communicate frequently with self and with teacher. PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY This theory was advocated by Erik Erikson, who identified eight basic developmental stages that the individual has to pass through in his life. Each of these stage has a specific psychosocial crisis that affects the development of the child. A. Stage 1 (0-18 months) - Trust vs. mistrust - The child trust those who care for her and mistrust a stranger B. Stage II (18 months to 3years old) -Learns to walk and use his hands - If encouraged, develops autonomy - If discouraged and punished harshly and excessively the child develops dependence and shame, doubt, self pity C. Stage III (3 to 6 years old) - begins to explore his social and physical world, discovering what he can accomplish aware of various social roles imitates adult’s behavior - When punished develops sense of guilt - The family is responsible for the child’s behavior and action
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D. Stage IV (6 to 12 years old) - Child’s world broadens – neighborhood/school - Technical skills are learned - Peer group influence - Identification and/or separation with sexes - Play age - When the child cannot accomplish the expectations from him, he develops a sense of inferiority E. Stage V (12 to 18 years old) - Identity crisis –always asking who am I? -Struggles with society’s demands and physical changes in his body -Peer group becomes an essential source of rules of behavior F. Stage VI (18-24 years old) - Age of intimacy - Develops warm intimate relation with anither person and failure to develop such a relationship results to isolation G. Stage VII (24 to 54 years old) - The most productive years of adulthood - The individual’s worth is dependent on his contribution to family and society H. Stage VIII (54 to death) - The individual comes to the temporal limits of his life - The period of achievement and sense of integrity -Failure to achieve one’s goals results to regret and despair
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- Fear of the end of life COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (intellectual development) This theory was advocated by Jean Piaget, who believed that a child enters the world lacking virtually all the basic cognitive competencies of the adult, and gradually develops these competencies by passing through a series of stages of development discussed hereunder. Cognitive Development Process Assimilation – (Latin “ad” - to + “similes”– like) absorb as part of itself. The individual acquires information or knowledge by which experiences are integrated into existing schemes Accomodation – a process of creating a new scheme by modifying an existing scheme after an individual’s interaction with the environment. Stages of Development Based on Piagaet’s Theory 1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birh to 2yeas) – learning is based on sense perception - The child is unaware of his environment This stage is also characterized by the following events that happen to the child A. Primary circular reaction – repeated actions centered on the infant’s body. Ex. thumb sucking B. Intentional Behavior – the child repeats actions so as to prolong interesting/pleasant events Ex. Crying to attract attention C. Object Permanence – knowledge of the existence of objects in his environment, independent of the child’s actions emerges such that the child start to search for missing objects like toy’s etc. D. Representation – allows the child to seek necessary solution through manipulating of internal symbols instead of physical objects.
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Ex. trial and error to solve the problem, manipulation of toys 2. PRE-OPERATIONS STAGE (2 to 7 years) - Emergence of language skills - Interprets experiences - Words become symbols for objects The child thinking is ecgocentric – centered on himself. Ex. The child is fond of telling tall tales to get the attention of everyone The child’s thinking is irreversible – inability to rethink Ex. Coins are preferred than a 100 peso bill. The child is incapable of logical thinking 3. CONCRETE OPERATIONS (7- 11 years old) -Elementary school years -The child begins to learn symbol and concepts, time, space, shape, size etc. - The child’s thinking becomes more logical and systematic Major Events Conservation – is the ability of the child to conceptualize the retention and preservation of the same quantity under various transformations Ex. four .50 coins – Php2.00 1kg. nail = 1kg. Cotton Reversibility- is the ability of the child to understand the completion of certain operations in reverse order but ending up the same. Ex. Ability to understand that ice and water vapor are the diferent states of water 4. FORMAL OPERATION (11 to 16 years old – high school years)
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-develops logical reasoning skill - decreases egocentricity THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT This theory was advocated by Laurence Kohlberg, who believed that as Children grow they pass through several levels of moral development consisting of different stages which setve as the bases of their behavior as adults. LEVEL ONE (Pre-Conventional Morality) - Childrens judgements are based on external criteria - Right and wrong are according to standards set by authorities Stage one - Behavior is based on reward and punishment - Wrong behavior results to punishment - Right behavior results to reward and praises LEVEL TWO (Conventional Morality) - Childrens judgement is based on Groups expectations Stage two - Actions are based on self-satistfaction - Helps those who help him Stage three - Desirable behavior pleases others - Conform to rules of the group to remain accepted Stage four - What is right is what is accepted - Conforms to the rules to avoid disapproval
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LEVEL THREE (Post-Conventional Morality) - The individual recognizes arbitrariness (absoluteness) of social and legal conventions - The individual develops concept of moral values Stage five - Laws are obligatory (dura lex sed lex) - The concept of right and wrong is governed by reasons Stage six - Morality is based on mutual respect - The individual conforms to the rules to avoid self condemnation INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Refers to the idea that no two individuals are exactly the same or alike, as such, the teacher should make it a point tutelage. Factors Affecting Individual Differences Although it is said that all men are created equal, yet individuals do vary and differ from one another in terms of: 1. Age differences and personal adjustments An infant cannot perform the tasks of elementary school pupils though the child is intelligent. 2. Sex differences - Boys are given roles in the society defferent from the girls - Boys are characterized by fearlessness, aggreesiveness and are expected to perform burdensome activities - Girls on the other hand are characterized by neatness, simplicity and for being affectionate 3. Family and community back groud
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4. Physical condtions Physical ailment/defects affect the learning process 5. Emotional response and attitudes (E.Q.) 6. Mental abilities and specific aptitudes (I.Q.) Mental Age (determined by a test) I.Q. = -------------------------------------------------------------- x 10 Chronological age (actual age) Lewis Terman of England is considered as the father of Modern IQ Test. I.Q. Descriptions Persons 140+ Genius .25% more males than females 130-139 Very Superior .75% 120-129 Superior 6.00% 110 – 119 A bove Average 13.00% 90-109 Average (Normal) 60.00% 80-89 Below Average 13.00% 70-79 Dull (borderline) 6.00% 50-69 Moron .75% 49 below Imbecile/Idiot .25% more males than females ( (Feebleminded) Moron – capable of caring for his own needs - has mentality of a 12 year old child Idiot – has a mental capacity of a 4 years old child
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- has a short life span Imbecile – can be taught concerning his personal needs - has a mental capacity of an eight year old child THE LEARNING PROCESS Learning is a mental activity wherein knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and ideals are acquired, retained and utilized, resulting in the progressive adaptation and modification of conduct and behavior (Bugelskie, 1956). In so far as the behaviorists are concerned, learning is any change in the behavior of the organism. TYPES OF LEARNING Learning is classified into: Sensory-motor – understanding of the external world through sense perception. Development of movements as a reaction to stimuli. 1. Cognitive – rational/mental/intellectual development Association learning – acquisition and retention of facts and information Establishing relationships among ideas and experiences Problem-solving – overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal. 2. Affective (Appreciative) involves acquisition of attitudes and interest as well as experiences that will lift the individual above the tangible values associated with everyday life. Aesthetic appreciative experiences – obtained in the field of music, art and literature Intellectual appreciative experiences – based on the premise that all learning has emotional correlates THEORIES OF LEARNING The following are the major theories of learning (Morris L. Bigge, 1964):
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1. STIMULUS-RESPONSE (S-R) OR ASSOCIATION THEORY – states that for every stimulus there is a corresponding response. Connectionism is the theory under S-R, formulated by Edward Lee Thorndike in 1900. It assumes that human activities are based on the association or connection between stimulus and response. It is the belief that all mental processes consist of the functioning of native and acquired connections between the situations and response. It includes the three fundamental laws of learning: a. Law of Readiness – when an individual is prepared to respond or act, allowing him to do so is satisfying, whereas preventing him would be annoying. b. Law Exercise – constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus, while disuse of a response weakens it. c. Law of Effect – learning is strengthened if it results in satisfaction, but it iis weakened if it leads to vexation or annoyance. 2. THEORY OF CONDITIONING states that the process of learning consists of the acquisition of new ways of reacting to stimuli developed through attaching new stimuli to established modes of behavior. There are two types of conditioning theory: Classical Conditioning is based on the experiment on the reaction of the dog conducted by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, who postulated that conditioning consist of eliciting a response by means of a previously neutral or inadequate stimulus. Principles under Classical Conditioning a. Adhesive principle – a response is attached to every stimulus. For every stimulus, there is always a corresponding response.
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b. Excitation – also known as the law of acquisition. It occurs when a preciously neutral stimulus gain the ability of eliciting the response. c. Extinction – also known as unlearning and occurs when the conditioned response is no longer elicited by the conditioned stimulus because the conditioned stimulus is frequently presented without the paired stimulus. d. Stimulus generalization – happens when the conditional response is also elicited by other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. e. Spontaneous recovery – happens when a conditioned response which does not appear for sometime but re-occurs without need of further conditioning. Operant Conditioning is a theory based on the experiment conducted by Burrhus Frederick Skinner on a hungry rat. He believed that since an organism tends in the future to do what it was doing at the time of reinforcement, one can train that organism either by presenting him a reward or punishment as a consequence of his action. Feedback Principle – states that an organism’s responses maybe reinforced by presentation or removal. In other words, rewards and punishments. 3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY is based on the studies of Richard Wallace and Albert Bandura concerning a group of children who were exposed to three models in films. The first model was rewarded, the second was punished while nothing was done to the third model. Children were then asked to choose among these models. The children chose the first model, then the no consequence/model and the last choice was the model who was punished. Based on this experiment, it was viewed that children’s learning process involves observation and imitation. 4. COGNITIVE FIELD THEORY – otherwise known as Field Theory describes how a person gain understanding of himself and his world in a situation where his self and his environment compose a totality of mutually interdependent, coexisting events. This
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theory defines learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops new insights and changes the old ones. Types of Cognitive Field Theory a. Insight Leaning – a basic sense of, or feeling for relationships. It is used to denote the meaning of a matter, idea or point. The Insights of a person are not equated with his consciousness or awareness of his ability to describe them verbally; their essence is a sense of, or feeling for pattern in a life situation. This theory is based on the experiment conducted by Wolfgang Kohler on the chimpanzee. Kohler postulated that the more intelligent the organism and the more experiences he has the more capable he is of gaining higher insight. B .Vector and Topological Theory. Basically, this is derived from the terms vector which means a quantity that has magnitude and direction and topology which is concerned with properties of geometric configuration which are unaltered by elastic deformation. As a learning theory, it was advance by Kurt Lewin and states that individuals exist on a field of forces within his environment that move, change and give him a degree of stability and substance or define his behavior. The behavior of an individual is a result of forces operating simultaneously within his environment and life space. C .Gestalt Learning. The word gestalt is a German term which means a structure, configuration or pattern of physical, biological, or psychological phenomena so integrated as to constitute a functional unit with properties not derivable by summation of its parts. It claims that the whole is more that the sum of its parts and the whole gets its meaning from its parts. Gestalt view learning as a change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, values or beliefs and may or may not have anything to do with the change in overt behavior. It further claims that one does not learn by doing; for learning to occur, doing must be accompanied by realization of consequences. Thus, learning occurs as a result of or through experiences.
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Learning, therefore, involves the catching, and generalization of insights which often are acquired first on a nonverbal level or the level of feeling and may be verbalized later or may not be verbalized at all. D .Instrumental Conceptualism is the term applied to the theory of learning as advocated by Jerome Bruner, who believed that the acquisition of whatever form of knowledge is always a dynamic and interactive process because the learner purposively participates in the process of knowledge acquisition who selects, structures, retains and transform information. Bruner argued that learning is thinking and thinking is the process whereby one makes sense out of the various and somehow unrelated facts through a process called conceptualization or categorization. (Bigge, 1980) Subsumption Theory This theory is based on the works of David Paul Ausubel (1918- 2008), an American psychologist born in New York and an ardent follower of Jean Piaget Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting. According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. He considered that a primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structure represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individuality identity. A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers; “These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure. Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasizer key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.
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Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structure not the development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive development. (www.wikipedia.org) Conditions of Leaning This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. This theory of learnings is based on the work of Robert Mills Gagñe (1916 – 2002), an American educational psychologist best known for his “Condition of Learning “Gagñe pioneered the science of instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot training. Later he went on to develop a series of studies and works that helped codify what is now considered to be good instruction. He also was involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer based training and multimedia based learning. Gagñe work is sometimes summarized as the Gagñe Assumption. The assumption is that different types of learning exist, and that different instructional conditions are most likely to bring about these different types of learning Gagñe identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Gagñe suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, descriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primay significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisities that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisities are indetified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
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In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes: 1. Gaining attention (reception) – Example – show variety of geometric shapes generated triangles 2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) – Example – pose question: “What is a rectangle?” 3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) - Example – review definitions of rectangle 4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) – Example – give definition of rectangle 5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) – example – show example of how to create a rectangle 6. Eliciting performance (responding) – Example – ask students to create 5 different examples 7. Providing feedback (reinforcement) - check all examples as correct/incorrect 8. Assessing performance (retrieval) – Example – check all examples as correct/incorrect 9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization) – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals. http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html) TRANSFER OF LEARNING Transfer of learning occurs when a person’s learning in one situation influences his learning and performance in other situations THEORIES ABOUT TRANSFER OF LEARNING The following are the major theories concerning transfer of learning:
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Mental discip discipline. This theory asserts that education is largely a matter of training or discipling the mind with vigorous mental exercises in the classics, grammar, logic mathematics, and science on the assumption that such training makes a person equally effective in all areas where a given faculty is employed. Apperception is a process of relating new ideas or mental states to a store of old ones. Memories stored in the subconscious and brought into the conscious enable one to interpret a given experience. New ideas are learned through their being related to what is already in the apperceptive mass. Apperception, therefore, consists of becoming consciously aware of an idea and assimilating it with other ideas which are already acquired. In so far as this theory is concerned, transfer of learning is completely a matter of mechanistic storage of ideas in aninert mind. Identical elements is the theory of transfer of learning that is advocated by connectionism. It states that transfer of learning is facilitated in a second situation to the extent that it contains identical elements or factors which occurred in an earlier learning situation. Among these identical elements of practical importance are associations including ideas about aims and methods of general principles and associations involving basic factual experiences which involve length, color and number which are repeated in different combination (Thorndike, 1913.) Identical elements may take the form of content, procedures, facts, actions, attitudes, techniques or principles. This theory implies that a school should list the aspects of situations that are important to the child even out of the school or in later courses and teach the pupils to cope ith different indetical experiences or situations in real life. Generalization. This theory was advocated by Charles Judd who said that there are two levels or kinds of knowledge – wrote learning or memorization without any meaning and generalized knowledge with many intellectual associations. He believed that it should always be in the form which makes generalizations possible. Basically, generalization is a statement or understanding of relationshipps, a principle, a rule or a law. Generalization is another name for relating experiences in such a manner that what is gained at one point will redound to the advantage of the individual in many spheres of thoughts and actions (Judd, 1939).
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Furthermore, for this theory, transfer of learning is the sensed relationship between the elements of the situations and it is automatic. Generalization is expected to spring into action whenever the environment sets the stage for its occurrence. Gestalt theory of transfer. The Gestaltist advanced the idea of transposition or the belief that when transfer of learning occurs it is in the form of generalizations, concepts, or insights which are developed in one learning situation and employed in other situations. For them, transfer of learning is best achieved when a person is in the best frame of mind and he is aware of the meaning of the situations and experiences as well as their practical application to his daily life activities. MOTIVATION Motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to move. It is the stimulation of action toward a particular objective where previously there was little or no attraction toward that goal. It is the process of arousing, maintaining and controlling interest. This could eplain why the individual always takes what he perceives to be the shortest route to his goals. TYPES OF MOTIVATION Motivation is either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to the inherent or internal stimulus of the individual to learn. It is based on the natural desire of the individual to satisfy his drives and motives without the need for reward and punishment. Extrinsic motivation is based on incentives which are artificial devices which are employed to evoke attitude conductive to learning. Rewards and praises like medals, good grades, prizes, scholarships and the like as well as punishments are good examples of this form of motivation
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SOCIOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION SOCIOLOGY is the systematic study of the development, structure, interaction and collective behavior of organized groups of human beings. SOCIETY is derived from the latin word“socios” or “socials”– meaning fellow, companion or associate. It is a group of individuals with well defined limits which persists in time, thus enabling them to develop a set of common ideas, attitudes, interact and of techniques for living and fitting together. The members think of themselves as a social unit. The society is formed based on man’s gregariousness or the tendency or desire of people to be with other people. CONCEPT OF GROUPS GROUP is a unit of interacting personalities with independence of roles and status existing between them. KINDS OF GROUPS 1. Primary group is characterized by intimate, face to face, informal, personal relationship among members. It is also characterized by the so called “we feeling.” EX. family 2. Secondary group is characterized by impersonal, formal, contractual business-like, and casul relationship. Large in size, of short duration, the members are physically and spatially distant from one another. Ex. Religion, school 3. In group is the group where the individual identifies himself and is given a sense of belongingness. It can be as small as the family or as big as a nation. This group is further characterized by ethnocentrism or the belief that one’s group is superior over the other chauvinism – excessive ethnocentrism.
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4. Out-Group is a group in which one has a feeling of indifference, avoidance, stangeness, dislike, antagonism and even hatred. Ex. Religious groups 5. Peer group is the group where the members are of the same age and socio-economic status. Types of Peer Groups Play-group is characterized by spontaneity, and informality and with minimum or no adult supervision at all. It is common among children. Gang has a recognized leader, pass word, rules of behavior, definite place and time of meeting and planeed activities. It is also characterized by deviant, anti-social behavior. Clique is composed of persons with the same interest or line of thinking. 6. Reference group – a group to which the individual refers and with whom he identifies himself either consciously or unconsciously. It is more of identification rather than actual membership. 7. Voluntary associations – members joined together due to their common decisions or needs. Personal interest group – caters to people with the same interest Ex. Ball clubs Social service groups – for community services Ex. NGO’s, Rotary, Lions, etc. Political action group – for the promotion of a political agenda or candidacy of a political leader Ex. Aksyon Demokratiko
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SOCIAL STRATIFICATION is the system or process of assigning men their respective ranks in a society based on income or wealth, education, occupation and lifestyle. SOCIAL MOBILITY is the process of moving from one social stratum to another, may either be horizontal, vertical or lateral. SOCIALIZATION is the prcess by which the individual acquires the social and cultural heritage of his society. Through this, the individual learns his social position in the society. LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION PROCESS 1. VEgtative Level – the stage characterized by the preoccupation with food. The desire is primarily for survival. 2. Sentient Level – geared towards the satisfaction of sensual passions and desires. 3. Rational Level – a persn has already acquired morality and a sense of justice. LANGUAGE plays a vital role in the socialization of the individual and without this, man would not be able to integrate the values of his society. Language is also considered as the basic difference between man and animals. STATUS AND ROLE STATUS is the position a person occupies in a society by virtue of his age, birth, sex, marriage, occupation, achievement. Types of Status 1. Ascribed – position assigned to an individual without reference to his innate differences and abilities. This is assigned at birth. Ex. sex, race, age, etc.
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2. Achieved – it is not assigned to an individual from birth, but is left open for competition and individual effort. Ex. One’s proffesion ROLE is the part that the individual is expected to play in his social group. It is the sum of the culture patterns associated with a particular status. SOCIAL DEVIATIONS refer to the failure of the individual to play the role expected from him by the society. INTERNALIZATION is the process of making an attitude or a practice a part of one’s automatic and unthinking responses. SOCIAL ORDER is the way the individual is expected to behave in a society where he belongs in order to preserve and maintain the tranquility of his social milieu. SOCIAL CONTROL is the means by whch people are led to fill their expected roles in the society even against their will just to achieve social order.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION ANTHROPOLOGY is derived from the Greek words anthropos which means man and logos meaning the study of. It is the study of human difference, cultural and biological against the background of the nature all humans share. Anthropologist study human social life and culture including the origin of the human race. CULTURE is defined by Edward B. Taylor as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law , morals, customs and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a society. KINDS OF CULTURE 1. Non-Material culture (intangible) includes beliefs, moral, laws, customs, traditions, folk ways and mores etc. 2. Material culture (tangible) includes man’s technologies, etc.
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CHARATERISTICS OF CULTURE 1. Culture is learned – man is not born with culture, but he is born with the capacity to acquire and learn the culture of his group. 2. All people have varied culture – every society has its cultural values that are entirely different from the others. 3. Culture is a group product – man cannot develop a culture of his own if he is alone. 4. Culture is transmitted – the learned culture of the past generation are transmitted to posterity through education. What we are today is the product of what they were before. IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE 1. Through the development of culture man can set aside certain laws of nature to conform to his needs. 2. Through the development of culture man can overcome his physical handicaps. FOLKWAYS – customary ways of behaving which have become habitual repetitive to an individual or group. Ex. Caring for the elders and saying po and opo MORES occurs when folkways become compulsive for the welfare of the society and it has acquired moral significance. Failure to observe or conform to this will result to ostracism or condemnation.
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CULTURE CHANGE may oocur either by accident or direction. It is brought about by the passage of time, migration and other factors. SUB-CULTURE refers to the attitude of a certain group to deviate from the habitual practices of themajority. This is apparent in the new styles of dressing, language and other practices of a group of people which are different from the majority. CULTURAL RELATIVISM refers to the practices considered immoral or taboo to a certain group of people, yet moral to other societies. Ex. Polygamy, pre-marital sex, etc. CULTURE SHOCK is the term used to denote the feeling of depression, often expressed as homesickness, cause by living in a foreign environment. Faced with an unknown or poorly understood foreign language and confused by different codes of conduct, unfamiliar food and even unfamiliar physical surrounding, the traveler or new resident may look upon the people and the unaccustomed behavior with distaste and sometimes with fear. CULTURAL VALUES refer to the collective ethical, aesthetics and religious values of the community including artistic inclination, poetry, music , painting, literature and such other practices which the entire society consider as bital elements of their existence. Test of Robin Williams to determine which practices are included in one’s culture 1. Extensiveness – number of percentage of the population practicing the value. 2. Duration – time element. How long has the value been practiced. 3. Intensity – the total impact of the value upon the populace. The severity or gravity of punishment or condemnation for violation. 4. Prestige of the value carrier- refers to the people practicing such value. FILIPINO CULTURAL VALUES
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The Filipino people are known for their various cultural values. Whether beneficial or not, these cultural values make the Filipinos unique and distinct from other peoples of the world. Some of the important Filipino cultural values are the following: Non-rationalism is the tendency to perceive thoughts, objects, events and persons as sacred. This includes: Aminism – the belief in supernatural spirits who are presumably interferin with man’s daily affairs. Fatalism – belief in luck, fortune telling,”Bahala Na” “suwerte” or malas, horoscope etc. Social Acceptance – the desire to be always accepted by the group Pakikisama – yielding to the decisions of the majority Euphenism – stating an unpleasant truth, opinion, or request as pleasantly as possible. Go-between – the use of a third party to be exact favor or request from another person. This includes hiya and amor propio Emotional closeness and security of the family means the mutual dependence among relative. This could also mean granting special favors or privileges among the immediate or even distant relatives. Authority refers to the emphasis on the power and importance of authority figure. Economic and social improvement is the desire to improve the standard of living of his family and his hometown. Utang Na loob means sense of gratitude Personalism emphasizes the importance of the person with whom one has immediate face to face contact and contact and connection.
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This includes pakiusap, lagay, areglo and palakasan Indolence – laziness Ningas kugon means great enthusiasm at the beginning of a task, yet after a certain period of time the enthusiasm is fading gradually. Mañana habit refers to procrastination or putting for tomorrow what can be done today. Hospitality means cordially entertaining guests and visitors even to the point of sacrificing their own welfare. Fiesta syndrome refers to the lavish spending during fiestas and other occasions.
TEACHING PROFESSION EDUCATION Education is derived from the Latin word “educare” or “educere” which means to lead forth. It is defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, habits, attitudes, interest, skills and abilities and other intangible human qualities through training instructions and self-activity, and transmitting these vital elements of human civilization to posterity. TYPES OF EDUCATION 1. Formal Education – refers to the hierarchically structured chronological graded learning organized and provided by the formal school system and for which certification is required in order for the learner to progress through the grades or move to higher levels. This corresponds to the following levels: A. elementary education B. secondary education C. tertiary education
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2. Non-formal education – refers to any school based educational activities undertaken by the DECS and other agencies aimed at attaining specific learning objectives for a particular clientele, specially the illiterates and the out- of -school youths and adults, distinct from the outside the regular offerings of the formal school system. (B. P 232 Art. III Chapter 1 and 2 Sections 19 and 24) 3. Informal Education- a type of education which can be acquired anytime and anywhere. It is otherwise known as the education for all seasons. ORIGIN OF EDUCATION There are two theories concerning the exact origin of Education: 1. The Theory of Divine Creation advocates that when God, in the beginning of time, created man according to His image and likeness and commissioned him to multiply and replenish the earth and subdue it and have dominion over all other creations (Genesis Chapter 1). He equipped man with intellect and free will. But because man chose to ignore God and disobey his will, the firs couple was banished from the “Garden of Eden” and severed the former relation between the Creator and man. Henceforth, the first couple multiplied, passing the knowledge acquired from God to their offspring, until the time when their children inhabited the earth possessing the intelligence they inherited from their parents. These include the ability to communicate, read and write, knowledge in science and arts, as well as other skills like hunting, farming, fishing, etc. Finally, due to man’s superior intelligence and God given talents, scientific advancements became part of man’s existence. 2. The Theory of Evolution, on the other hand, believes that education started when the very primitive man, basically savage, brutish and animalistic, for he had just evolved from the lower primates, began his quest to find ways and means to feed clothe, shelter and protect himself and compete with other animals for survival (i.e. survival of the fittest).
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Education at this point, says this theory was on its simplest form characterized by the absence of reading, writing or comprehensive language. The education was informal and learning was through observation and imitation or apprenticeship for there were existing schools yet. EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS JEWISH – religious educations 1. Synagogues – temple schools 2. Bible and the Talmud 3. Rabbis – teacher/priests CHINESE – career oriented education 1. Analects of Confucius 2. Civil Service Examination (Han Dynasty 206 B.C) a. Flowering talent – whole day exam b. Promoted man – 3 days exam c. Entered scholar/fit for office – 13 days exam, and those who passed became the ministers of the emperor Every examination that an individual passed had a corresponding decoration in his dress, in his household and certain previliges. EGYPTIAN – practical and empirical education 1. Hieroglyphucs – ancient picture-writing system 2. Papyrus – ancient paper 3. Mathematics – value of pi = 3.16 4. Engineering/Architecture
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Pyramids, dams, dikes, palaces 5. Geometry - land surveying and measuring 6. Astronomy – positions of stars and other heavenly bodies to determine tides, seasons, floods. Calendars composed of 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, months of 30 days with 365 days a year. 7. Medicine – explored human anatomy - Mummification of the dead GREEKS – liberal and democratic education 1. Olympic Games 2. Mythology 3. Democracy 4. Philosophy The Greek City States Sparta - Authoritarian government - Military city-state - Communal life - Military academy - at birth, the child is taken care by the mother, but at the age of seven he is turned over to the paidonomus or a military drill master who will teach him the art of warfare.
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Athens - Liberal education - Freedom of thought, expression and religion - Education was a family responsibility - Every male child is given a paedagogus or a tutor who will train - Him to be a good and responsible citizen Ancient Athenian Schools 1. Palaestra – gymnastic school Paedotribe – teacher of gymnastics 2. Music school Kitharist – music teacher 3. Grammar school Grammatist – teacher of letters The Sophist were the wandering scholars who went to Athens, taught Athenian boys but collected fees from them. Protagoras was the most famous sophist who said that man is the measure if all things. The Greek Thinkers flourished in order to conteract the influences of the Sophists who were not Athenians. Among them were: Socrates (469-399 B.C) - He advanced the idea of Gnothi Seauton or know thyself
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- He believed that knowledge is virtue and all virtuous actions are based on knowledge - He introduced Socratic dialect method of teaching which is composed of: 1. Ironic (destructive) element 2. Maieutic (constructive) element Plato (427-347 B.C.) - He proposed that the society should be divided into classes of people based on their talents and intelligence. a. Philosophical class – guardians or rulers of the society b. Warrior Class – protectors of the society c. Artisan or industrial class- workers of the society - He believed that education should be determined by the social class where the person belongs - He established a school called Academy Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) - He was the paedagogus of Alexander the Great - He established a school called Lyceum - He believed that virtue is brought by doing not by knowing - He advanced the idea that man is a social animal and must use his reason to attain his ultimate end which is the summum bonum or highest/supreme Good. - He postulated that man is composed of two distinct but united entities: Body and soul the soul is composed of:
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1. Irrational element – appetites, desire, passions 2. Rational element – intellect THE GREEK UNIVERSITIES University of Athens – world’s first comprehensive university University of Alexandria – founded by alexander the Great in Egypt.
It had the most advanced library facilities. The Septuagint which is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bibles ws translated by 70 scholars in this university.
It had excellent products like: 1. Euclid – in the field of Geometry 2. Archimedes – in the field of Physics 3. Erathothenes – in the field of Geography and Astronomy ROMANS – pragmatic and progressive education 1. Latin Language 2. The Laws of the Twelbe Tables 3. The Roman Senate THE ROMAN SCHOOLS 1. Elementary – school of the litterator or Ludi Magister 2. Secondary – school of the Grammaticus or Literatus 3. Higher education – rhetorical schools Imperial Contributions to Education 1. Vespasian (A.D. 69-79) – founded the Roman University and Roman Library
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2. Trajan (A.D.98-117) – gave scholarships to poor but deserving students 3. Hadrian (117-138) – gave pensions for retired teachers and gave more attention to Law and Medicine than to Philosophy. 4. Antoninus Pius (138-161) – exempted all Roman teachers from taxation and military service. 5. Constantine (306-337) – continued all the privileges, mentioned above and legalized Christianity by virtue of the Edict of Milan an AD 313. 6. Julian (361-363) – required that all teachers be licensed and be given qualifying exams. He also eliminated Christian teachers from Romal Schools. 7. Gratian (367-383) – subsidized all Roman schools, and created a salary scale for teachers. 8. Theodosius (383-395) – he nationalized all schools and considered the establishment of private schools a grave punishable by law. EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES OF JESUS CHRIST Jesus was born ca. 4 B.C and was crucified 33 years after, approximately AD 30. In the short stay of Jesus Christ here on earth. He revolutionized man’s concept of religiosity and theology. His methods of teaching people were simple and direct and were intended to touch mans spirituality. However, his association with the outcasts of the Jewish society and with the gentiles as well as His frequent attacks against the established norms religious legalism of the Jews drew the ire of the religious leaders of His time led to His crucifixion when He was 33 years of age. But after three days, He rose from the dead to fulfill his promise of redemption and everlasting life for all mankind. The Teaching Methods of Jesus Christ Parable – a short story, a weighty similitude used to convey instruction to ignorant prejudices and inattenntive hearers.
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Ex. Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-33) Conversational Method – an intimate, face to face direct natural personal and informal method. It is a sort of questions and answer method. Ex. John 3:1-11 between Jesus and Nicodemus Mat. 22:15-17 about paying taxes. Proverbial or Gnomic Method – Jesus, in his teachings frequently used gnomes or proverbs, some were quoted from the Old Testament and others were His own. Ex. “For many are called but a few are chosen” Mat 22:14 EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION Upon the resurrection of Jesus Christ, He commissioned His disciples to “go into the world and preach the Gospel (Mathew 28:19), but they received a lot of persecutions from the unbelieving world. However, when Emperor Constantine of the Roman Empire proclaimed Christianity as the official religion of the Roman world the Christians and their teachings became part of the mainstream society, and the Emperor himself supported the church and established schools. By virtue of this support, the following Christians schools were established: 1. Catechumenal – school for new converts 2. Catechetical – school for leadership training 3. Cathedral/episcopalian- school for the clergy THE DIFFERENT MEDIEVAL MOVEMENTS IN EDUCATION The medieval period is also known as the middle age or the dark age which refers to the span of time from the downfall of the Roman empire in the year A.D 476 to the beginning of the Renaissance period about 1333. The different educational movements during this epoch in history are discussed hereunder:
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Monasticism – education was a religious discipline. Education was strict, rigid and punishment was severe. Education was based on Monastic vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. During reign of Charlemagne (722-804), he supported the Monastic schools and even established court schools to educate his constituents. Scholaticism – education was an intellectual discipline. The purpose of this movement was to bring reason to faith and support theology by using logic. Saint Thomas of Aquinas (1225-1274) was one of foremost proponents of Scholastic movement. He wrote the Summa Theologiae which became the basis of the majority of the doctrines of the Catholic Church. The Medieval University – the Medieval Universities started as “universitas magistrorum et scholarium” or corporation of teachers and students chartered by the pope or the kings. The first organized university was the University of Bologna chartered by the Emperor Frederick I in 1158. Composition of the medieval university: Studium generale – the student body Nation – a group of students who had the same place of origin Councilors – leaders of a nation Facultas – teachers of the same subject Dead – head of the facultas Rector – head of the medieval university Chivalry – education as a social discipline. This kind of movement flourished in the Christian countries in Europe as a response to the increasing educational needs of the sons of the nobility. Under this system, a boy of noble birth has to pass through the following stages before he is fully accepted as a member of his social class:
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Page – an attendant to the noble courts at the age of 7 years Squire – an attendant to a knight at the age of 14 years Knight – a full-pledged warrior who has vowed to:
-protect the women and the poor
- defend the church and the state - - attack the wicked and
- shed blood for the sake of his contry and his compatriots
The Guild System- education for the middle class. Towards the end of the medieval period, a new class of people arose between the nobles and the peasants- the bourgeoisie (burgher) or the middle class. These people were not really rich like the landed gentry, nor poor like vassals, but rather, they acquired their fortune from the profits in commercial and industrial endeavors brought about by the “Crusaders”. In order to protect their interests, they set up organizations known as guild. There were two types of guilds: Crafts guild- organization of skilled craftsmen Mechant guild – organization of business Before a person is accepted as a member of any of the guild, he must pass through the following stages: Apprentice – a trainee assigned to a master Journeyman – a trainee who travels from place to place under different masters and is paid for his labor Master craftsman – a full pledged member of a guild
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As the number of the middle class increased the need for more schools to meet the education needs of their children also increased which paved the way for the establishment of the new type of schools, viz: Chantry schools – schools established through the foundations under the clergy Guild Schools – served as vocational schools who catered to the children of the members of the craft guild Burgher schools – established to educate the children of the members of the merchant guild ISLAMIC INFLUENCES ON EDUCATION Islam which means submission to God, a religion that was established by the prophet Muhammad (570-632) is a monotheistic religion whose followers worship only one God –Allah. The teachings of this religion is based on the Qur’an, their sacred scripture. At the peak of the glory of the Islamic civilization they have contributed the following to the world and to education: 1. Established the most complete curricula from elementary to university. 2. Hindu-Arabic numerals 3. Advanced learning in Pharmacy, surgery and medicine for the preservation of life 4. Taught geography using globes 5. Invented the pendulum clock, discovered the nitric acid and sulfuric acid 6. Used compass, gunpowder 7. Cultivated rice, silkworm, sugar and cotton 8. Determined the height of the atmosphere, weight of the air and specific gravity of bodies
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PHILOSOPHICAL MOVEMENTS IN EDUCATION Renaissance. It is derived from the Latin word “renaistre” meaning to be born again. It is considered as the revival of ancient learning brought about by the discovery of the “New World” of Christopher Columbus the fascinating stories of Marco Polo about the wealth and technology of the East, (i.e China under Kublai Khan), the invention of the printing press and other events during the latter part of the medieval period. Humanism. It was one of the various philosophies that flourished during the renaissance period. It is a philosophy which holds the idea that education aims to liberate man from the oppressive and demanding medieval institutions like the church and the state so as to enable him fully develop his potentials. Italian or Individual Humanism It stressed that individual freedom is a prerequisite to the achievement of a rich and fullfiled life. Vittorino Da Feltre (1397-1446) – a school teacher who administered the Casa Giacosa (Happy House) whose purpose was to educate young boys by the use of games and other physical and educational activities. Northern or Social Humanism The humanistic movement in Northern European countries like Holland, France Germany and England. This movement advocated that education is an avenue for societal regeneration. Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536) an educator from Rotterdam who wrote book called Liberal Education of Children where he advanced the idea of using games and play and individualized instruction to educate children and prohitibted the use of harsh and physical punishment. Reformtion. It was acaused by the massive corruption in the Roman Catholic Church and the sale of indulgences. This movement highlighted the protests of the people who were dissatisfied by the policies of the Roman Catholic Church.
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Martin Luther (1483-1546) – Father of Reformation who wrote the 95 theses, denouncing the Catholic Church and posted it in the doorpost of his Cathedral on (Wittenburg) on Octover 31, 1517. Philip MElanchton – education reformer. He published the “Report of Book of Visitation” which is considered as the first educational survey in history. Saxony Plan- first public school system based on the “Report” Catholic Counter- Reformation. It was the response of the Roman Catholic Church to the protests of the “Reformers” led by Rev. Martin Luther. In order to examine the doctrines and policies of the Church, the Council of Trent was convened by Pope Paul III in 1545-1563. As a result, several changes were instituted in the Roman Catholic Church so as to prevent the Catholics from joining the ranks of the Protestant who at that time were growing in number. The Catholics realized that the Protestants used education to implement societal reforms and gained the support of the masses. Due to this, the Catholic Church sanctioned the establishments of the different congregation to carry-out her version of educational innovations. Among them were: Jesuit Order (Society of Jesus) founder by Ignatius of Loyola whose aims were: To teach the children to become leaders both of the Church and the State little learning at a time but emphasized mastery encouraged competition and rivalry. Little School of Port Royale (1637-1660) aimed to develop the moral and religious character of the child. Institute of the Brethren of Christian Schools (La Salle Schools) founded by Jean Baptiste de la Salle (1651-1719) who aimed to teach the poor and the underpreviledged. Realism. It was an educational philosophy which advocates that education should be concerned with the actualities of life and prepare for its concrete duties. The following were the proponents of realistic education:
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John Milton (1608-1674) – he believed that boys should study formal grammar and formal education must be emphasized he advocated the use of resource persons. Francois Rabelais (1483-1553) – he suggested that education should be made attractive rather than compulsive all elarning should be made pleasant he believed that education should be gained through books Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592) – he emphasized the use of field trips/education tours in the teaching – learning process and introduced the concept of finishing schools John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) - he wrote “Orbis Pictus Sensualism” or the World of Sensible Things Pictured which is considered as the first textbook on the use of visual aids in classroom teaching - He organized a school system from pre-school to the university - He also advocated the following: - Older children should stay longer in school, and younger ones should stay in school only for a short period a day. - Morning hours should be devoted for intellectual subjects while subjects for - Physical and aesthetic development should be given in the afternoon. -The level of teachin should be suited to the understanding of children. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) - He suggested the use of inductive method of teaching - He believed that all scientific progress must be based on nature Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611) - He argued that education should be in accordance with the nature of the child and its aim is
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- To secure the expression and development of childish tendencies and not to suppress them. -He suggested that teachers should be required to obtain university training like - Lawyers, ministers etc. - He developed teacher training colleges (Normal Schools) Wolfgang Ratke (1571-1635) - He advocated that everything should constantly be repeated to ensure mastery - He argued that everything should be without compulsion and rote learning should by all means be avoided. Disciplinism. A philosophy which believes that education is based on discipline. It advanced the idea based on Aristotle’s faculty psychology that the human mind is composed of several faculties such as memory, reason, will, judgement ,etc. And the power in any faculty can be developed through training and proper discipline. It advocated that mastery of mathematics and linguistic ensures mastery of other subjects. The foremost exponent philosophy was John Locke (1632-1704) who believed that when the child is born his mind cacn be compared to a “tabula rasa” or a ban or a blank tablet and experiences will be the ones to write on that tablet. Naturalism is an educational philosophy which adhers to the belief that education should be in accordance with the nature of the child. All educational practices should be focused towards the natural development of all the innate talents and abilities of the child. The outstanding personality involved in naturalism in education was Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) who wrote several books on politics and education like the Social Contract, Emile, etc. Emile is considered as the “gospel of the child’s educational freedom.” Rousseau believed that man at birth is naturally good, societal influences make man evil and that the stronger the body, the more it obeys; the weaker the body, the more it commands.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS IN EDUCATION This movement calls for the application of basic psychological principles like individual differences, motivation, transfer of learning and others to the educative process. Among the educators who belong to this movement were: Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) He advocated the following: Education has the power for societal regeneration Learning should be through observation and experience Bookish learning should be avoided Discipline must be based on love (thinking love) A teacher must have a special training that is not simply intellectual but one which also touches the heart Education is basically a “contact of souls” and thetacher must feel Respect and sympathy for the children he teaches Johan Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) He was known for the Herbatian Method of Teaching which has the following steps: a. Preparation b. Presentation c. Association d. Generalization e. Application Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (1782-1852) - He established a child centered school in 1840 which came to be known as
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Kinder garten” which literally means “Garden of Children” - He included games and sport in the curricula of formal schools Maria Montessori (1870-1952) - the first female doctor in Italy. She based her work on the direct observation of children.
Educators called her a miracle worker
Developed a child centered curriculum
Education is life that evolves from a child’s use of all his or her senses
In the learning process Emphasized manipulation and experimentation to promote
independence and creativity Specialized tool were used to allow the child to proceed at his or
her own pace SOCIOLOGICAL MOVEMENT IN EDUCATION This is based on the tenets of this movement, education is looked upon as the process geared the propagation, perpetuation and amelioration of the society and the total development of an individual. John Dewey (1856-1952) He believed that:
Education must be democratic
The aim of education is social afficiency
Utilization rather than subordination for the capacity of the individual
Public school system is the chief means to achieve the above mentioned purpose
Education is life and not just a preparation for life. He postulated the famous “Learning by Doing Dictum” which states that the learner best if he is an active participant in the teaching learning process.
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LEGAL BASES OF PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM THE 1987 CONSTITUTION ARTICLE XIV Sections 1-5(5) Section 1. The state shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all. Section 2: The State shall: 1. Establish maintain and support a complete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and society; 2. Establish and maintain a system of free public education in the elementary and highschool levels. Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their children, elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age; 3. Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs subsidies and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in botth public and private schools, especially to the underprivileged; 4. Encourage non-formal and indigenous learning system, as well as self-learning, independent and out-of school study programs particularly those that respond to community needs; and 5. Provide adult citizens, the disabled and- out- of- school youth with training in civics, vocational efficiency and other skills. Section 3 1. All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part of the curricula. 2. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency. 3. At the option expressed in writing by the parents or guardians, religion shall be allowed to be taught to their children or wards in the public elementary and highschools within the regular class hours by instructors designated or approved by the religious
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authorities of the religion to which the children or wards belong, without additional cost to the Government. Section 4. 1. The state recognizes the complementary roles of public and provate institutions in the educational system and shall exercise reasonable supervisions and regulations of all educational institutions. 2. Educational institutions, other than those established by religious groups and mission boards, shall be allowed solely by citizens of the Philippines or corporations or associations at least sixty per centum of the capital of which is owned by such citizens. The Congress may, however, require increased Filipino. 3. Equity participation in all educational institutions. The control and administration of educational institutions shall be vested in citizens of the Philippines. No educational institution shall be established exclusively for aliens and no group of aliens shall comprise more than one third of the enrolment in any school. The provisions of this subsection shall not apply to schools established for foreign diplomatic personnel and their dependents and unless otherwise provided by law, for other foreign temporary residents. 4. All revenues and assets of non-stock, non-profit educational institutions used actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from taxes and duties. Upon the dissolution or cessation of the corporate existence of such institutions, their assets shall be disposed of in the manner provided by law. Proprietary educational institutions, including those cooperatively owned,may likewise be entited to such exemptions subject to the limitations provided by law including restrictions on dividends and provisions for reinvestment. 5. Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants endownments, donations or contributions used actually, directly and exlusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from tax. Section 5. 1. The State shall take into account regional and sectoral need and conditions and shall encourage local planning in the development of educational policies and programs.
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2. Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning. 3. Every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to fair, reasonable and equitable admission and academic requirements. 4. The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement. Non-teaching academic and non-academic personnel shall enjoy the protection of the State. 5. The State shall assign the higest budgetary priority to education and ensure that teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the best available talents through adequate remuneration and other means of job satisfaction and fulfilment. BATAS PAMBANSA BLG.232 (THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1982) This was an act providing for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated system of education. In accordance with Section 2, this act shall apply to and govern both formal and non-formal system in public and private schools in all levels of the entire educational system. As provided by this Act, the national development goals are as follows: 1. To achieve and maintain an accelerating rate of economic development and social progress. 2. To assure the maximum participation of all the people in the attainment and enjoyment of the benefits of such growth; and 3. To achieve and strengthen national unity and consciousness and preserve, develop and promote desirable cultural, moral and spiritual values in a changing world. It is also stated inSection 3 that: The state shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education regardless of sex.age, creed socio economic status, physical and mental conditions, racial or ethnic origin, political or other affiliation. The state shall therefore promote and maintain equality of access to education as well as the enjoyment of the benefits of education by all its citizens. RIGHTS OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOL (Section 9) 1. The right to receive competent instruction relevant to quality education.
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2. The right to freely choose their field of study subject to the existing curricula and contiunue their course up to graduation, except in cases of academic deficiency or violations of disciplinary regulations. 3. The right to school guidance and counselling services. 4. The right to access to his own school records and the confidentiality of it. 5. The right to the issuance of official certificates, diplomas, transcript of records, grades, transfer credentials and other similar documents within thirty days from request. 6. The right to publish a student newspaper and invite resource persons during symposia, assemblies and other activities. 7. The right to free expression of opinions and suggestions and to effective channels of communications with appropriate academic and administrative bodies of the school or institution. 8. The right to form or establish, join and participate in organizations and societies recognized by the school…. Or to form, join and maintain organizations and societies for purposes not contrary to law. 9. The right to be free from involuntary contributions except those approved by their organizations and societies. RIGHTS OF ALL SCHOOL PERSONNEL (Section 10) 1. Free expression of opinions and suggestions. 2. To be provided with free legal service by the appropriate government office in case of public school personnel and the school authorities concerned in case of private school personnel, when charged in an administrative, civil and criminal proceedings, by parties other than the school authorities concerned, for actions committed directly in the lawful discharge of professional duties and/or in defense of school policies. 3. Establish join, maintain labor organization of their choice to promote their welfare and defend their interest. 4. To be free from involuntary contributions except those imposed by their own organizations. SPECIAL RIGHTS and/or PREVILEGES OF TEACHING OR ACADEMIC STAFF (Section 11)
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1. Right to be free from compulsory assignment not related to their duties defined in their appointments or employment contracts unless compensated thereof ( additional compensation Sec. 14 R.A 4670 – at least 25% of his regular remuneration) 2. Righ to intellectual property . . . . . 3. Teachers are persons in authority when in lawful discharge of duties and responsibilities shall therefore be accorded due respect and protection (Common-wealth Act No. 578) 4. Teachers shall be given opportunity to choose career alternatives for advancements. RIGHT OF ADMINISTRATORS (Section 12) School administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the lawful discharge of their duties and responsibilities ....shall be accorded due respect and protection (Commonwealth Act No. 578 RIGHT OF SCHOOLS (Section 13) 1. The right of their governing boards…. To adopt and enforce administrative or management systems. 2. The rights of institutions of higher learning to determine on academic grounds who shall be admitted to study, who may teach, and who shall be the subjects of the study and research. MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY EDUCATION 1. Voluntary Accreditation (Section 29) 2. Teachers and Administrators obligations and qualification (Section 16 and 17) 3. Government Financial Assistance to Private Schools (Section 41) OTHER LAWS ON EDUCATION Act No.74 This law was enacted on January 21, 1901 by the Philippine Commission, and provided:
Establishment of the Department of Public Instruction headed by General Superintendent
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The archipelago was divided into school divisions and districts for effective management of the school system
English was made as medium of instruction in all levels of schooling
Optional religious instruction in all schools (section 16)
Establishment of a Trade school in Manila (Philippine College of Arts and Trade – PCAT not known as Technological Universty of the Philippines) a school of Agriculture in Negros, a Normal school in Manila (Philippine Normal School) (Section 18)
Philippine Normal School, however, was renamed Philippine Normal College (PNC) by virtue of Republic Act No. 416 on June 18, 1949. And on December 26, 1991 the PNC was converted to Philippine Normal University as provided by Republic Act No. 7168. On June 30, 2006, Republic Act. No. 9467 was signed into law which designated PNU as the National Center for Teacher Education. Act No. 2706 This was known as the “Private School Law” enacted on March 10, 1917 by the Philippine Legislature, which made obligatory the recognition and inspection of private schools and colleges by the Secretary of Public Instruction so as maintain a standard of Effeciency in all private schools and colleges in the country. This law was amended by Commonwealth Act No. 180 passed on November 13, 1936 which provided that: The secretary of Public instruction was vested with power to supervise, inspect and regulate said schools and colleges in order to determine the efficiency of instruction given in the same.” And all private schools come under the supervision and regulation of the Secretary of DPI, thus eliminating “diploma mills” and substandard schools. Commonwealth Act No. 1 (Amended by R.A 9163) This law is otherwise known as the “National Defense Act” passed by the Philippine Assembly on Decemver 21, 1935, which provided in Section 81 that: “Preparatory Military training shall begin with the youth in the elementary grade school at the age of ten years and shall extend through the remainder of his schooling into college or post secondary education.
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By virtue of Presidential Decree 1706, issued by the late President Marcos on August 8, 1980, otherwise known as the National service Law”, Commonwealth Act No.1 was amended, and required all citizens to render , civic welfare service law enforcement service and military service. Commonwealth Act No. 578 This law was enacted on June 8, 1940, and conferred the status of “persons in authority” upon the teachers, professors, and persons charged with the supervision of public or duly recognized private schools, colleges and universities. This Act also provided a penalty of imprisonment ranging from six months and one day to six years and a fine ranging from 500 to 1,000 pesos upon any person found guilty of assault upon those teaching personnel. Executive Order No. 27 Issued on July 4, 1986, this law seeks to include courses or subjects on human rights in the school curricula, in textbooks, and other reading materials and in the qualifying examinations on government service. Executive Order No. 189 Issued by former President Corazon Aquino on June 10, 1987 it placed all public secondary school teachers under the administrative supervision and control of the Department of Edcation, Culture and Sports. The basic salaries and cost of living allowances of said teachers shall be paid by the national government. Republic Act No. 1079 Approved on June 15, 1959, it provided that Civil Service eligibility shall be permanent and shall have no time limit. Republic Act No. 1425 It was approved on June 12, 1956, it prescribed the inclusion in the curricula of all schools, both public and private, from elementary schools to the universities, the life, works and writings of Jose Rizal especially the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo Republic Act No. 4670 Known as the “Magna Carta for public School Teachers”. This was approved on June 18, 1966 to promote and improve the social and economic status of public school teachers, their living and working conditions, their employment and career prospects.
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It also provided the following:
Recruitment qualification for teachers
Code of Professional Conduct for teachers
Teaching hours – 6hours of classroom teachinh (maximum load)
Additional compensation – 25% of the regular remuneration
Health and injury benefits (thru GSIS)
One year study leave (sabbatical leave) after seven years of continuos teaching, the teacher should receive 60% of the monthly salary.
One range salary increase upon retirement (basis of computing the retirement fee)
Freedom to form organizations
Republic Act No. 6655 Known as the Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988, it was approved on May 26, 1988 and provided for: a. Free public secondary education to all qualified citizens and promote quality education at all levels. b. No tuition or other fees shall be collected except fees related to membership in the school community such as I.D student organization and publication. c. Non-payment of these shall not hinder a student from enrollment or graduation. d. Nationalization of all public secondary schools (section 7) e. A student who fails in majority of his academic subjects for two consecutive years could no longer avail of their program. Republic Act No. 6728 (Amended by R.A 8545)
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Known as the “Act Providing Government Assistance to Student and Teachers in Private Education”, it was approved on June 10, 1989 and provided for:
Tuition fee supplement for student in private high schools, vocational and technical courses whose schools charge less than 1,500 pesos tuition fee.
High schools textbooks assistance fund
Expansion of Educational Service Contracting Scheme (ESC)
Voucher system of the Private Education Student Financial Assistance Program (PESFA)
Scholarship grants to graduating valedIctorians and salutatorians
Tuition fee supplements to students in private colleges and univiersities
Educational Loan Fund
College Faculty Development Fund
Republic Act No. 7079 Also known as the “Campus Journalism Act of 1991”, this was signed into law by President Corazon Aquino on July 5, 1991. This law provides for the promotion and protection of press freedom in the campus by providing for the establishment and maintenance of a student publication in all elvels of education in both public and private schools. This aso mandates the DECS to sponsor periodic competitions, press conferences and training seminar in which student editors/ writers and teacher advisers of student publications shall participate. Republic Act No. 7104 This Act is known as the “Commission on the Filipino Language Act”. Pursuant to the mandate of the Constitution, it is hereby declared to be a policy of the Government to ensure and promote the evolution, development and further enrichment of Filipino as the national language of the Philippines, on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages.
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To this end, the Government shall take the necessary steps to carry out the said policy. Composition of the Commission The Commission shall be composed of eleven commissioners, one of whom shall serve as a Chairman. The commissioners shall represent the major Philippine languages, as defined in the Section 3 of this Act: Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon and the major language of Muslim Mindanao; the Northern Cultural Communities; the Southern Cultural Communities; and such other Philippine languages or ethnolinguistic regions as the Commission may decide upon; Provided, That at least (4) four of these commissioners shall also represent various disciplines. The chairman and two (2) of the commissioners shall serve on a full time basic; the remaining eight (8) shall serve on a part- time basis and shall attend the regular and special meetings of the Commission. Appointment and Qualifications of Commissioners The commissioners shall be appointed by the President, with the consent of the Commission on Appoinments, from the list of nominees to be submitted by the different ethnolinguistic regions in the country. The President shall appoint the eleven (11) commissioners, the Chairman, and the two (2) full time commissioners. The President shall likewise appoint from the remaining eight (8) commissioners, four (4) commissioners who shall serve for a term of five (5) years and four (4) who shall choose a temporary or acting chairman from the two (2) full- time commissioners. No one shall be appointed as commissioner unless he/she is a natural born Filipino citizen, at least thirty (30) years old, morally upright and noted for his/her expertise linguistic, the culture and language of the ethnolinguistic region, and the discipline he/she represents. Term of Office The chairman and the two (2) full- time commissioners shall serve for a term of seven (7) years. Four (4) other commissioners shall serve for a term of five (5) years and the four (4) other commissioners, for a term of three (3) years. The commissioners may be reappointed for a maximum of one (1) term by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments. In case a vacancy
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occurs prior to the expiration of the term of office of a commissioner, the replacement shall serve only the unexpired portion of the term of office that was vacated. The commission shall, within thirty (30) days from the date the vacancy occurs, recommend to the President a replacement from the list of nominees submitted by the particular ethnolinguistic region affected by the vacancy, subject to the confirmation of the Commission on Appointments: Provided, That, in the event the Commission fails to make such recommendation, the vacancy shall be filled up by the President, also from the said list of nominees and with the consent of the Commission on Apointments. Organizational Structure The Commission shall determine its organizational structure: Provided, That technical personnel of the Commission shall be exempt from the rules and regulations of the Office of Compensation and/or eligibility requirements of the Civil Service Commission. Director General There shall be a director general who shall be appointed by the Commission for a term of seven (7) years and who may be reappointed for a maximum of one (1) term. The Commission shall determine the powers, functions, duties and compensation of the director general. Republic Act No. 7356 This Act is the “Law Creating the National Commission for Culture and the Arts.” Based on the provisions of this law, the Filipino national culture shall be (a) independent free of political and economic structures which inhibit cultural sovereignty; (b) equitable, effectively creating and distributing cultural opportunities and correcting the imbalance that has long prejudiced the poor and other marginalized sector who have the least opportunities for cultural development and educational growth; (c) dynamic continuously developing in pace with scientific, technological, social, economic and political changes bot in national and international levels; progressive, developing the vast potential of all Filipinos as responsible change agents of society; and (e) humanistic, ensuring the freedom and creativity of te human spirit.
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The Filipino national culture shall be evolved and developed by the people themselves in a climate of freedom and responsibility. National cultural policies and programs shall be formulated which shall be; (a) pluralistic, fostering deep respect for the cultural identity of each locality, as well as elements assimilated from other cultures through the natural process of acculturation;(b) democratic, encouraging and supporting the participation of the vast masses of our people in its program and projects; (c)non partisan, open to all people and institutions, regardless of creed , affiliation, ideology, ethnic origin, age, gender, or class, with no organized group or sector having monopoly of its services, and (d) liberative, having concern for the decolonization and emancipation of the Filipino psyche in order to ensure the full flowering of Filipino culture. Preservation of the Filipino Heritage It is the duty of every citizen to preserve and conserve the Filipino historical and cultural heritage and resources.The retrieval and conservation of artifacts of Filipino culture and history shall be vigorously pursued. The Commission A National Commission for Culture and Art is hereby created to formulate policies for the development of culture and arts, implement these policies in coordination with affiliated cultural agencies; administer the National Endownment Fund for Culture and Arts (NEFCA); encourage artistic creation within a climate of artistic freedom; develop and promote the Filipino national culture and arts; and preserve Filipino cultural geritage. The Commission shall be an independent agency. It shall render an annual report of its activities and achievements to the President and to Congress. Composition The Commission shall be composed of the following members:
The Undersecretary of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports
The Undersecretary of the Depatment of Tourism;
Te Chairman of the House Committee on Culture;
The Chairmanof the Senate Committee on Culture
The President of the Cultural Center of the Philippines
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The Executive Director of the National Historical Institute
The Director of the National Museum
The Director of the National Library
The Director of the Institute of the Philippine Languages
The Director of the Records Management and Archives Office;
The Executive Director of the Commission; The Head of the Subcommission on Cultural Communities and
Traditional Arts.
Three (3) representatives from the private sector who shall be the elected heads of the three (3) representatives from the private sector who shall be the elected heads of the three (3) Subcommission identified hereunder, namely: the Subcommission on Cultural Heritage, the Subcommission on the Arts and the Subcommission on Cultural Dissemination. They shall be elected by the chairpersons of the national committees under their respective Subcommissions.
The National Cultural Agencies The Commission shall coordinate with the national cultural agencies including but not limited to the Cultural Center of the Philippines, the Institute of the Philippine Languages, the National Historical Institute, the National Library, the National Museum, the Records Management and Archives Office. However they shall continue operating under their respective charters or as provided by law wgere provisions therein are not inconsistent with the provisions of this Act. They shall serve as the national repository and/or showcase, as the case may be of the best of Philippine culture and arts. For this purpose these agencies shall submit periodic reports, including recommendations to the commission. This law was approved on April 3, 1992. Republic Act No. 7610 On June 17, 1992, Congress enacted Republic Act No. 7610 otherwise known as the Special Protection of Children against Abuse, Exploitation and Descrimination Act, or the Anti child Abuse Law.
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More than ten years thereafter or on November 9, 1993, Republic Act No. 7610 was amended on by Republic Act No. 9231 in order to strengthen the law for the protection of the Filipino children from abuse, exploitation and for the elimination of the worst forms of child labor. Children Children refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age thos over but are unable to fully take care of themselves or protect themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or condition. (Section 3[a], Republic Act No. 7610) Policy of the State on Children It is hereby declared to be the policy of the State to provide special protection to children from all forms of abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation and discrimination, and other conditions prejudicial development including child labor and its worst fom; provide sanctions for their commission and carry out a program for prevention and deterrence and crisis intervention in situations of child abuse, exploitation and discrimination. The State shall intervene on behalf of the child when the parent, guardian teacher or person having care or custody of the child fails or is unable to protect the child against abuse, exploitation and discrimination or when such acts against the child are committed by the said parent guardian teacher or person having care and custody of the same. It shall be policy of the State to protect and rehabilitate children gravely threatened or endangered by circumstances which affect or will affect their survival and normal development and over which they have no control. The best interests of children shall be the paramount consideration in all actions concerning them, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities, and legislative bodies, consistent with the principle of First Call for Children as enunciated in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Every effort shall be exerted to promote the welfare of children and enhance their opportunities for a useful and happy life. (Section 1, Republic Act No. 9231) Child Abuse Child abuse refers to the maltreatment, whether habitual or not of the child which includes any of the following:
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1. Psychological and physical abuse, neglect, cruelty, sexual abuse amd emotional maltreatment; 2. Any act by deeds or words which debases, degrades or demeans the intrinsic worth and dignity of a child as a human being; 3. Unreasonable deprivation of his basic needs for survival, such as food and shelter. 4. Failure to immediately give medical treatment to an injured child resulting in serious impairement of his growth and development or in his permanent incapacity or death. Penalty for Child Abuse Any person who shall commit any other acts of child abuse, cruelty or exploitation or be responsible or othe conditions prejudicial to the child’s development shall suffer the penalty of prision mayor in its minimum period. Employment of Children Children below fifteen (15) years of age shall not be employed except: 1. When a child works directly under the sole responsibility of his/her parents or legal guardians and where only members of his/her family are employed provided that his/her employment neither endangers his/her life, safety health, and morals, nor impairs his/her normal development, provided further that the parent or legal guardian shall provide the said child with the prescribed primary and /or secondary education; 2. Where a child’s employment or participation in public entertainment or information through cinema, theater, radio, television or other forms of media is essential, provided that the employment contract is concluded by the child’s parents or legall guardian, with express agreement of the child concerned, if possible, and the approval of the Department of Labor and Employment, provided further that the following requirements in all instances are strictly complied with: a. The employer shall ensure the protection, health, safety, morals and normal development of the child. b. The employer shall institute measure to prevent the child’s exploitation or discrimination taking into account the system and level of renumeration, and the duration and arrangement of working time; and
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c. The employer shall formulate and implement, subject to the approval and supervision of competent authorities, a continuing program for training and skills acquisition of the child. In the above exceptional cases where any such child may be employed, the employer shall first secure, before engaging such child, a work permit from the Department of Labor and Employment which shall ensure observance of the above requirements. For purposes of this Article, the term “child” shall apply to all persons under eighteen (18) years of age. (Section 2 Republic Act No. 9231) Hours of Work of a Working Child 1. A child below fifteen (15) years of age may be allowed to work for not more than twenty (20) hours a week provided that the work shall not be more than four (4) hours at any given day. 2. A child fifteen (15) years of age but below eighteen (18) shall not be allowed to work for more than eight (8) hours a day, and in no case beyond forty (40) hours a week; 3. No child below fifteen (15) years of age shall be allowed to work between eight (8) o’clock in the evening and six (6) o’clock in the morning of the following day and no child fifteen (15) years of age but below eighteen (18) years shall be allowed to work between ten (10) o’clock in the evening and six (6) o’clock in the morning of the following day. (Sec 3, Republic Act No. 9231) Ownership, Usage and Administration of the Working Child’s Income The wages, salaries, earning and other income of the working child shall belong to him/her in ownership and shall be set aside primarily for his/her support, education or skills acquisition and secondarily to the collective needs of the family, provided that not more than twenty (20%) percent of the child’s income may be used for the collective needs of the family. The income of the working child and/or the property acquired through the work of the child shall be administered by both parents. In the absence or incapacity of either of the parents, the other parent shall administer the same. In case both parents are absent or Incapacitated, the order of preference or parental authority as provided for under the Family Code shall apply.
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Trust Fund to Preserve Part of the Working Child’s Income The parent or legal guardian of working child below eighteen (18) years of age shall set up trust fund for atleast thirty (30%) percemt of the earnings of the child whose wages and salaries from work and other income amount to atleast two hundered thousand (200,000.00) pesos annually, for which he/she shall render a semi-annual accounting of the fund to the Department of Labor and Employment, in compliance with the provisions of this act. The child have full control over the trust fund upon reaching the age of majority. Prohibition Against Worst Forms of Child Labor No child shall be engaged in the worst forms of child labor. The phrase “worst” forms of child labor” shall refer to any of the following: 1. All forms of slavery, as defined under the “Anti -Traficking in Persons Act of 2003” or practices similar to slavery such as sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labor, including recruitment of children for use in armed conflict; or 2. The use, procuring, offering or exposing aof a child for prostitution for the production of pornography or for pornographic performances; or 3. The use, procuring or offering of a child for illegal or illicit activities, including the production and trafficking of dangerous drugs and volatile substances prohibited under existing laws. 4. Work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carries out, is hazardous or likely to be hamful to the health, safety or morals of children such that it; a. Debases, degrades or demeans the intrinsic worth and dignity of a child as a human being b. Exposes the child to physical, emotional or sexual abuse, or is found to be highly stressful psychologically or may prejudices morals; or c. Is performed underground, underwater or at dangerous heights; or d. Involves the use of dangerous machinery, equipment and tools such as power -driven or explosive power-actuated tools; or
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e. Exposes the child to physical danger such as, but not limuited to the dangerous feats of balancing, physical strength or contortion, or which requires the manual transport of heavy loads; or f. Is performed in an unhealthy environment exposing the child to hazardous working conditions, elements, substances, co-agents or processes involving ionizing, radiation, fire, flammable substances, noxious components and the like, or to exteme temperatures, noise levels, or vibrations; or g. Is performed under particularly difficult conditions; or h. Exposes the child to biological agents such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoans, nematodes and other parasites; or i. Involves the manufacture or handling of explosives and other pyrotechnic products’. Access to Education and Training for Working Children a. No child shall be deprived of formal or non-formal education. In all cases of employment allowed in this Act, the employer shall provide a working child with access to at leasy primary and secondary education. b. To ensure and guarantee the access of the working child to education anmd training the Department of Education (DepEd) shall (1) formulate, promulgate, and implement relevant and effective course designs and educational programs; (2) conduct the necessary training for the implementation of the appropriate curriculum for the purpose ;(3) enseure the availability of the needed educational facilities and materials; and (4) conduct continuing research and development program for the necessary and relevant alternatve education of the working child. c. The DepEd shall promulgate a course design under its non-formal education program aimed at promoting the intellectual, moral and vocational efficiency of working children who have not undergone or finished elementary or secondary education. Such course design shall integrate the learning process deemed most effective under given circumstances. (Section 4, Republic Act No.9231) Prohibition in the Employment of Children in Certain Advertisements “No child shall be employed as a model in any advertisements directly or indirectly promoting alcoholic beverages, intoxicating drinks, tobacco and its by- products gambling or any form of violence or pornography”. (Section 5, Republic Act no. 9231)
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Republic Act No.7722 Known as the “Higher Education Act of 1994”, it was signed into law on May 18, 1994. This law created the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) vested it with the following functions: 1. Formulate and recommend development plans, policies and programs on Higher Education and research; 2. Recommend to the executive and legislative branches priorities and grants on higher education and research; 3. Set minimum standards for programs and institutions of higher learning; 4. Monitor and evaluate the performance of programs and institutions of higher learning for appropriate incentives as well as impositions program, termination or school closure. Republic Act No. 7743 This was approved on June 17, 1994 which provided the establishment of Public Libraries and Reading Centers in all barangays all over the country. This also provided that the National Library shall provide the standard set of reference books and other materials such as but not limited to encyclopedias, dictionaries, maps and globes upon the establishment of public libraries. This project shall be undertaken by the National Library in coordination with the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG). Republic Act no. 7784 This is known as an “Act to Strengthen Teacher Education in the Philippines by Establishing Centers of Excellence” This was approved on August 4, 1994 and provided that there shall be identified designated, established and developed in strategic places in each of the regions in the country, one or more center of excellence for teacher education based on the following criteria: 1. Highly educated, professionally quialified and experience faculty dedicated to the philosophy, mission, vision and goals of the Institution an education;
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2. Well selected students; 3. Adequate library research and study facilities; 4. Competent administrative and support staff; 5. Well planned and relevant instructional programs; 6. Adequate student development programs; 7. Adequate student services; 8. Relevant extensions service and outreach program; 9. Percentage of graduates who become teachers; and 10. Other criteria as maybe established by the Teacher Education Council of the Commission on Higher Education. Any center of excellence that is established shall be maintained for at least five (5) years before any proposal or review is made to transfer it elsewhere. This law also mandated the CHED to create a Teacher Education Council who shall take charge of all the programs that are related to teacher – education in the Philippines. Republic Act No. 7796 This is known as the Technical Education Skills Development Act of 1994 or the TESDA Act of 1994” This law was approved on August 25, 1994 and provided for the creation of the Technical Education Skills Development Authority or TESDA. This Agency replaced and absorbed the National Manpower and Youth Council, (NMYC) the Bureau of Technical and Vocational Education (BTVE) and the personnel and functions pertaining to technical-vocational in the regional offices of the DECS and the apprenticeship programs of the Bureau of Local Employment of the Department of Labor and Employment. The TESDA Secretariat is composed of: The Secretary of Department of Labor and Employment Chairperson
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The Secretary of Education Culture and Sport Co-Chairperson The Secretary of Trade and Industry Co-Chairperson The Secretary of Agriculture Member The Seretary of Interior and Local Government Member The Director General of Tesda Secretariat Member The TESDA shall also have a Board composed of ten members to be appointed by the President of the Philippines. The TESDA is acreated to take charge of all the technical and vocational manpower training programs of the government, Republic Act No. 7797 This law was passed on August 18, 1994, and provided for the lengthening of the school calendar from two hundered (200) days but not than two hundred twenty (220) days beginning in the school year 1995-1996 Republic Act No. 7836 This known as the “Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994.” It was signed into law on December 16, 1994 This law provided for the following:
Creation of the Board for Professional Teachers composed of five (5) Commissioners appointed by the President of the Philippines upon the recommendations of the recognized and accredited association of teachers. The Board shall be under the general supervision and administration of the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC);
Institutions if the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) which shall replace the Professional Board Exam for Teachers (PBET)
Transferring the authority of administering the LET from the Civil Service Commission and Department of Education, Cuture and Sports (DECS) to the Board for Professional Teachers in the Professional Regulation Commission.
Republic Act No. 7877
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This law in known as the “Anti Sexual Harassment Act of 1995”. This was signed into law on February 14, 1995. This law provided that all forms of sexual harassment in the employment, education or training environment are unlawful. Sexual harassment in the work place as defined by this Act is commited when the sexual favor is made as a condition for employment, promotion, continued employment and other privileges. On the other hand, sexual harassment in an education or training environment is commited:
1 Against one who is under the care or custody or supervision of the offender;
When the sexual favor is made a condition to the giving of a passing grade, or the granting of honors and scholarships or the payment of a stipend, allowance or other benefits privilege or consideration; or
When the sexual advances result in an intimidating, hostile or offensive environment for the student, trainee or apprentice.
The law also provided that any person who violates the provisions of the said Act shall upon conviction be penalized by imprisonment of not less than one (1) month nor more than six (6) months, or a fine of not less than ten thousand (10,000) nor more than twenty thousand pesos, or both at the discretion of the court.
Republic Act No. 7880 The Act is known and as the “Fair and Equitable Access to Education Act.” It is the declared policy of the State to uphold the primacy of education, to foster patriotism and nationalism, accelerate social progress, and promote total human liberation and development. Accordingly, the State shall provide for thedevelopment of its citizenry as represented by all legislative districts by ensuring them fair and equtable access to the infrastructure and tools necessary for quality education. Towards this end, the State shall provide all legislative districts a minimum and continuing level of educational development by establishing an objective mechanism that would make equitable the allocation of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) budget for capital outlay. The total amount allocated herein shall be used exclusively for capital outlay pursuant to the educational priorities of the legislative district, as determined by the
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DECS upon prior consultation with the representative of each legislative district: Provided, That the primary objective in the use of any allocation shall be to eliminate classroom shotagers if any:Provided, further, That any amounts allocated in accordance with subparagraph (1) of paragraphs (a) and (b) of the preceding section shall be used only for the acquisition or improvement of school sites, construction of school buildings and calssrooms and the purchase of material or equipment that directly aid in education: Provided, furthermore, That the amount so appropriated in accordance with subparagraph (2) of paragraphs (a) and ( b) of the same section shall be used exclusively for the construction of new school buildings: Provided finally, That if the amount so appropriated in subparagraph (2) of paragraphs (a) and (b) should exceed the amount required to meet classroom shortage the excess shall be integrated with subparagraph (1) of paragraphs (a) and (b) of the same section excluding capital outlays of division offices, regional and central offices. This law was approved on February 20, 1995. Republic Act No. 8047 This Act is known as the “Book Piublising Industry Development Act” It is recognized that the book publishing industry has a significant role in national development, considering that books which are its products are instrumental in the citizenry’s intellectual, technical and cultural development – the basic social foundation for the economic and social growth of the country. Books are the most effective and economical tools for achieving educational growth, for imparting information and for recording, preserving and disseminating the nation’s cultural heritage. Accordingly, it is hereby declared a policy of the State to promote the continuing development of the books publishing industry, with the active participation of the private sector, to ensure an adequate supply of affordable, quality-produced books not only for the domestic but also for the export market. For this purpose, the Government shall formulate, adopt, and implement a National Book Policy and a corresponding National Book Development Plan that will serve as the enduring basis for fostering the progressive growth and viability of the book industry. National Book Development Plan
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The National Book Development Plan shall include the specific measures needed to realize the purposes and objectives of the National Book Policy. The formulation of the plan shall involve:
the collection and tabulation of data on book production covering such areas as paper production, supply and consumption, publishing equipment and machinery and existing distribution networks;
A survey on the availability of adequate and proper manpower and supporting skills needed by the publishing industry such as authors, editors, designers and illustrators, marketing personnel and printers;
a survey of existing legislation affecting the book industry both at the national and international levels;
A survey of professional training capability as well as of reading habits and attitudes; and,
Consultations with all segments of the book industry concerned in planning for and preparing the National Book Development Plan on the basis of the results of the aforementioned surveys.
Governing Board; Composition, Terms, Power and Functions There is hereby created a National Book Development Board hereinafter referred to as the Board, which shall be under the administrative supervision of the Office of the President. The Governing Board shall be composed of eleven (11) members who shall be appointed by the President of the Philippines.
Five (5) representative if the government to be chosen from the Department of Education, Culture and Sports,(DECS), Department of Trade and Industry, (DTI) Department of Science and Technology, (DOST) National Commission for Culture and Arts, (NCCA) and nominees by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) from the academe and training institutions, respectively; and;
Six (6) representatives from the nominees of organization of private book publishers, printers, writers, books industry related activities, students and the private education sector, preferably representatives of the three (3) main islands of the country, in view
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of the substantial progress made by other regions in the book publishing industry.
The appointees to the Board shall be one of the three (3) nominees of the concerned nationwide organizations duly incorporated with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and with membership, whenever feasible, in all the cities and provinces throughout the country. The members of the Board shall elect a chairman from among themselves. The DECS representative in the Board shall be the ex-officio vice-chairman of the Board. The members of the Board shall serve for a term of three (3) years: Provided, That no member shall serve for more than (2) consecutive terms. Provided, further, That the terms of the first appointees from the private sector shall be staggered thus: the first two (2) representative of the private sector shall serve for three (3) years; the second two (2) for two (2) years; and the third two (2) for one (1) year: Provided, furthermore,That the appointee from the academe shall serve for a period of three (3) years and the appointee from training institutions shall serve for a term of two (2) years. The members if the Board shall serve and continue to hold office until their successors shall have been appointed and qualified. Should a member of the Board fail to complete his term, his successor shall be appointed by the President of the Philippines but only for the unexpired portion of the term. No person shall be appointed to the Board unless he is a citizen of the Philippines, at least thirty (30) years of age, and of established competence and integrity. For administrative purposes, the Board shall be under the Office of the President. The members of the Governing Board shall receive per diem and such allowances as may be authorized for every meeting actually attended and subject to petinen laws, rules and regulations. Public School and Textbook Publishing The DECS shall consult with the Board in prescribing the guidelines, rules and regulations in preparing the minimum learning competencies and/or prototypes and other specification for books required by public elementary and secondary schools. The DECS shall confine itself to:
preparing the minimum learning competencies, and/or prototypes and other specifications for books and/or manuscripts called for;
Testing, evaluating, selecting and approving the manuscripts or books to be submitted by the publsihers for multiple adoption;
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Providing assistance in the distribution of textbooks to the public schools systems; and
Promulgating with the participation and assistance of the Board rules and regulations for the private book publishers in the call, testing, evaluation, selection, approval, as well as production specification and acquisition of public School textbooks.
The printing of public elementary and secondary school textbooks shall be done on a regional or provincial level, whenever economically feasible. The DECS shall within a period of not more than three (3) years from the effectivity of this Act phase out its elementary and secondary textbook publication and distribution functions and shall support the phasing in of private sector publishers to assume these functions here. For its part, the Board shall monitor and conduct an annual evaluation of the progress the shift of functions from the DECS to the private sector. Participation of Private Publishers in the Public School Textbook Program Guided by the minimum learning competencies for the elementary level, the desired learning competencies for the secondary level, and other specifications prepared by the DepEd, private publishers shall develop and submit to the DepEd those syllabi and/or prototypes and manuscripts or books intended for use in the public schools for testing, evalution, selection and approval. Upon approval of the manuscripts or books, publishers shall produce and supply the textbooks as ordered by the DepEd. Incentives for Book Development Persons and enterprises engaged in book publishing and its related activities duly registered with the National Book Development Board shall be entitled to the applicable fiscal and non-fiscal incentives as provided for under Executive Order No. 226, otherwise known as the Omnibus Investment Code, as amended , subject to the qualifications and requirements set by the Board of Investments (BOI): Provided; That book development activities shall always be included in the Investment Priorities Plan (IPP). In the case of tax and duty free importation of books or raw materials to be used in book publishing, the board and its duly authorized representatives shall strictly
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monitor the quality and volume of imported books and materials as well as their distribution and the utilization of the ssaid imported materials. The Board shall also recommend to the proper prosecuting agencies any violations of the conditions of the duty-free importation. Books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, including book publishing and printing, as well as its distribution and circulation, shall be exempt from the coverage of the expanded value added tax law. Penalties Any person who violates any provision of this Act or the terms and conditions of the rules and regulations issued pursuant thereto, or aids or abets in any manner any violation shall be subject to a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand pesos (100,000.00) or imprisonment of not more than five (5) years or both, at the discretion of the court. This law was approved on June 7, 1995. Republic Act No. 8049 This is an act regulating hazing and other forms of initiations rites in fraternities, sororities, and other organizations and providing penalties for its violations. Hazing, as used in this Act, is an initiation rite or practice as a prerequisite for admission into membership in a fraternity, sorority or organization by placing the recruit, neophyte or applicant in some embarrassing or humiliating situations such as forcing him to do menial, silly, foolish and other similar task or activities or otherwise subjecting him to physical or psychological suffering or injury. The term “organization” shall include any club or the Armed Forces of the Philippines, Philippine National Police, Philippine Military Academy, or officer and cadet corps of the Citizens Military Training and Citizen’s Army Training. The Physical and mental and psychological testing and training procedure and practices to determine and enhance the physical, mental and psychological fitness of prospective regular members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the Philipine National Police as approved by the Secretary of National Defense and the National Police Commission duly recommend by the Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines and the Director General of the Philippine National Police shall not be considered as hazing for the purpose of this Act.
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No hazing or initiation rites in any form or manner by a fraternity, sorority or organization shall be allowed without prior written notice to the school authorities or head of organization seven (7) days before the conduct of such initiation. The written notice shall indicate the period of the initiation activities which shall not exceed three (3) days, shall include the names of those to be subjected to such activities,and shall further contain an undertaking that no physical violence be employed by anybody during such initiation rites. The head of the school or organization or their representatives must assign at leat two (2) representatives of the school or organization, as the case may be, to be present during the initiation. It is the duty of such representative to see it that no physical harm of any kind shall be inflicted upon a recruit, neophyte or applicant. If the person subjected to hazing or other forms of initiation rites suffers any physical injury or dies as a result thereof, the officers and members of the fraternity, sorority or organization who actually participated in the infliction of physical harm shall be liable as principals. The person or persons who participated in the hazing shall suffer:
The penalty of reclusion perpetua if death, rape, sodomy or mutilation results there from.
The penalty of reclusion temporal in its maximum period (17 years, 4 months and 1 day to 20 years) if in consequence of the hazing the victim shall become insane, imbecile, impotent or blind.
The penalty of reclusion temporal in its medium period (14 year, 8month and one day to 17 years and 4 months) if in consequence of the hazing the victim shall have lost the use of speech or the power to hear or to smell, or shall have lost an eye, a hand, a foot, an arm or a leg or shall have lost the use of any such member shall have become incapacitated for the activity or work in which he was habitually engaged.
The penalty of reclusion temporal in its minimum period (12 years and one day to 14 years and 8 months) if in consequence of thehazing the victim shall become deformed or shall have lost any other part of his body, or shall have lost the use thereof, or shall have been ill or incapacitated for the performance of the activity or work in which he was habitually engaged for a period of more than ninety (90) days.
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The penalty of prision mayor in its maximum period (10 years and one day to 12 years) if in consequence of the hazing the victim shall have been ill or incapacitated for the performance of the activity or work in which he was habitually engaged for a period of more than thirty days.
The penalty of prison mayor in its medium period (8 years and one day to 10 years) if in consequence of the hazing the victim, shall have been ill or incapacitated for the performance of the activity or work in which he was habitually engaged for a period of ten (10) days or more, or that the injury sustained shall require medical assistance for the same period.
The penalty of prison mayor in its minimum period (6 years and one day to 8 years) if in consequence of the hazing the victim shall have have been ill or incapacitated for the performance of the activity or work in which he was habitually engaged from one (1) to nine (9) days, or that the injury sustained shall require medical assistance for the same period.
The penalty of prison correccional in its maximum period (4 years and 2 months and one (1) day to 6 years) if in consequence of the hazing the victim sustained physical injuries which do not prevent him from engaging in his habitual activity or work not require medical attendance. Republic Act No. 8491 Also known as the “Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines” and it was approved on February 12, 1998. This law provides among others: Design of the National Flag The flag of the Philippines shall be blue, white and red with an eight rated golden yellow sun and three five pointed stars, as consecrated and honored by the people. Hosting and Display of the National Flag The flag shall be displayed in all public buildings, official residences, public plazas, and institutions of learning every day through the year. The flag shall be permanently hoisted, day and night throughout the year, in front of the following: at the Malacañang Palace; the Congress of the Philippines building; Supreme Court building; the Rizal Monument in Luneta, Manila; Aguinaldo Shrine in Kawit, Cavite; Barasoan Shrine in Malolos, Bulacan; the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
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Libingan ng mga Bayani; Musoleo de los Beteranos dela Revolucion; all International Ports of Entry and all other places as may be designated by the Institute. The Flag shall be properly illuminated at night. The flag shall also be displayed in private buildings and residences or raised in the open on flag-staffs in front of said buildings every april 9 (Araw ng Kagitingan); May 1 (Labor Day); May 28 (National Flag Day) to June 12 (Independence Day); last Sunday of August (National Heroes Day); November 30 (Bonifacio Day); and December 30 (Rizal Day); and on such other days as may be declared by the President or local chief executives. The flag may also be displayed throughout the year in private buildings or offices or raised in the open flag-staffs in front of private building: Provided, that they observe flag-raising ceremonies in accordance with the rules and regulation to be issued by the Office of the President. All government agencies and instrumentalities, and local government offices, government-owned corporation and local government units are enjoined to observe Flag Day with appropriate ceremonies. Socio-civic groups, non government organizations and the private sector are exhorted to cooperate in making the celebration a success. The flag shall be flown on merchant ships of Philippine registry or more than one (1000) thousand gross tons and on all naval vessels. When the Philippine flag is flown with another flag, the flags, if both are national flags, must be flown on separate staffs of the same height and shall be of equal size. The Philippine flag shall be hoisted first and lowered last. If the other flag is not a national flag, it may be fown in the same lineyard as the Philippine flag but below the latter and it cannot be of greater size than the Philippine flag. When displayed with another flag, the Philipine flag shall be on the right of the other flag. If there is a line of other flags, the Philippine flag shall be in the middle of the line. When carried in a parade with flags which are not national flags, the Philipine flag shall be in front of the center of the line. The flag shall be hoisted to the top briskly and lowered ceremoniously.
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The flag shall never touch anyting beneath it, such as the ground flood, water or other objects. After being lowered the flag shall be handled and folded solemnly as part of the ceremony. Conduct of Flag Raising Ceremony All government offices and educational institutions shall henceforth observe the flag-raising ceremony every Monday morning and the flag lowering ceremony every Friday afternoon. The ceremony shall be simple and dignified and shall include the playing or singing of the Philippine National Anthem. The Office of the President upon the recommendation of the Institute shall issue rules and regulations for the proper conduct of the flag ceremony. The observance of the flag ceremony in official or civic gatherings shall be simple and dignified and shall include the playing or singing of the anthem in its original Filipino lyrics and march tempo. Pledge to the Flag The following shall be the Pledge of Allegiance to the Philippine flag: Ako ay Pilipino Buong katapatang nanunumpa Sa watawat ng Pilipinas At sa bansang kanyang sinasagisag Na may dangal, katarungan at kalayaan Na pinakikilos ng sambayanang Maka-Diyos Maka-tao Makakalikasan at
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Makabansa Such pledge shall be recited while standing with the right with palm open raised shoulder high. Individuals whose faith or religious beliefs prohibit them from making such pledge must nonetheless show full respect when the pledge is being rendered by standing at attention. The National Anthem The National Anthem is entitled Lupang Hiniran. The National Anthem shall always be sung in the national language within or outside the country. The following shall be the lyrics of the National Anthem: Bayang magaliw, Perlas ng silanganan Alab ng Puso, Sa dibdib moy buhay. Lupang hinirang, , Duyan ka ng Magiting, Sa manlulupig, Di ka pasisiil. Sa dagat at bundok, Sa simoy at sa langit mong bughaw, May dilag ang Tula, At awit Sa paglayang minamahal. Ang kislap ng watawat mo’y Tagumpay Na na gniningning, Ang bituin at araw niya, Kailan pa ma’y di magdidilim,
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Lupa ng araw ng luwalhati’t pagsinta, Buhay ay langit Sa piling mo, Aming ligaya Na pag may mang-aapi, Ang mamatay ng dahil Sa iyo. The rendition of the National Anthem, whether played or sung, shall be in accordance with the musical arrangement and composition of Julian Felipe. When the National Anthem is played at a public gathering, whether by a band or by singing or both, or reproduced by any means, the attending public shall sing the anthem. The singing must be done with fervor. The National Motto The National Motto shall be “MAKA - DIYOS, MAKA-TAO. MAKAKALIKASAN AT MAKABANSA.” Republic Act No. 8492 This Act is known as the “National Museum Act of 1998” To implement the above declared State Policies, and to ensure its independence and autonomy, the presemt National Museum hereafter referred to as the Museum, is hereby converted into a trust of the government. The National Museum is detached from the Department of Education, Culture and Sports and from the National Commission of Culture and the Arts. It shall be placed solely for budgetary purposes udner the Office of the President. The Museum, as established under this Act, shall be known by the name of “National Museum,”, and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession with the power, limitations, and restrictions hereafter contained and no other. The National Museum shall be a permanent institution in the service f the community and its development, accessible to the public, and not intended for profit. It shall obtain, keep, study and present material evidence of man and his environment.
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The national Museum shall inform the general public about these activities for the purpose of study, education and entertainment. The primary mission of the National Museum shall be to acquire documents, preserve, exhibit, and foster scholary study and appreciation of works of art, specimens and cultural and historical artifacts. Pending its reorganization by the board of trustees, the National Museum shall be composed of the Museum structure, organization and its collections, properties, assets and liabilities. The whole executive House Building also known as the old Congress Building, the Department of Finance building and Department of Tourism building on Agrifina Circle shall be the permanent and exclusive site of the Museum. They shall be known as the National Museum Complex. The Executive shall now be known as the “Nation Museum”. Duties and functions. – The Museum shall have the following duties and functions:
Acquire documents, collect, preserve, maintain, administer and exhibit to the public, cultural materials objects of art,archaeological artifacts, ecofacts, relics and other materials embodying the cultural and natural heritage of the Filipino nation, as well as those of foreign origin.
Materials relevant to the recent history of the country shall be likewise acquired, collected, preserved, maintained, advertised and exhibited by the Museum;
Conducct researches, archaeological and scientific, on Philippine flora and fauna; collect, preserve, identify and exhibit to the public systematically all types of plants and animals found in the Philippines, prepare for publication manuscripts and scientific papers on them and maintain a reference collection on such subjects;
Document all objects held by the National Museum in its collections or borrowed by the Museum by registering them in an inventory and cataloguing them, and manage any movement of the collections both within the Museum and elsewhere in such a way that the Museum is able to locate any object in the collection at any time, initially on paper records, but to be converted to computerized records on a professional museum is able to locate any object in the collections at any time; initially on paper records, but to be converted to computerized records on a professional museum documentation system as soon as time and budget allow.
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Conduct researches on the origin, history and geographic distribution of, and to collect, preserve, study and exhibit rocks, minerals and fossils of plants and animals; maintain a reference collection and to prepare for publication scientific studies on them;
Regulate registration, excavation, preservation and exportation of Philippine cultural properties through a legal department and customs department which shall be established for these purposes;
Implement the pertinent provisions of Presidential Decree No. 374, as further amended, and other related laws on the protection and conservation of cultural properties.
Undertake research on salvage archaeology, monitor and control archaeological excavations, diggings and researches into Philippine pre-history and proto-history;
Gather, identify, reconstruct, restore and maintain a national archaeological reference collection; study archaeological artifacts and ecofacts, with their corresponding data and deduce archaeological interpretations;
Undertake researches on the pre-history of the Philippines in order to define the foundations of the cultures of the people by conducting systematic and controlled archaeological excavations in different sites on land and underwater, and to supplement existing historical documentation;
Collect, preserve, restore and exhibit to the public object of arts.
Republic Act No. 8525 This law was approved on February 14, 1998 and known as the “Adopt-a -School Act of 1998”. This program will allow private entities to assist a public school, whether elementary, secondary, or tertiary, preferably located in any of the twenty(20) poorest provinces indetifies by the Presidential Council for Countryside Development or any limited to, the following areas: staff and faculty development for training and further publications and other instructional materials; and modernization of instructional technologies. A Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) specifying the details of the adoption shall be entered into between the adopting entity and the head of the school concerned:
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Provided, That such MOA shall be subject to review and approval of the Superintendent of schools of the province or district concerned: Provided, further, That the agreementshall last for atleast two (2) years with the possibility of extension: Provided, finally, That such period may be shortened only in cases where the adopting entity is dissolved before the end of such period unless otherwise earlier terminated in accordance with the succeeding section. Republic Act No. 8545 ` This is a law amending Republic Act No. 6728, otherwise known as “An Act Providing Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in Private Education” was approved on February 24, 1998. This law established a fund for the purpose of subsidizing salaries of private school teachers. This provides among others:
Tuition fee supplement for students in private high schools, vocational and technical courses whose schools charge less than 1,500 pesos tuition fee.
highschool textbooks assistance fund
expansion of Educational Service Contracting Scheme (ESC)
voucher system of the Private Education Student Financial Assistance Program (PESFA)
scholarship grants to graduating valedictorians and salutatorians
tuition fee supplements to students in private colleges and universities;
Educational Loan Fund
College Faculty Development Fund
Republic Act No. 9155 This law was approved on August 11, 2001 and known as “An Act Instituting A Frame Work of Governance for Basic Education, Establishing Authority and Accountability, RenamingThe Department of Education Culture and Sports As the Department of Education.” It provides that it is declared the policy of the State to protect and promote the right of all citizes to quality basic education and to make such education accessible to all by
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providing all Filipino Children a free and compulsory education in the elementary level and free education in the highschool level. Such education shall also include alternative learning systems for -out of- school youth and adult learners. It shall be the goal of basic education to provide them with the skills, knowledge and values they need to become caring, self reliant, productive and pariotic citizens. The school shall be the heart of the formal education system. It is where children learn. Schools shall have a single aim of providing the best possible basic educations for all learners. Governance of basic education shall begin at the national level. It is at the regions, divisions, schools and learning center herein referred to as the field offices – were the policy and principle for the governance of basic education shall be translated into programs, projects and services developed, adapted and offered to fit local needs. Governance The Department of Education, Culture and Sports shall henceforth be called the Department of Education. It shall be vested with authority, accountability and responsibility for ensuring access to, promoting equity in, and improving the quality of basic education. Arts, culture and sports shall be as provided for in Sections 8 and 9 hereof. National Level The secretary of the Department of Ecuation shall exercise overall authority and supervision. The Secretary of Education shall be assisted by not more than four (4) undersecretaries and not more than four (4) assistant secretaries whose assignment, duties and responsibilities shall be governed by law. There shall be at least one undersecretary and one assistant secretary who shall be career executive service officers chosen from among the staff of the Department. Regional Level There shall be as many regional offices as may be provided by law. Each regional offices shall have a director, an assistant director and an office staff for program promotion and support, planning, administrative and fiscal services. Division Level A division shall consist of a province or a city which shall have a schools division superintendent, at least one assistant schools division superintendent and an office staff for programs promotion, planning, administrative, fiscal, legal, ancillary and other support services.
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School District Level Upon the recommendation of the schools division superintendents, the regional director may establish additional schools district within a schools division. School district already existing at tile time of the passage of the law shall be maintained. A schools district shall have a schools district supervisor. School Level There shall be a school head dor all public elementary schools and public high schools or a cluster thereof. The establishement of integrated schools from existing public elementary and public high schools shall be encouraged. The school head, who may be assisted by an assistant school head. , shall be both an instructional leader and administrative manager. The school head shall form a team with the school teachers/learning facilatators for delivery of quality educational programs, project and services. A core of non teaching staff shall handle the school’s administrative, fiscal and auxiliary services. Transfer of Cultural Agencies Cultural Agencies – The Komisyon ng Wikang Pilipno, National Historical Institute, Records Management and Archives Office and the National Library shall now be administratively attached to the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) and no longer with the Department of Education. The program for school arts and culture shall remain part of the school curriculum. Abolition of the Bureu of Physical Education and School Sports All functions, programs and activities of the Department of Education related to sports competition shall be transferred to the Philippine Sports Commission (PSC). The program for school sports and physical fitness shall remain part of the basic education curriculum. The Bureu of Physical Education and School Sports (BPESS) is hereby abolished. The personnel of the BPESS, presently detailed with the PSC, are hereby transferred to the PSC without loss of rank, including the plantilla positions they occupy. All other BPESS personnel shall be retained by the Department.
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Republic Act No. 9710 This is known as the Magna Carta of Women and was signed into law on August 4, 2009. This law provides in Section 13 that: a. The State shall ensure that gender stereotypes and images in educational materials and curricula are adequently and appropriately revised. Gender-sensitive language shall be used at all times. Capacity-building on gender and development (GAD), peace and human rights, education for teachers, and all those involved in the education sector shall be pursued, toward this end. Partnerships between and among players of the education sector, including the private sector, churches and faith groups shall be encouraged. b. Enrollment of women in nontraditional skills training. c. Expulsion and non-readmission of women faculty, due to pregnancy outside of marriage shall be outlawed. No school shall turn out or refuse admission to a female student, solely on the account of her having contracted pregnancy outside marriage of marriage during her term in school. Nondiscriminatory and Nonderogatory Portrayal of Women in Media and Film The State shall formulate policies and programs for the advancement of women in collaboration with government and ‘nongovernment media related organizations. It shall likewise endeavor to raise the consciousness of the general public in recognizing the dignity of women and the role and, contribution of women in the family, community, and the society, through the strategic use of mass media (section 16) Special Leave Benefits for Women A women employee having rendered continuous aggregate employment service of at least six (6) months for the last twelve (12) months shall be entitled to a special leave benefit of two (2) months with full pay based on her gross monthly compensation following surgery caused by gynecological disorders. (Section 18) Equal Rights on Matters Relating to Marriage and Family Relations The state shall take all appropriate measure to eliminate discrimination against women in all matters relating to marriage and family relations and shall ensure:
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A. the same rights to enter into and leave marriages or a common law relationships referred to under the Family code without prejudice to personal or religious beliefs; B. the same right to choose freely a spouse and to enter into marriage only with their free and full consent. The betrothal and the marriage of a child hall have no legal effect; C. The joint decision on the number and spacing of their children and to have access to the information, education and means to enable them to exercise these rights; D. The same personal rights between spouses or common law spouses including the right to choose freely a profession and an occupation; E. The same rights for Both spouses or common law spouses in respect of the ownership, acquisition, management, administration, enjoyment, and disposition of property. F. the same rights to properties and resources whether titled or not and inheritance, whether formal or customary; and G. women shall have equal rights with men to acquire, change, or retain their nationality. The State shall ensure in particular that neither marriage to an alien nor change the nationality of the wife and render her stateless or force upon her the nationality of the husband. Various statues of other countries concerning dual citizenship that may be enjoyed equally by women and men shall likewise be considered. Customary laws shall be respected provided, however, that they do not discriminate against women. (Section 19)
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM Philippine education has passed through various stages of development. These stages underwent numerous dramatic changes which are depicted in the different period of educational evolution, from the pre-Spanish and Spanish periods, American Regime, Japanese occupation to the present. Education during the Pre-Spanish Period (Before 1521) The Pre-Spanish period does not give a definite information regarding the system of education in the Philippines. In the history of the Philippine civilization, culture has
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been identified to have manifested the use of the system of education although there were no definite records that were available to determine the type of schools that the early Filipinos had, the subject offered, and the methods of teaching they used. The early Filipinos possessed both written and oral literature. All written records, however, were destroyed by the Spaniards for they believed that these were the works of the the devil. Oral literature has been preserved to the present time through songs, proverbs, maxims, duplos, epics and various tales and religious and criminological codes. They possessed astronomical knowledge which they used in devising a calendar. Their practical knowledge of engineering was exhibited in the world famous rice terraces. The architectural skills were also displayed on idols of wood, stone, gold and ivory. An animodeist religion was practiced. Much of their religious practices were connected with superstitious beliefs which included the worship of anitos and spirits of ancestors. Education during the Spanish Period (1565-1898) This Educational decree of 1863 was an attempt of the Spaniards to reform the educational system of the Philippines. The following were its features: 1. The establishment of a complete secondary and collegiate levels; 2. The provision for government supervision and control of these schools; and 3. The establishment of teacher-training institutions. Education during the American Regime (1898-1936) The system of public education established during the American Regime was patterned after the American educational systems which prevailed during this period. Colleges and universities organized by the religious orders during the Spanish time continued to operate. However, their program of studies and curricula were revised to adapt to the changes of the time, like teaching the English language. Education during the Commonwealth Period (1935-1941) and Japanese Occupation (1941-1945) The commonwealth period was instrumental to the development and progress of education. The curricula in the secondary and elementary school levels were revised. Some of the significant developments during the Commonwealth period were the following: (1). Re-orientation of educational plans and policies to carry out the
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educational mandate of the Constitution; (2). Revision of the elementary and secondary school curricula to carry out the objectives of education embodied in the Constitution; (3.) Emphasis on character education and citizenship training; (4). Introduction of vocational subjects in the general secondary course; and (5) passage of the education Act of 1940 (Commonwealth Act No. 586) which provided for the complete revision of the public elementary school system of the country. The Present Educational System (1946-Present) The present system of education in the Philippines is patterned after the prevalent state school system of the United States. Since its establishment, the system has undergone a process of transformation. Under the 1935 Constitution, the schools aimed to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience and vocational efficiency and to teach the duties of citizenship. The system that dispensed education in the Philippines comprised the schools established by private individuals or corporation or the private schools as well as the public schools which were owned and managed by the state. Vocational education was emphasized in both the public and private schools. The task of supervising and regulating all educational institutions belonged to the Department of Education and through the two bureaus under its jurisdiction which were concerned with school instruction. Public elementary, secondary, normal and technical school were supervised and controlled by the Bureau of Public Schools. Private schools came under the supervision and regulation of the Bureau of Private Schools. In the late sixties and the early seventies, the nation was shaken by social, economic and political restiveness among the masses, particularly the youth. Martial Law was declared in 1972 and the massive reforms in all government sectors were undertaken. The country’s educational system adopted the acronym PLEDGES as a means of directing all strategies in achieving the goals set for education. PLEDGES means Peace and Order, Land Reform, Ecnomic Developmet, Government Reorganization, Employment and Manpower Development and Social Services The History of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports
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The present Department of Education, Culture and Sports has passed through several changes in its evolution. It has been called by different names depending upon the several changes in its evolution. It has been called by different names depending upon the need of the times. Discussed herein are the different stages in the history of the DECS. The Department of Public Instruction The administration of Philippine Government during the early part of the American Occupation was in the hands of the Philippine Commissions whose members were appointed by the President of the United States. This commission, on January 21, 1901, passed Act No.74 which established the Department of Public Instruction, which have executive control and general supervision of all schools already established by the military authorities. The Bureau of Education Act No. 477, which was passed on October 8, 1902 amended Section 1 of Act No.74, created the Bureau of Education which assumed the general control and supervision of the public schools. The Department of Education Upon the reorganization of the National Government as embodied in Executive Order No.94 which was officially released on October 15,1947, the Department was renamed Department of Education headed by the Secretary of Education for the reason that the old designation was not inclusive enough to express the scope and nature of its functions. The Department of Education and Culture By virtue of Presidential Decree No.1, the executive branch of the government was reorganized with the adoption of the Integrated Reorganization Plan on September 24, 1972. The President ordered the reorganization of the government structure and functions and with it, the Department of Education underwent changes. Its name was change to Department of Education and Culture to stress its major role in economic and cultural development. The Presidential Order of 1972, based on Presidential Decree No.1 abolished the Bureau of Public Schools, Bureau of Private Schools and the Bureau of Vocational School. The three (3) bureaus namely: The Bureau of Elementary Education, the Bureau of Secondary Education and the Bureau of Higher Education, would be responsible for the formulation and evaluation of programs and standards at their respective level of education, both public and private.
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The Ministry of Education and Culture In 1978, pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 1397, along with other government departments, the Department of Education and Culture was converted into a Ministry and named Ministry of Education and Culture. Since then, it has undergone a series of reorganizations with end in view of increasing its effectiveness and efficiency in delivering service to its clientele. It has been decentralized and the burden of effectively responding to the peculiar needs and concerns of the different regions of the country is shared by 13 regional directors who reported directly to the Minister. The Minister was assisted by four Deputy Ministers and other staff personnel in managing the affairs of the agency. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports A new administration took over in 1986 following the deposition of President Ferdinand Marcos on February 25, 1986. The new leadership of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports reviewed the progress and problems in the system and instituted policies and thrust to improve the delivery of educational services. On February 11, 1987, the Ministries were converted into departments and corresponding change in the titles of key point thereof. The Ministry of Education Culture and Sports was changed into Department of Eucation Culture and Sports by virtue of Administrative Order No. 15 and Department Order No.16, s. 1987. The title of the Minister was changed to Secretary. Likewise, Deputy Ministers were changed to Undersecretaries and Assistant Ministers as Assistant Secretaries. The Department of Education By virtue of Republic Act 9155, the Department of Education was created. Due to this reorganization, the DepEd as it is known today is in charge of the basic education – elementary and secondary levels. This law was approved on August 11, 2001 and known as “An Act Instituiting a Frame Work of Governance For basic Education, Establishing Authority and Accountability, Renaming the Department of Education, Culture and Sports as the Department of Education. It provides that it is declared the policy of the State to protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality basic education and to make such education accessible to all by providing all Filipino children a free compulsory education in the elementary level and free education in the high school level.
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YEARS OFFICIAL NAME OF DECS
OFFICIAL TITULAR HEAD
LEGAL BASES
1863 Superior Commission of Primary Instruction
Chairman Educational Decree of 1863
1901 -1916 Departmement of Public Instruction
General Superintendent
Act No.74 of the Philippines Commission, January 21, 1901
1916-1942 Department of Public Instruction
Secretary Organic Act law of 1916
1942-1944 Department of Education Health and Public Welfare
Commissioner
Renamed by the Japanese Executive Commission; June 11, 1942
1944-1945 Department of Education Health and Public Welfare
Minister
Renamed by the Japanese-Sponsored Philippine Republic
Same year Department of Public Instruction
Secretary
Renamed by the Japanese-Sponsored Philippine Republic
1945-1947 Department of Instruction
Secretary Rnamed by the Commonwealth Government
1947-1975 Department of Education
Secretary
E.O.No.94 October 1947 (Reorganization Act of 1947)
1975-1978 Department of Education and Culture
Secretary Proc.No.1081 September 24, 1972
1978-1984 Ministry of Education and Culture
Minister P.D.No 1397 June 2, 1978
1984-1986 Ministry of Education Culture and Sports
Minister Education Act of 1982
1987 Department of Education, Culture and Sports
Secretary E.O.No.117, January 30, 1987
2001 Department of Education
Secretary R.A 9155 August 11,2001
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THE EVOLUTION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION ANTI BULLYING LAW Republic Act No. 10627 is also known as the Anti-Bullying Act of 2013. This law provides that “bullying” shall refer to any severe or repeated use by one or more students of a written, verbal or electronic expression, or a physical act or gesture, or any combination thereof, directed at another student, that has the effect of actually causing or placing the latter in reasonable fear of physical or emotional harm or damage to his property; creating a hostile environment at school for the other student infringing on the rights of the other student at school; or materially and substantially disrupting the education process or the orderly operation of a school; Mechanism to Address Bullying The law mandates that the school principal or any person whoo holds a comparable role shall be responsible for the implementation and oversight of policies intended to address bullying. All schools shall inform their respective schools division superintendents in writing about the anti-bullying policies formulated within six months from the effectivity of this Act. Such notification shall likewise be an administrative requirement prior to the operation of new schools. In the rules and regulations to be implemented pursuant to this Act, the Secretary of the DepEd shall prescrive the appropriate administrative sanctions on school administrators who shall fail to comply with the requirements under this Act. In addition thereto, erring private schools shall likewise suffer the penalty of suspension of their permits to operate. The Child Protection Policy of the Department of Education (D.O. No.40 s. 2012 DepEd shall ensure that our schools are conductive to the education of children. The best interest of the child shall be the paramount consideration in all decisions and actions involving children. Teachers are their substitute parents and are expected to discharge their functions and duties with this in mind. DepEd shall promulgate a zero tolerance policy for any act of child abuse, exploitation, violence, discrimination, bullying and other forms of abuse. Violence Against children committed in schools It refers to a single act or a series of acts committed by school administrators, academic and non-academic personnel against a child which result in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological, harassment or arbitrary depriviation of liberty.
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Corporal Punishment It refers to akind of punishment or penalty imposed for an alleged or actual offese, which is carried out or inflicted, for the purpose of discipline, training or control, by a teacher, school administrator, an adult, or any other child who has been given or has assumed authority or responsibility for punishment or discipline. Bullying or Peer Abuse It refers to wilful aggressive behavior that is directed towards a particular victim who may be out numbered, younger, weak with disability, less confident, or otherwise vulnerable, more particularly: a. Bullying b. Cyber-Bullying Duties of the School It is the duty of every school to adopt a child protection policy, organize and convene Child Protection Committee (CPC) for the school; conduct the capacity building activities for the members of the CPC and Guidance Counselors/Teachers; ensure that the participatory and other rights of children are respected and upheld in all matters and procedures affecting their welfare. Child Protection Committee (CPC) The Child Protection Committee shall be composed of: School Head/Administrator-Chairperson Guidance Counselor/Teacher-Vice Chairperson Representative of the Teachers as designated by the Faculty Club Representative of Parents as designated by the PTA Representative of pupils/students designated by the Student Council Protective and Remedial Measures to Address Bullying and Other Acts of Abuse All bullying incidents shall be reported to the school Head. The School Head shall in turn inform the parents of the pupils concerned and a meeting shall be held for that purpose. Protective and Remedal Measures to Address Bullying and Other Acts of Abuse.
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The student shall be referred to the CPC for counseling and other interventions. The School may impose Non-punitive Measures in accordance with the principles of Positive and Non-Violent Discipline. Punitive measures will be a last resort.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Curriculum has veen defined in different ways by different authors. Traditional schools defined it as a group of subject arranged in a certain sequence peculiar to a specific field for the purpose of instruction. SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1. Essentialist – considers the curriculum as something rigid composed of various subject areas -wants to maintain the status quo - Book- centered -memorization method is used to master facts and skills 2. Progressivist – includes the pragmatists, experimentalist, Reconstructionists, and existentialists -conceives the curriculum as something flexible based on areas of interest -Learner-centered -considers the principle of individual differences -aims towards the holistic development of the learner DIMENSIONS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1. Philosophic – Theological Dimensions
Essentialism – value centered Ideals that are essential to one’s culture should never be forgotten Idealism – preservation of one’s freedom
-concentration should be on moral, intellectual and aesthetic development of the learner
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Pragmatism - The meaning of ideas lies in its consequences
Education must be useful to the society
Progressivism – Education must be flexible -Emphasizes self-activity
-Chid centered curriculum
Existentialism – Education should enable man to make choices in life .The teachers have the right to teach students how to think but not what to think.
Reconstructionism – Aims to develop the inherent powers of the learner. Espoused a critical re-examination and reconstruction of the current problems and situations to modify them.
Aims to transform the society through technological and scientific revolution.
Realism – Education based on natural phenomena and social institutions.Education should be based on the actualities of life. Aims to prepare the child to face the real world.
2. Psychological Dimensions - Consideration of the Principles and Laws of Learning such as Association, Field Theories, etc. 3. Social Dimensions - Curriculum for individual development (Individual or Italian Humanism) - Curriculum for social development (Social or Northern Humanism) - Curriculum for individual and social development (Democratic Education John Dewey) GUIDELINES FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT A Good Curriculum Must: 1. Encourage inquiry and creativity 2. Be democratic with regards to procedure
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3. Accept individual differences 4. Take into consideration scientific and scholarly findings and methods 5. Minimize memorization and maximize discovery 6. Take into consideration the potential for achievement through either the individual learner or the group 7. Must employ teacher resources in a multi-dimensions role APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGN 1. Subject-Centered Curriculum – organized on the basis of separate and distinct subjects, each of which embodies a body of knowledge and skills. The learner is expected to acquire these knowledge and skills. 2. Child-Centered Curriculum – the child is considered the center of the educative process. 3. Problem-Centered Curriculum – the child is guided toward maturity within the context of the social group. It helps the child to solve his problems. CURRICULUM PATTERNS 1. Traditional Curriculum Pattern Conventional and orthodox views about the school curriculum
Subject Curriculum
The school subjects constitute the bases for organizing the school experiences of the learners.
Various subjects are offered based on their logical relationship so as to meet the multifarious needs of the child.
Correlated Curriculum
Articulates and establishes relationships between two or more subjects on the basis of a topic or a theme
Teaching similar topics in two or more subject simultaneously in an effort to help students gain a better understanding of the topic.
o Ex. Organic & Inorganic Chemistry are used to reinforce each other.
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o C. Broad-Fields Curriculum
Combines several specific areas into larger fields
o Ex. Political Science, History, Geography, Sociology are combined to
become Social Science
- Subject-centered in nature 2. Integrative Curriculum Pattern - Eliminates school subject division - Aims to foster integration of the learner to his socio-cultural milieu -Use of the actual learning experiences, social needs, interest, abilities and interests of the learner as learning tools - Learner-centered and socially oriented A. Learner-Centered - Organizes the learning experiences and content around the life of child B. Experience Curriculum - places emphasis on the immediate interest and needs of the child and not on the anticipated needs - The learners are given the opportunity to choose an activity based on their area of interest C.Core Curriculum -Also called social function or Area –of- Living Curriculum -Learning experiences are organized on the basis of major functions of social life or aspects of living. -Intended to enable the learner to study the problems that demand personal and social action. 3. Unified Program - Common sense point of view in the curriculum organization - A balance between the direct teaching of the subject skills and unified learning experiences based on problems which are life centered
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- A logical and psychological organization of learning experiences - Learning should be organized based on persistent life situations as well as on the basis of organized body of knowledge when needed THE CURRICULA OF PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS THE PRIMARY CURRICULA 1. Circular No. 2 s. 1901 of the Bureau of Education – outlined a 3 year tentative Curriculum for the primary schools and emphasized the teaching of the Englsih language. The subjects were: 1. Reading 6. Music 2. Writing 7. Drawing 3. Arithmetic 8. Physical Education 4. Geography 9. Manual training 5. Physiology 10. Nature study 2. Primary Grade Curriculum of 1904 – prescribed 3 grades for the primary course. Mental, physical and moral training were provided (1904-1905 to 1906-1907) 3. Revised Primary Curriculum of June 1907 – the primary course was lengthened to 4 yearss (1907-1908 to 1909-1910) 4. Primary Curriculum of 1910 (SY 1912-1913) – emphasized industrial work to increase industrial efficiency and create an educated class in sympathetic touch with labor and the development of the community. 5. Primary Curriculum of 1913 – lengthened recitation periods and gave more time to industrial work. It also added Good Manners and Right Conduct as a subject. 6. Primary Curriculum of 1915 – the course of study was published for the first time. This curriculum was effective until 1924. 7. The Primary Curriculum of June 1924 – Alotted specific number of minutes per week for every subject area.
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8. The Primary Curriculum for SY 1934-1935 – introduced 2 new subjects in all grades viz.: health education and eplementary, science, industrial work was eliminated from grades 2 and 3. 9. Primary Curriculum for SY 1936-1937 – introduction of preparatory military training for boys pursuant to Commonwealth Act No. 1 - Social Science was renamed Social Studies - increased time allotment for arithmetic (200 minutes) - decreased time allotment for language and spelling (425 minutes) THE INTERMEDIATE CURRICULA The intermediate course was originally designed as a separate and district level from that of the primary. It was designed to provide boys and girls with preparatory training for useful occupations and not as stepping stone to the secondary course. There were five types of curricula offered in public schools. 1. Intermediate Curriculum of 1904 - patterned after the existing grammar curriculum in the United States. - started in 1909-1910, and Grade IV became a part of the primary work 2. Revised Curriculum of 1909 – In order to address for adequate vocational training, four other curricula were offered in addition to the existing General Curriculum, thereby increasing the curricula into five, viz: a. General Curriculum d. Trade Curriculum e. Business Curriculum b. Teaching Curriculum c.Farming Curriculum 3. The Revised Intermediate Curriculum of 1913 4. The Revised Intermediate Curriculum of 1917 -business curriculum was eliminated
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- 2 years later the teaching curriculum were eliminated 5. The Revised Intermediate Curriculum of 1922 - Housekeeping and household arts was eliminated - GMRC, civics and hygiene were introduced 6. The Revised Intermediate Curriculum of 1934 - Farming curriculum was renamed agricultural curriculum - Introduction of Character and Health education
-Introduction of Preparatory Military Training pursuant to Commonwealth Act No. 1 in 1936. THE ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM 1. Based on the provision of Commonwealth Act No. 586, known as the Education Act of 1940, the following curricula were implemented: Double-single session- standard curriculum where a class of 80 pupils was divided ito two, the first half held sessions in the morning while the second half in the afternoon. The Emergency plan – a primary or intermediate class under one teacher held sessions in the morning. The room is used by another class under another teacher in the afternoon. This was only allowed in places where there were shortage of classrooms. 2. Revised Elementary School Curriculum of the General Course in the SY 1957-1958 offered the following subjects: a. Social Studies d. Language and Arts b. Work Education e. Arithmetic c. Health and Science f. Arts and Physical Education 3. Revised Elementary Education Curriculum (REEC) in 1969, President Marcos formed the Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE) and proposed a new curriculum that was envisioned to address the
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various problems in the Philippine Educational System. The Commission advocated the so-called “return to basics policy” and paved the way for the implementation of the REEC. However, in 1974 the Project Survey of the Outcomes of Elementary Education (SOUTELE) found out that the Elementary Education in the country is in a very turbulent dilemma and reforms are needed as soon as possible to remedy the situation and called for the implementation of a new elementary curriculum. THE PROGRAM FOR DECENTRALIZED EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (PRODED) The New Elementary School Curriculum is interpreted as an effort to return to basic education, as a response to the finding of the Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE) in 1969 which recommended that the educational system undergo a change in structure and methodology to be relevant to the needs of the changing society. The MECS (DECS at present) launched a long-range, diversified and comprehensive program, into the national development goals set by the state. This effort was best exemplified by the Survey of the Outcomes of the Elementary Education (SOUTELE), an educational survey which made a comprehensive analysis of the elementary course and the preparation of a realistic and viable learning continuum which would indicate the development of knowledge, skills and attitude that the child is expected to learn at a certain level of schooling. Pursuant to this, the Ministry of Education issued MEC Order No. 6 in the year 1982 that mandated the implementation of the NESC in accordance with the Program for the Decentralized Educational Development (PRODED), starting in the school year 1982-83 in Grade I in all public and private schools in the country. THE NEW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM (NESC) The mission of elementary education is to enable every citizen to acquire basic preparation that will make hin an enlightened, disciplined, nationalistic, self reliant, God Loving, creative, versatile and productive citizen in a national community.
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The following objective of elementary education, adopted from the 1970 Revised Elementary Education Program, are still relevant today. Elementary education shall aim to develop the spiritual, moral, mental and physical capabilities of the child, provide him with experiences in the democratic way of life, and inculcate ideas and attitude necessary for enlightened, patriotic, upright and useful citizenship. To achieve these objectives, elementary education shall provide for: The inculcation of spiritual and civic values and the development of a good Filipino based on an abiding faith in God and genuine love of country; 1. The training of the young citizen in his rights, duties, and responsibilities in a democratic society for active participation, in a progressive and productive home and community life; 2. The development of basic understanding about Philippine culture, the desirable tradition and virtues of our people as essential requisites in attaining national consciousness and solidarity; 3. The teaching of basic health knowledge and the formation of desirable health habits and practices; the development of functional literacy in the vernacular, in Pilipino and English as basic tools for further learning; and 4. the acquisition of fundamental knowledge, attitudes, habits and skills in science, civics, culture, history, geography, mathematics arts and home economics and livelihood education and their intelligent application in appropriate life situations. Significant Features Education at the elementary level is the country’s major program for the delivery of mass and universal education to our people. It is societys’ main avenue for the development of civic and social values, particularly a sense of humanity and nationhood.
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It is also a means for developing the child’s coping capabilities which relate to values supportive of humanism, nationhood and development. It is, thus, expected that the development of basic literacy,numeracy, thinking and work skills will not only enhance learning capabilities but also values that will not only enable Filipinos to become productive, self reliant, versatile, civic-minded, physically fit and consequently, totally developed citizens. The New Elementary School Curriculum (NESC) orients elementary education to national development requirements and reflects research based directions (PCSPE, SOUTELE, EEP) for curricular change. It is addressed to civic, intellectual and character development. Its scope covers the general education of the child as a human person, as a citizen and as a productive agent. Its thrust is intellectual growth, through which human/civic/economic/cultural development is enhanced. It has the following new features: - Fewer learning areas, emphasis on mastery learning - More time allotted to the development of the basic skills specifically the 3R’s especially in the lower grades - Greater emphasis on the development of intellectual skills which are as important as work skills - Health values development of ceompetencies and values for social living reflected in then ew dimension in Civics and culture for Grades I and II; Civics and Culture expanded to include History, Geography and Work Ethics for Grade III, and an in depth learning of History, Geography and Civics in Grade IV to VI. 1. Character Building Activities shall serve as a vehicle for good manners and right conduct and the development of humanism and a sense of nationhood – changed to GMRC by virtue of DECS Order No. 90, s. 1991. 2. Civics and Culture is learning area in Grade I and II, the Content of Civics and Culture in Grade III will be explained to include History,, Geography and Civics will replace Civics and Culture 3. Science and Health are combined as one learning area in Grades III to VI. Arts is defined as Music and Art.
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4. Arts and Physical Education are one separate learning area in Grades III to VI 5. Home Economics and Livelihood Education is introduced as a learning area starting from Grade IV to VI. 6. In Grade I and II, Arts and Physical Education are integrated in the total curriculum since initial learning in Language, Mathematics and Civics and Culture is interwined with activities in these learning areas. THE SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULA Prior to 1904, no uniform secondary curriculum was prescribed in the provincial high schools since their administration was left in the hands of the division superintendents. These schools provided training to those who wished to go to College, to those who would become teachers, etc. 1. Secondary Curricula of 1904 -Genaral secondary curriculum for 4 years - Secondary normal curriculum for 2 years - Commercial curriculum for 4 years -Trade curriculum for 2 years - Agricultural curriculum for 3 years - Experimental vocational curricula 2. Secondary Curricula of 1906 - Normal Curriculum was increased to 4 years but was stopped in 1909, to reintroduce in 1916. 3. Revision of the Normal Curriculum in 1916 4. Revised Vocational Curriculum in 1918-1941
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5. General Secondary Curricula – based on the experiment in Batangas High School and Capiz High School Type A Curriculum in 1935 became the basis of all non-vocational public secondary curriculum. Type B Secondary General Curriculum was introduced in 1936 only to be abolished in 1941.
6. Revised General Secondary Curriculum was implemented in SY 1957-1958 (2-2 Plan) - When possible, all academic classes shall be given in the morning and PMT and work or vocational education in the afternoon. - Those students who would like to take vocational courses shall be offered in two periods during the third and fourth years - Those students who intend to pursue non-technical courses in college, their electives should be English or Social Sciences 7. Revised Secondary Education Program (RSEP) of 1973 - this was approved by the National board of Education on May 8, 1973 to be implemented in the SY 1973-74 to be followed by all secondary schools private and public pursuant to Dept. Order No. 20’s. 1973 - included the teaching of Philippine History and Constitution. - offering of elective vocational subjects THE SECONDARY EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (SEDP) The SEDP is a response to the need to continue pupil development started by PRODED; to research findings indicating a need to improve student performance in Science, Math and Communication Arts; to research findings that inaffective teaching, inadequate facilities and instructional materials contribute to unsatisfactory student performance; and to the need to improve policy making and increase the internal efficiency of the system. The Goals of the SEDP
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- To improve the quality of secondary graduates and the internal efficiency of the system; - To expand access to quality secondary education; and - To promote the equity in the allocation of resource especially at the local level. The Main Components of SEDP SEDP covers - Curriculum development; - Staff development; and - Physical facilities and development The Strategies to Implement the SEDP Goals To improve the quality of education, the SEDP will focus on - Curriculum reform - Provision of quality textbook/teachers manuals and 1.1 basis - Provision of science and work education equipment - Staff development (short-and-long-term - Assistance to private secondary education - Research studies on NCEE, barangay high schools, career guidance, etc. To effect efficiency in the system, the SEDP will focus on - Research studies on school location and distribution, financing schemes, teachers’ salaries and benefits - Training of administrators - strengthening of sector management and evaluation system To expand access to the sector, the SEDP will undertake/expand - The school building program
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- The service contracting scheme - Alternative delivery system To ensure equity in the system, the SEDP will undertake/expand - The school building program for local high schools - The equipment provision and technical assistance for disadvantaged areas Objectives of the New Curriculum After going through the new curriculum, what skills, attitudes, competencies and knowledge are the students expected to have developed? The students shall: 1. Develop an enlightened commitment to the national ideals by cherishing, preserving and developing moral, spiritual and socio-cultural values as well as other desirable aspects of the Filipino heritage; 2. Obtain knowledge and form desirable attitude for understanding the nature and purpose of man, and therefore, of one’s self, ones own people and other races, places and times, thereby, promoting a keen sense of self, of family and of national and international communities; 3. Develop skills in higher intellectual operations and more complex comprehension and expression activities, and in thinking intelligently, critically and creatively in life situation.; 4. acquire work skills, knowledge and information and work ethics essential for making an intelligent choice of an occupation or career and for specialized training in specific occupation; and 5. Broaden and heighten one’s abilities in and appreciation for the arts, the science and technology as a means for maximizing one’s potentials for self fulfilment and for promoting the welfare of others. Significant Features of the New Curriculum 1. The subjects are generally oriented to the development of values such as nationalism.
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2. The curriculum prescribes a set specific competencies in every subject area to be mastered by students. 3. The curriculum employs a uni-disciplinary treatment of content. 4. Each of the subject areas is concept based. 5. The main structure of the curriculum is cognitive-affective manipulative based. 6. The subjects are going to be taught within a forty minute frame, except Science and Technology and Home economics which shall be taught in 60 minutes in the first and second year levels and 80 minutes for the last two levels. 7. In addition to Communication Arts in Filipino, Araling Panlipunan, Edukasyong Pangkatawan, Kalusugan at Musika will also be taught in English and Filipino with the local languages as auxiliary media of instruction. The rest of the subject areas will be taught in English. 8. The New Curriculu, provides for the development of critical thinking, creativity, innovativeness and communicative competence. 9. The new curriculum make sample provisions for the application of theories learned in practicum. The Scope and Sequence of the Curriculum 1. There are eight subject areas from the first to fourth year. These are (1). English 2. Filipino 3. Science and Technology 4. Mathematics 5. Araling Panlipunan 6. Edukasyong Pangkatawan, Kalusugan at Musika 7. Technology and Home Economics 8. Edukasyong Pagpapaphalaga or Values Education. 2. Work experience as the ninth subject was tried in the pilot schools for three years. The try-out experience shwed that the work ethic component of work experience can be integrated with Values Education while its technology component with Home Economics and Technology. 3. Values Education will be taught as a separate subject, the teaching of Values shall also be integrated in all the other subject areas. 4. Technology is made a visible component of the different subject areas especially Science and Technology and Home Economics and Technology.
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Brief Description of the Subject Areas Filipino. The Filipino program emphasizes the development of communication and literary skills. Focus is on Philippine, Afro-Asian and World literature as translated by Filipino writers. Araling Panlipunan (Social Studies). This subject is taught from the Filipino perspective.The areas of study covers the following: (1). First Year – Philippine History, Government and Constitution; (2). Second Year – Asian Studies; (3). Third Year – Economics; and 4. Fourth Year – World History. Edukasyong Pangkatawan, Kalusugan at Musika (Physical Education, Health and Music). This area has three components namely (1). Physical Education; (2). Health and Music and (3). Citizen’s Army Training. CAT remains a component of PEHM in the fourth year. Although each component has its own set of concepts and strategies, all lessons have been designed to complement, relate with and enhance one another. Art is integrated in music at the third and fourth year levels. Edukasyon sa Pagpapahalaga (Values Education). As the cognitive base of values development being integrated in all subjects areas of the curriculum, this course aim to develop skills for national thinking and value judgements. It makes use of the experiential approach and revolve around four concepts: (1). Pagpapahalaga sa Sarili, (Valuing Self) (2).Pakikipagkapwa, (Valuing Others) (3). Pagkamakabansa (Valuing One’s Country) and, (4). Pagkamaka Diyos (Valuing God). English. The English program emphasizes the development of critical thinking skill and communicative interactive competence. It focuses on Philippine, Afro-Asian, American and World Literature. Science and Technology. This course is a redirection from the mere acquisition of scientific and concepts to the application of principles. The areas of study covers the following: First Year - Physical and Biological Science and Technology Second Year – Biology and Technology Third Year -Chemistry and Technology Fourth Year - Physics and Technology
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Mathematics. The Mathematics program is restructured so that each curriculum year includes Algebra, Geometry, Consumer Mathematics, and Statistics concepts arranged in increasing complexity. Technology and Home Economics (THE) THE. is a four component subject consisting of Home Economics, Industrial Arts, Agricultural Arts and Entrepreneurship Development. In the first and second years, there is a set of common learning concepts both for boys and girls. Specialization is offered at the third and fourth year levels which may include other offerings such as electricity, electronics and other technologies. Subject Nomenclature and Sequencing The nomenclature and sequencing of the subject areas as they shall appear in Forms 137B and 138B shall be as follows: Filipino, Araling Panlipunan, Edukasyong Pangkatawan, Kalusugan at Musika (PEHM), Edukasyong Pagpapahalaga (Values Education), Enlish, Science and Technology, Mathematics, Technology and Home Economics. The year levels (i.e., I, II, III,IV) shall be affixed to the corresponding curricular areas. However, Practical Arts I shall be implemented for school year 1988-1990. Like the Elementary school curriculum, thehigh school curriculum has also been a product of various programs and innovations so as to come up with a relevant curricular program that would meet the needs and demands of society nowadays .The New Secondary Education Curriculum (NESC) was first implemented in the school year 1989-1990 by virtue of DECS Order No.11 s. 1989, pursuant to the Secondary Education Development Program. 2002 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM The 2002 Curriculum is restructuring of the NESC (1983) and the NSEC (1989) in order to raise the quality of the Filipino learners and graduates and empower them for lifelong learning. Why do we need to restructure the Curriculum? The curriculum needs restructuring because of the following: 1. The global context of our educational system has changed and continues to change rapidly since the 1980’s. When the NESC and the NSEC were implemented, our world is becoming borderless to information, commodities, financial investments, crime, terrorism, and ecological problems.
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2. Studies indicate that many of our learners are not attaining functional literacy without which learners find it too difficult to meet the challenges posed by our rapidly changing world. What is functional literacy? The Literacy Coordinating Council, which is an organization of government and non-government agencies, describes functional literacy as a range of cognitive, affective and behavioral skills which enables individuals to make critical and informed decisions and function and scientific numerical competence. Why are many of our learners not attaining functional literacy? There are several reasons some of which are curriculum related, some are not. As for curriculum related causes, there are mainly two: an overcrowded curriculum and its insufficient relevance to the diverse contexts of our learners. What do we mean by an overcrowded curriculum? An overcrowded curriculum puts together too many competencies and topics such a way tha (1) Focus on and time for mastery of basic skills are lost (2). The learners get little opportunity to personally process and contextualize the major concepts, and (3). The interconnections among the many competencies are weekly established. Philosophy of the 2002 Curriculum a. The ideal Filipino learners are empowered learners who are competent in learning how to learn and have life skills so that they become self developed person who are makabayan,(patriotic), makatao, (mindful of humanity), makakalikasan), (respectful of nature), and maka –Diyos (Godly). b. Functional literacy is the essential ability for lifelong learning in our dynamically changing world. c. The ideal teacher of the 2002 curriculum is not the authoritarian instructor but trustworthy facilitator or manager of the learning process. She enables the learners to become active constructors of meaning and not passive recipients of information. d. The ideal teaching process is interactive where the learners, the teachers, instructional materials and information technology interact with one another reciprocally. Same Guidelines for Implementation of the 2002 Curriculum:
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1. To signify the continuity of elementary and secondary education in the 2002 Basic Education Curriculum, the four years of secondary education will be called Grade 7-10 2. The curriculum has been restructured into 5 learning areas (English, Mathematics, Science, Filipino, and Makabayan) with stronger integration of competencies within and across these learning areas. 3. The restructured curriculum entails innovative, interdisciplinary, and integrative modes of instructional delivery, especially for Makabayan. 4. The NEAP will conduct in service training for teachers especially on modes of integrated teaching. 5. English, Filipino, Mathematics, and Science are the basic tool subjects. 6. English will continue to be the medium of instruction for Science and Mathematics. Filipino will be the medium of instruction for Makabayan. In some pilot schools, the medium of instruction for Grade 1 will continue to be the Regional Lingua (RLF) or vernacular. 7. The Identification, analysis and processing of values will be done in every learning situation. 8. Inforamtion and Communication Technology will be an integral part of all the learning areas, wherever hardware and software are available. 9. Makabayan entails the adoption of modes of integrated teaching which will enable the learner to personally process assimilate, and systematically practice a wide range of skills and values (cultural, aesthetic, atheletic, vocational, politico-economic and moral). 10. Schools are allowed to design and conceptualize the implementation of Makabayan. 11. In most cases, the initial operation of Makabayan requires a transition phase where the integration of skills and topics will only be partial from Grade 4 to Grade 10. In thi phase, every component of Makabayan will be treated as a distinct discipline with its own time allotment. The components are as follows: Araling Panlipunan (AP); Teknolohiya at Edukasyon Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (TEPP); Musika, Sining, at Edukasyon Pangkatawan at Pangkalusugan (MSEPP); Edukasyon sa Pagpapahalaga (EP)
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12. As long as the weekly time allotment of every learning area is maintained, a school principal shall have the discretion to make the daily time allotment and the class schedules that are appropriate to the situation of the School. 13. No teacher will be made redundant, and none will be overloaded owing to the restructured curriculum and its implementation. This will be ensured through skillful school management and the appropriate organization of classes. 14. For potentially overloaded teachers, principals shall assign load that include teaching time, ancillary time, and classroom-based research through observation and sharing of resources among teachers. 15. Collaborative teaching (in tandem or as a team) is strongly encouraged especially among the following: (a). English, Science and Mathematics teachers; (b). Filipino and AP teachers; (c). teachers of the components of Makabayan; d. Teachers of the 4 tool subjects with the EP teachers. 16. The teachers of the Makabayan components will by grade level at the beginning of the school year during the in-service training and at the beginning of every subsequent quarter to plan interdisciplinary lessons. 17. The school principal will assign a Makabayan coordinator among the department heads of the pagkamakabayan components. 18. Mathematics, Science, English and Filipino teachers will meet with EP teachers at the beginning of the school year and at every subsequent quarter to plan and monitor values processing activities in all the tool subjects. 19. The restructured curriculum will be implemented in June 2002 at all grade levels except Grade 8 and Grade 10. 20. The NETRC, the BEE and the BSE will conduct a quarterly evaluation of the restructured curriculum on the basis of research design by the NETRC. How different is the 2002 Curriculum from what it is replacing? The 2002 Curriculum is different from the previous curriculum due to the following: 1. Restructuring of the learning areas to five (English, Filipino, Mathematics, Science and Makabayan) 2. Stronger integration of competencies within and across the learning areas 3. Integration of values education within every learning area
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4. Greater emphasis on the learning process and modes of integrated teaching, and 5. Greater time for tasks to gain mastery of competencies of the basic tool subjects What are the basic tool subjects? The basic tool subjects are English, Filipino, Mathematics, and Science What is Makabayan? Makabayan is the learning area that serves as a”laboratory of life “or a practice environment for holistic learning to develop a healthy personal and national self indentity. Formation of a healthy Filipno self-identity entails an adequate understanding of Philippine history and our politico-economic system, local cultures, crafts, arts, music and games. Content Based Instruction is the integration of the content of learning areas like Sibika at Kultura (SK); Heograpiya/Kasaysayan/Sibika (HKS) and Science and Health in language teaching. It means that the contents of SK; HKS will be used as vehicle for the development of language skills in Filipino. In developing the skills in English, the content of science and health will be used. - GMRC is integrated in all learning areas in all grade levels. Appropriate core values for each learning area have been indicated in the learning competencies. - Science and Health for Grades I and II is integrated in English. This is used as vehicle in developing the skills in English. - Filipino will use Sk/HKS as content. Focus is on the development of the communication skills. SK/HKS will be taught as a separate subject because this has a separate time allotment. - For EPP, at the beginning of the school year, teachers are expected to prepare a schedule of the learning strands based on the PELC that will be taught each grading period. Although 40 minutes is allotted to EPP as onetaching block daily, the school may desgn alternative longer time schedule of 120 minutes/day to give enough time for hands on exploratory wor once or twice a week. This can be done through cacreful planning and coordination with the other teachers of the MAKABAYAN components (HKS and MSEP).
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- MSEP are integrated in Sibika at Kultura for Gardes I-III. These can be used as spring board or outcome of the lessons, but if there’s a need to formally teach the elements of Music, Arts and PE, the teacher may do so. Hence, the teacher can get some of the time allotted for MAKABAYAN. For Grade IV, MSEP is given 20 minutes period and 40 minutes period for Grades V and VI to be taught daily. However, the teacher/s may plan a three week cycle in such a way that each component will receive equal time allotment. The child can also participate in various interest groups such as musical organization, intramurals, scouting and other recreational activities. - Varied activities may be done in learning areas with increased time allotment such as:
Remendation for Slow Learners Enrichment/Reinforcement for Fast Learners Library Work/Research on the Assigned Lessons Community Work as an extension of the lesson e.g. Interview of
Community People, Observation of the Different Activities/Industries in the Community, and Field Trip
Co-curricular activities: e.g. Science Club, Math Club, Campus Journalism, etc.
The 2002 Secondary Curriculum The Core Learning Areas and Content 1. Filipino 2. English 1.1 Panitikan +VE 2.1 Listening +VE 1.2 Gramatika +VE 2.2 Speaking +VE 1.3 Pagbasa +VE 2.3 Writing +VE 2.3.1 Reading +VE 2.3.2 Literature +VE 3. Math 4. Science 3.1 1st year 4.1 1st year Elem. Algebra +VE Integrated Science + 3.2 2nd Year 4.2 2nd Year Int. Algebra +VE Biology +VE 3.3 3rd year 4.3 3rd year Geometry +VE Chemistry +VE 3.4 4th year 4.4 4th year Existing (Spiral) Existing (Physics) +VE 5. Makabayan
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5.1 (Drawn from the competencies of THE/PEHM/VE/SS) Circular Approaches and Strategies - Use of integrative modes of teaching (thematic, core subject, content based instruction) - Use of collaborative teaching strategies (team teaching, use of resource persons, etc.) - Use of active learning strategies - Application of life skills - Application of valuing process - Provision of varied activities that address multiple intelligences Time Allotment Daily Time Allotment For the Five (5) Core Learning Areas Subject Area No. of hours English……………………...1 hour Science……………………. 1 hour Math……………………….. 1 hour Filipino……………………. 1 hour Makabayan………………. 2.5hours Total………………………. 6.5hours/day UNDERSTANDING BY DESIGN (UbD) CURRICULUM Understanding by Design (UbD) is a conceptual framework for education anchored on the tenet of teaching for understanding. Introduced by Jay McTighe and Grant P. Wiggins in 1998, UbD espouses the process of backward design in the development of a school curriculum. UbD is anchored on three points that are actually three interrelated academic goals: acquiring knowledge, understanding content, and transferring or applying knowledge as it is understood. UbD also expands on the “six facets of understanding.” This means that students, through UbD, will be able to explain, interpret, apply, have perspective, emphasize, and have self-knowledge about a given topic. UbD is not a new
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concept; rather, it is the coming together of several teaching approaches and strategies such as higher order thinking skills (HOTS), constructivism, cooperative, and integrative so students will have a deeper understanding of concepts and ideas. UbD is all about learning in context, as against the traditional learning in isolation. In UbD, learners do not learn in isolation. In UbD, students learn how one concept weaves with other concepts from the same discipline, and from other disciplines (Integrative). Teaching for Understanding Teaching for Understanding is the main tenet of UbD. In this framework, course design, teacher and student attitudes, and the classroom learning environment are factors not just in the learning of facts but also in the attainment of an “understanding” of those facts, such as the application of these facts in the context of the real world or the development of an individual’s insight regarding these facts. This understanding is reached through the formulation of a “big idea”—a central idea that holds all the facts together and makes these connected facts worth knowing. After getting to the “big idea” students can proceed to an “understanding” or to answer an “essential question” beyond the lessons taught. Through a coherent curriculum design and distinctions between “big ideas” and “essential questions,” the students should be able to describe the goals and performance requirements of the class. To facilitate student understanding, teachers must explain the “big ideas” and “essential questions” as well as the requirements and evaluative criteria at the start of the class. The classroom environment should also encourage students to work hard to understand the “big ideas” by having an atmosphere of respect for every student idea, including concrete manifestations such as displaying excellent examples of student work. Backward Design Concept The UbD concept of “teaching for understanding” is best exemplified by the concept of backward design, wherein curricula are based on a desired result-an “understanding” or a “big idea” – rather than the traditional method of constructing the curricula, focusing on the “facts” and hoping that an “understanding” will follow. Backward design as a problem-solving strategy can even be traced back to the ancient Greeks. In his book “How to Solve it” (1945), the Hungarian mathematician George Polya noted that the Greeks used the strategy of “thinking backward” by knowing that you want as a solution in order to solve a problem.
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Backward design is geared to eliminate two common flaws in the traditional method: coverage-focused teaching and activity-focused teaching. In coverage-focused teaching, educators try to cover alltopics as specified by a textbook or teaching manual for the whole school year, but end up with students who do not understand why they are being taught all this information. In activity-focused teaching, educators come up with all sorts of activities that students participate in and enjoy, but again, students do not completely understand why. This is what backward design aims to resolve: to make students understand and gain a deeper insight into why they are being taught these information or made to participate in these kind of activities. Three steps of backward design
Identifying desired results
Defining acceptable evidence
Planning learning experiences and instruction
Stage 1 – Identifying desired results Identifying desired results means defining the objectives of the course/class. Desired results cannot be just limited to traditional parameters such as a good performance in state assessment tests, but rather include specific goals that contribute to a deeper understanding of a topic. One example would be the desired results from an English literature class, in which students are not only prepared to score well in national English proficiency exams, but also develop a love for reading and appreciation for literature. Stage 2 – Defining acceptable evidence through the different types of assessment The second stage, defining acceptable evidence refers to the process by which the educator will teach and gauge the level of understanding of a student. The educator should now choose which assessment methods are suited to track the progress of a student. These Assessment methods are classified by McTighe and Wiggins into three types: performance tasks, the highest test understanding in which students are given a real world challenge wherein they must diplay a critical and effective use of the knowledge and skills learned in class; criteria referenced assessment such as quizzes, test and prompts, which provide both instructor and students feedback on how well the facts/concepts are being understood and unprompted assessment or self assessment primarily for students, such as observations and dialogues.
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Going back to the example of the English class, a teacher may ask students to create works-from a parody, and stage adaptation, or even to the extent of fan fiction – based on his/her favorite text. Stage 3 – Planning learning experiences and instruction, The last stage , planning learning experiences and instruction, details students’ activities throughout the class, list which resources to be used and evaluates if these activities and resources follow the WHERETO criteria. WHERETO stands for W= Where is the unit going? What is expected? (Students); where are the students coming from? (Teachers) H = Hook all students and hold their interest. E = Equip students, help them experience the key ideas and explore the issues. R = Provide opportunities to rethink and revise their understandings and work. E = Allow students to evaluate their work and its implications. T = Be tailored to the different needs, interest, and abilities of learners. O =Be organized to maximize initial and sustained engagement as well as effective learning. The WHERETO criteria are also the indicators to see if the course fits the idea of “teaching for understanding.” This can be illustrated in some activities for the English class. For example, showing the movie “Clueless” in class can fulfill the W, H and E criteria—W, showing and example of creating work from a literacy source (“Clueless” is a modern adaptation of Jane Austen’s Emma”); H, the movie hooks the attention of the students; and E, as the students enjoy the film, they are able to experience the key idea that literature can be enjoyed and is alive. This does not mean, however, that backward design does not use traditional methods of teaching. It only spouses that traditional and alternative methods be used hand in hand, in the appropriate contexts, to achieve the desired results. Facets of Understanding According to Wiggins and McTighe, students can be said to have understanding when they: 1. Can explain by providing thorough and justifiable accounts of phenomena, facts and data; 2. Can interpret by offering an individual insight to ideas and events;
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3. Can apply and use that knowledge to diverse contexts; 4. Have perspective by seeing things in the context of the big picture and viewing these critically; 5. Can emphasize by finding value in what others may find as implausible, basing a sensitive perception on prior direct experience. 6. Have a self knowledge or self awareness that enables them to see what shapes and impedes their own understanding. UbD in the Philippine Setting Senate Resolution 1295, filed by Senator Manuel Villar in August 2009 supports the implementation of the UbD framework in the Basic Education Curriculum. The UbD framework will be formally implemented in the Philippines via the 2010 Secondary Curriculum which will be implemented starting Academic Year 2010-2011. The 2010 curriculum is currently under pilot testing in 22 schools all over the country. The curriculum has included several topics that are similar to the UbD concepts favoring the application of knowledge in real world situations. These topics include Consumer Education, to be applied across all subjects and intended teach students about the 18 Fair Trade Laws, and the Stock Market Basics topic in Economics for fourth year students. Other revisions in the 2010 curriculum include provisions for a Madaris and Madrasah-based curriculum for Muslim students in schools in Mindanao, plus an Indeginous People’s Curriculum, also to be implemented in rural areas. On February 4-6, 2010, a National Education Conference on Understanding by Design was held at the Manila Hotel. The conference, sponsored by the Fund for Assistance to Private Education, also had a Visayas/Mindanao leg held on February 8-10, 2010. During the conference, DepEd Secretary Jesli Lapus announced that the 2010 Revised Secondary Education Curriculum (RSEC) will be rolled out this June 2010 and will be implemented initially for First Year High School Only. Accordingly, Department of Education representatives released the Curriculum Guides for each subject area, together with the teaching Guides for the First quarter of First Year High School, thus temporarily assuaging the fear of a lack of materials to use for the implementation of UbD.
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Local educational publishers have also responded to the need for unstructional materials aligned UbD. Textbook publishers such as Rex, Phoenix, Diwa, and Vibal have adapted Teachers Manuals and Teaching Modules to principles and suggested templates of UbD. Vibal has also launched A UbD website to aid educators in understanding and implementing UbD in the Philippines. In the summer of 2010, the Department of Education will begin intensive mass trainings of public school teachers all around the country for the implementation of the 2010 Secondary Education Curriculum. The Fund for assistance to Private Education (FAPE), which has been mandated to conduct training for private schools under the Educational Service Contracting (ESC) Educational Voucher System (EVS) programs, has actually begun training private school teachers on UbD and the RSEC since the summer of 2009. Other private schools are also in the process of adapting the UbD framework in their curricula, including schools under De La Salle Philippines and Holy Name University in Tagbilaran, Bohol. The K – 12 PROGRAM On January 20, 2012, President Aquino signed into law Republic Act No. 10157 mandating among others the institutionalization of Kindergarten Education as part of basic education and for school year 2011-2012 shall be implemented partially, and thereafter it shall be made mandatory and compulsory for entrance to Grade 1. Thereafter, on May 15, 2013, President Noynoy Aquino signed into law Republic Act No. 10533 also known as the “Enhance Basic Education Act of 2013” atleast one (1) year of kindergarten education,six (6) years of elementary education, and six (6) year of secondary education, in that sequence. Secondary education includes four (4) years of junior high school and two (2) years of senior highschool education. Kindergarten education shall mean one (1) year of preparatory education for children at least five (5) years old as a prerequisite for Grade 1. Elementary education refers to the second stage of compulsory basic education which is composed of six (6) years. The entrant age to this level is typically six (6) years old. Secondary education refers to the third stage of compulsory basic education. It consists of four (4) years of junior high school education and two (2) years of senior high school education. The entrant age to the junior and senior high school levels are typically twelve (12) and sixteen (16) years old, respectively. Basic Education shall be delivered in languages understood by the learners as the language plays a strategic role in shaping the formative years of learners. For Kindergarten and the first three (3) years of elementary education, instruction, teaching
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materials and assessment shall be in the regional or native language of the learners. The Department of Education (DepEd) shall formulate a mother language transition program from Grade 4 to Grade 6 so that Filipino and English shall be gradually introduced as languages of instruction until such tim when these two (2) languages can become the primary languages of instruction at the secondary level. For purposes of this Act, mother language of first Language (LI) refers to language or languages first learned by a child, which he/she indetifies with, is identified as a native language user of by others, which he/she knows best, or uses most. This regional or native language refers to the traditional speech variety of Filipino sign language existing in a region, area or place. THE K – 12 CURRICULUM The passage Republic Act No. 10533, brought about a restructuring of the curricula of Philippine schools particularly in the secondary levels. Under the Implementing Rules and Regulation of R.A 10533, particularly Section 10, Article II it was provided that: The DepEd shall adhere to the following standards and principles, when appropriate in developing the enhanced basic education curriculum:
The curriculum shall be learner-centered, inclusive and developmentally appropriate;
The curriculum shall be relevant, responsive and research-based;
o The curriculum shall be gender-and culture sensitive
Th Curriculum shall be contextualized and global;
The Curriculum shall use pedagogical approaches that are constructivist, inquiry-based, reflective, collaborative and integrative;
The curriculum shall adhere to the principles and framework of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) which starts from where the learners are and from what they already know proceeding from the known to the unknown; instructional materials and capable teachers to implement the MTB-MLE curriculum shall be available. For this
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purpose, MTB-MLE refers to formal or non-formal education in which the learners mother tongue and additional languages are used in the classroom;
o The curriculum shall use spiral progression approach to
o Ensure mastery of knowledge and skills after each level and;
o The curriculum shall be flexible enough to enable and
allow
o Shools to localize, indigenize and enhance the same based
o On their respective educational and social contexts.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING, EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY, FIELD STUDY AND PRACTICE TEACHING The word principles is derived from the Latin word “princeps” meaning the beginning or end of all things. It is a comprehensive law or doctrine from which others are derived or on which other are founded. According to L.T Hopkins, a principle is a rules for guiding the ship of education so that it will reach the point designated by the philosophy of education, it is a compass byy which the path of education is directed. TYPES OF PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1. Starting Principles – refer to the nature of the child, his psychological and physiological endowments. 2. Guiding Princples – the methods of instruction, or the conglomeration of techniques in carrying out the educative process. 3. Ending Principles – educational aims and objectives.
Psychological – growth and development of the child. Philosophical – based on the culture of the people.
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THE INBORN TENDENCIES OF THE CHILD 1. Intelligence is defined by W.Stern as a general capacity of an individual to adjust his thinking to new requirements; it is a general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life. Lewis Terman defines it as the ability to learn in terms of abstract ideas, while Colvin viewed intelligence as the ability to adjust to new environment. Thurstone’s Classification of Intellegence
Ability to deal with space
Ability to solve problems
Ability to understand ideas in terms of words
Ability to write and talk easily
Ability to perform numerical calculation
Ability to recognize likeness and difference
Ability to recall past experiences Edward Lee Thorndike’s Classification of Intelligence 1. Abstract – capacity to respond to symbols, letters, etc. 2. Concrete/mechanical – capacity to manipulate and to deal with things such as art and music. 3. Social – capacity to deal with other people. 2. Emotion – is the blending of sensations caused by the profound and widespread changes in the body. Crow & Crow defined emotion as an effective experience that accompanies generalized inner adjustment, and mental and physiological stirred up states in the individual and that shows itself in his overt behavior. 3. Imitation is the tendency of the child to do according to what he sees or observes. 4. Curiosity is the elementary form of interest. It is the starting point of interest and the desire to discover 5. Gregariousness refers to the desire of the individual to be with other people because man is a social being. 6. Play is the natural impulse possessed by men and animals. It is an activity which the individual engages in for the satisfaction of his desires.
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7. Collecting and hoarding means the interest in keeping the objects which a child is interested to possess. 8. Competition implies struggle between two or more persons for the same object or purpose to equal or surpass others. On the other hand, rivalry suggests a personal contest for selfish ends, resulting in envy and jealousy. 9. Manipulation is the natural impulse of the child which involves a skilful or dexterous management or control of actions by means of intellect. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE The theory of multiple intellegences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggest that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. These intelligences are:
Linguistic intelligence (word smart)
Logical mathematical intelligence. (number/reasoning smart)
Spatial intelligence (picture smart)
Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence (body smart)
Musical Intelligence ( Music smart)
Interpersonal Intelligence ( people smart)
Intrapersonal intellingence (self smart)
Naturalistic intelligence (nature smart)
Existential Intelligence
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Linguistic Intelligence Linguistic intelligence is the use of spoken or written language. Giving regular opportunities for achievement in both is important because some auditory learners need to hear information, which helps the learners who need to speak the information in order to learn it. Because reading and writing is the key to success in most lives, the lingjistic must not be neglected, and A Core tools make a linguistic link, visual link, and help student get the learning through the fingers. These tools take the student through the entire cycle: They show how to Log assignments, analyze information individually and in groups, and how to synthesize information into personal and group projects, and finally how to evaluate the process of learning. The tools guide the learner in reflection and goal setting. Logical/Mathematical Intelligence The logical intelligence is naturally used in conjunction with all types of intelligence. The organization of thought and movements play a large part In all human activity. Categorizing, sequencing, comparing and reaching conclusion are functions of logical intelligence. Even the new idea or invention that is a result of creativity (lateral thinking) can be viewed as a logical end product to the creative person. Most students find the exclusion of their particular multiple intelligence quotient (MIQ) illogical, so to gain credibility teachers must honor all intelligence by developing them. The activities and assignment used to develop skills in all types of intelligence must seem logically connected. Spatial Intelligence We use spatial intelligence whenever we move through space: sports, dancing or just walking around. An expert, however, can create with space. A gifted student can create astounding feats with the body, perhaps judging direction, proximity, and movement, and create alternative plans and make midair adjustments. Others can manipulate an imaginary object in space. Spatial creativity may also enable student to draw, make up dances, stories, and invent new things. Weekly assignment of visualizations stories and other projects develop spatial intelligence. Lateral creative thinking is used in creating, inventing and in understanding the big pictre. Those who possess genius in spatila intelligence may develop wisdom or the ability to learn from experience and have a strong sense of “where they are.” Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence
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Kinesthetic intelligence is the kinetic movement of the body in space and the inner space movement of the emotions. A wide range of abilities, from the broad motor skills of sport to the fine motor skills needed for writing, awaits development. Communication of emotions through the body or, just as important, the control of the emotions can be developed. Acting, and other forms of presenting ideas or emotions through movement of the body areas important to kinesthetic development as are getting ideas and emotions through the fingers in writing or the manipulation of other tools or machines. A student might need to use movement in order to understand, while others might benefit from seeing movement to understand. Diverse kinesthetic approaches create learning opportunities. Musical Intelligence All people possess musical intelligence if only to navigate their environment. We detect many kinds of environmental sounds. Some people hum or drum to the rhytm of sounds they hear. Most are able to detect patterns in the music they enjoy. Some can develop their musical intelligence to recognize the patterns individual performers and composers use. The expert can create patterns, recognizable by others. Some musical experts createnotes, some create words, some create rhythms with movement such as dance and drumming. Student possess differing degrees of expertise, but all are affected, usually positively, by the addition of music to the environment, activities, assignments, projects, and evaluations in a Core Classroom. When all assignments and activites are cored, music gets connected. Interpersonal Intelligence How well we connect to our communities and keep a sense of where are in relation to others reflect how much our interpersonal intelligence is developed. This skill is prized above all others in the business of the world; many classify it as the key to success in the future. This skill enables us to form meaning ful personal relationships. Working toward common goal and learning to share tasks develops interpersonal skill. A Core classroom provides training in interpersonal skills as students work towards common goals and share task equitably. Regular team building activities and meaningful group projects allow leaders to emerge. Those gifted should be given the chance to help create a sense of community in the classroom; they will practice for their future personal, work, and global communities.
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Intrapersonal Intelligence A sense of self is the basic aspect of intrapersonal intelligence. Those with intrapersonal skill learn to cope with the world around them. Knowledge of self through reflection is especially important to help student mature in social context. Therefore intra personal skill helps develop inter-personal skill. Knowing and accepting self is the first step in understanding and accepting others, which is essential in learning to cope. Time to reflect on the process of interacting is important in gaining self knowledge. Students need ample refelective time to develop intrapersonal skills. They need time to reflect on the usefulness of what they have learned and to set meaningful long and short term goals to use their new learning. Those who understand their own motivations and needs excel in intrapersonal skills. Naturalistic Intelligence The naturalist intelligence involves the full range of knowing that occurs in and through our encounters with the natural world including our recognition, appreciation, and understanding of the natural environment. It involves such capacities as species discernment, communion with the natural world and its phenomena, and the ability to recognize and classify various flora and fauna. If the naturalist intelligence is one of your strengths you have profound love for the outdoors, animals, plants and almost any natural object. You are probably fascinated by and noticeably affected by such things as weather, changing leaves in the fall, the sound of the wind, the ward sun or lack thereof, or an insect in the room. At a young age you were likely nature collectors, adding such things as bugs, rocks, leaves, seashells, stick and so on to your collections. You probably brought home all manner and kinds of stray animals and today you may have several pets and want more. You tend to have an affinity with and respect for all living beings. Existential intelligence Existential intelligence is concerned with ultimate issues, and is next to be possibility considered by Gardner as he argues that it scores reasonably well on the criteria. However empirical evidence is sparse – and although a ninth intelligence might be attractive, Gardner is not disposed to add it to the list. He said that he finds the phenomenon perplexing enough and the distance from the other intelligences vast enough to dictate prudence – at least for now.
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NOTE: Moral intelligence is the final and obvious candidate for inclusion in Gardner’s list. In his exploration, he begins by asking whether it is possible to delineate the moral domain. He suggest that it is difficul to come to any consensual definition, but argues that it is possible to come to an understanding that takes exploration forward. Central to a moral domain, Gardner suggests, is a concern with those rules, behaviors and attitudes that govern the sanctity of life in particular, the sanctity to human life and, in many cases, the sanctity of any other living creatures and the world they inhabit. Gardner contends that, if man accepts the existence of a moral realm is it then possible to speak of moral intelligence? If it connotes the adoption of any specific moral code then Gardner does not find the term moral intellifence acceptable. Furthermore, he argues researchers and writers have not as yet captured the essence of the moral domain as an instance of human intelligence. He construed that the central component in the moral realms or domail is a sense of personal agency and personal stake, a realization that one has an irreducible role with respect to other people and that one’s behavior towards others must reflect the result of contextualized analysis and the exercise of one’s will. The fulfillment of key roles certainly requires a range of human intelligences – including personal, linguistic, logical and perhaps existential – but it is fundamentally a statement about the kind of person statement about personality, individuality, will, character- and in the happiest cases, about the highest realization of human nature. (Gardner 1983). One of the components of Gardner’s definition of intelligence is that there be a particular representation for that ability in the brain. Garner’s theory of multiple intelligence radically altered the global community’s view of human intelligence. The standard view of intelligence has been that intelligence is something you are born with; you only have a finite amount of it and there are tests that tell you how smart you are. “The theory of multiple intelligences challenges that view. It asks, instead, “Given what we know about the brain evolution, and the differences in cultures, what are the sets of human abilities we all share? An interesting sidebar is that not everyone is strong in the same areas. Just as we look different on the outside, internally we learn differently.
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Prior to his proposal, schools were predominantly emphasizing two of the eight intelligences cited by Gardner – the Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical. If we consider the traditional teaching styles practiced in the classroom and the tests that are given to measure the knowledge gained by an individual student, it is clear that those students who are naturally strong in the Linguistic and Logical Mthematical intelligences will perform well on standardized tests. It is reasonable to assume also that those students who do well on such tests will perform well overall in school because the tools used (logically constructed text books) and the mode by which they are taught to students (mainly lecture) are geared toward the two previously mentioned intelligences. To assume that all children – individuals are the same would be to deny a huge segment of the population a proper education. Is great for those who are part of the Linguistic and/or Logical intelligences but detrimental to those who are not. The fervor with which educators embraced his premise that we have multiple intelligences surprised even Gardner himself. “It obviously spoke to some sense that peple had that kids weren’t all the same and that the tests we had only skimmed the surface about the differences among kids “Gardner said. In terms of IQ and measuring IQ with standardized tests, those tests were designed to weed out individuals who would perform poorly in school. Tests, it should be added that only measure Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, and occasionally spatial abilities, do not allow for the quantification of a person’s creativity for example or any other strength of their character. Gardner believes that the SAT’s and IQ tsts do not necessarily predict one’s success in college and in life. A high IQ result is not even good predictor of success in life. Nor does it correlate with ones level of happiness, of economic success, of success in relationships. Gardner’s theory and its implications within the realm of education certainly help to explain why some people are better at certain things than others. An interesting offspring of Gardner’s theory is the exploration of the role that an individual’s environment has in his/her success and or survival in that environment. If, for example, an individual grew up in the wilderness without significant bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, that facet of intelligence would either have to be developed or that individual may not survive. Gardner’s theory allows room for development of the various intelligences through biological and social means. He stresses the need for a combination of the eight intelligences so that each individual may learn about and understand the world around them. Gardner syas, “What I argue
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against is the notion that there’s only only one way to learn how to read, only one way to learn how to compute, only one way to learn about biology. I think that such contentions are nonsense”. Gardner claimed that his theory was comceptualized when he observed brain damage and what could happen to people when they had strokes. When a person has a stroke, certain part of the brain gets injured, and that injury can tell you what that part of the brain does. Individuals who lose their musical abilities can still talk. People who lose their linguistic ability still might be able to sing. That understanding not only brought me into the whole world of brain study, but it was really the seed that led ultimately to the theory of multiple intelligences. As long as a person can lose one’s ability while others are spared, he cannot just have a single intelligence, he has to have several intelligences. Intelligence remains a primary attribute of the human race and Gardner’s views shed light not only on social constructions but also on theories of biological survival within the human race. We will undoubtedly use these insights, along with advancements in the studies of neuroscience to better understand the world around us and our role in that world. Gardner’s work has been marked by a desire not to just describe the world but to help create the conditions to change it. The scale of his contribution can be gauged from following comments in his introduction to the tenth anniversary edition of Howard Gardner’s classic work Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. In the heyday of the psychometric and behaviorist eras, it was generally believed that intelligence was a single entity that was inherited; and that human beings – initially a blank slate – could be trained to learn anything, provided that it was presented in an appropriate way. Nowadays an increasing number of researchers belive precisely the opposite; that there exist a multitude of intelligences, quite independent of each othern that each intelligence has its own strengths and constraintsl that the mind is far from unencumbered at birth; and that it is unexpectedly difficult to teach things that go against early “naïve” theories of that challenge the natural lines of force within an intelligence and its matching domains. (Gardner 1993) Gardner’s work around multiple intelligences has had a profound impact on thinking and practice education- especially in the United States. Here we explore the theory of multiple intelligences; why it has found a ready audience amongst educationalist; and some of the issues around its conceptualization and realization.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FILIPINO LEARNERS (Gregorio)
Shyness is an attitude characterized by partial inhibition of social responses especially in the presence of strangers.
Sensitiveness is the tendency of the child to be easily impressed, affected or hurt.
Lack of Perseverance means lack of persistence in an activity for a long time due to difficulty, opposition, disappointment, or interference.
Lack of Resourcefulness means the inability to meet new situations.
Lack of Industry refers to the lack of steady attention or diligence in any pursuit. LEARNING Learning is a mental wherein knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and ideals are acquired, retained and utilized resulting in the progressive adaptation and modification of conduct and behavior (Bugelski, 1965). As far as the behaviorists are concerned, learning is any change in the behavior of an organism. THEORIES OF LEARNING 1. Mind Theory (Christian Wolf) states that the mind has mental powers or faculties, such as memory reason, judgement, etc. which function as a separate entity that can be improved through exercise or use. 2. Connectionist’s Theory (Edward lee Thorndike) believes that learning is the product of connection between the stimulus and response (Association Learning). 3. Behaviorism (J.B Watson) viewed learning as any change in the behavior of an organism. Such change may range from the acquisition of knowledge, simple skill, specific attitude and opinions or it may also refer to innovation, elimination or modification of responses. 4. Gestalt’s View of Learning. Gestalt is a German term which means pattern, shape, form or configuration. It advocates that the whole is more than the sum of its parts and the whole gets its meaning from its parts. It also suggests that the conception of experience at any given moment is determined by the totality of its related phases which constitute an integral pattern or configuration.
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5. Progressivism sees learning as an active and dynamic process in which the learner is definitely involved. Learning is a process that is active, purposeful and creative. WAYS HOW ORGANISMS LEARN 1. Trial and Error means attempts to meet a situation in various ways until the correct responses are found more or less accidentally. It involves random reaction and accidental success. 2. Learning byConditioning – changing the meaning of a situation by associating it with some past experience of new stimuli that brought satisfaction or dissatisfaction to the learner through repetition.
Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov
Operant Conditioning – Burrhus Frederick Skinner 3. Learning by Observation and Imitation – learning is done through directing the attention to a specific element considered worthy of mental record and rreproducing the recorded element as the need arises. 4. Insight is the higher level of trial and error. It refers to the ability to foresee things and is based on the react in advance. It suggests that the degree of insight increases with age. It experiment of Wolfgang Kohler. 5. Learning by Motivation. Motivation is the process of arousing the individual attention and interest directed towards a definite goal. Types of Motivation 1. Intrinsic - natural desire of the individual to learn 2. Extrinsic – motivation based on rewards or punishment Incentives to Motivate Learners
School Marks
Exhibiting Good Works
Game or Play
Examination
Honor Roll
Emulation – process of equaling or excelling other’s work or behavior
Material Rewards
Punishment
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Vocational Goal
LAWS OF LEARNING 1. Law of Readiness – is associated with mind set. It states that when an organism is prepared to respond to a stimulus, allowing him to do so would be satisfying while preventing im would be annoying. 2. Law of Exercise – constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus, while disuse of a response weakens it. Law of use – the more frequent a modifiable connection between the situation and the response is utilized, the stronger is the connection. Law if disuse – When a modifiable connection between a stimulus and response is not used over a period of time that connection is weakened. 3. Law of Effect – when a modifiable connection between a stimulus and a response has been made, it is a strengthened if it results satisfaction and weakens if it leads to annoyance. 4. Law of Belongingness – means that the strength of connection is increased if the paired stimuli possess similarities. 5. Law of Association – a new connection is formed through the association of the past and the new situation. It is the process of relating two or more experiences to each other. 6. Law of Multiple Response – different reactions/responses are elicited by the same stimulus. 7. Law of Frequency – the often the response is repeated the greater is its tendency for its use when the right situation occurs. 8. Law of Recency – the response which has been exercised and rewarded most recently is the one which is most likely to occur when the organism is in a given situation. FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Intelelctual – individual’s mental ability level
Learning factors – study habits
Physical factors – disabilities, nutrition, etc.
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Mental factors – attitude and one’s beliefs and ideas
Emotional/Social factors
Teachers personality
Environemntal factors
THE LEARNER The 20th century has been considered by various experts as the century of the child because so much has been learned of their nature and development that a lot of children have been greatly improved. Before the establishment of child-centered schools of Pestalozzi. Herbart and Froebel the child had the right to listen but not to be heard. However, due to the result of the varios studies made regarding the nature of the child, children now are given the rights and privileges that they should enjoy as legitimate members of the society. Children are known to be marvelous tough, pliable and teachable. Psychological Characteristics of the Child
Children are interested to learn
Children need immediate goals (short term goals)
Children need routine
Play plays a vital role in child development Needs of a Child Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of basic human needs
Physiological needs- hunger, thirst, breathing
Safety and security needs – protection from injury, pain, extremes of heat and cold
Belonging and affection needs – giving and receiving love, warmth and affection
Esteem and self -respect needs – feeling adequate, competent, worthy, being appreciated and respected by others.
Self-Actualization needs – self fulfillment by using one’s talent and potentials Understanding children’s behavior
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Development of positive behavior. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) believed that by nature men are basically good that what makes man evil are the influences of his society. To develop positive behavior in children, the following must be emphasized: 1. Contribution – children should be encouraged to contribute because this is one way of showing to them that they are an important part of the group. 2. Responsibility – children should not be encouraged to involve themselves in decision making, and be made responsible for their own behavior and actions within the limits of the group. 3. Cooperation – children should be encouraged to resolve problems and difficult situations through a concerted effort of all the members of the group. Causes of children’s misbehaviors The American Physchological Association (1993) concluded that a breakdown of family processes and relationships contributes to children’s antisocial behavior. On the other hand, Thuroton and Benning (1993) suggested that the following family variables affect the behavior of the child: 1. Parental supervision and discipline – inadequate, too lax, too strict or inconsistent and erratic. 2. Parents are indifferent or hostile to the child .They disapprove many things about the child and handed out angry physical punishment. 3. The family operated only partially as a unit, if at all, and the marital relationship lacked closeness and equality of partnership. 4. Parents found it difficult to discuss concerns regarding the child and believed that they had little influence on the child. They believed that other children exerted bad influence on their child. 5. The parents have too much expectation about their child. THE TEACHER AND THE LEARNING PROCESS The teacher is someone who causes others to learn. He is a person who exerts a considerable influence in the life of other people specifically the children under his care.
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The Roles of a Teacher 1. Model 5. Evaluator of student’s performance 2. Classroom Manager 6. Parent surrogate 3. Facilitator of learning 7. Counselor 4. Motivator 8. Friend Qualities of an Effective Teacher K – Knowledge A – Attitude (Zia Zigalar – your attitude not your aptitude will determine your altitude) S – Skills H – Habits E – Experience Intelligence Good health (mens sana encorpore sano) Self Confident (cogito ergo sum) Affability (Friendliness) Consideration for others Educationally qualified (R.A.7836) Morally strong The needs of Teachers
Fair treatment
Firmness and understanding from their superiors
Positive atmosphere
Recognition for their contributions
Chance for professional growth CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Classroom management as defined by Good (1959) is the administration or direction of activities with special reference to problems involving discipline, democratic
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techniques, use of supplies and other materials, the physical features of the classroom, general housekeeping and the social relationships of the pupils and teachers. It can be summarized as the operation and control of classroom activities. Principles behind Classroom Management
Teachers should plan activities that are suited to the classroom conditions.
The teacher’s disciplinary policies must be in accordance with the school policies.
The teachers must observe some routinary procedures to save time and energy (i.e entering and leaving the room, passing papers, etc.)
The teachers must take into consideration the needs and conditions of their students.
The teachers must utilize positive rather than engative approach in dealing with children.
Causes of Disciplinary Problems in the Classroom 1. Teacher’s personality – lack of knowledge of the subject matter, poor decision making, etc. 2. Physical factors – health conditions of the child 3. Individual factors – individual differences due to family and community background, etc. 4. Social factors – adjustment to the group 5. Emotional factors 6. School environment Ways to Improve Classroom Discipline
Know you subject matter and be prepared at all times.
Come to class ahead of you students.
Call the class to order as soon as the bell rings.
Follow some established daily routine.
Check the condition of the class as well as the condition of every pupil.
Check pupil’s assignemnts regularly and return their work promptly
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Explain to your pupils your expectations of every acitivity that they will accomplish.
Provide adequate time for every acitivity.
Do not threaten your pupils. If threatened, the pupils often feel challenged to see how serious Are you and how far they could go before you carry out your threats.
Have a good sense of humor.
Compliment your students on worthy contributions
Try to involve all pupils to class activities.
Handle calmly all attempts to distract your attention.
Always have a contingency plan in case of emergency.
Never be sarcastic.
Always consider individual difference indealing with your pupils
Never make a martyr out of a trouble maker.
Never punish all your pupils for the fault of one.
THE ART OF QUESTIONING Questioning is the starting point of learning. People learn because they ask questions. In the teaching-learning process the kind of questions that a teacher asks and the way he asks them to some extent determines his affectivity as well as the outcome of his teaching methods and techniques. PURPOSE
To discover the impact of the lesson to the students
To evaluate the student’s performance
To direct the minds of the students to the important aspects of the lesson
To give the students a chance to express themselves
To develop the thinking and reasoning ability of the students and help them analyze ideas
To acquire information
To draw out interpretation
To manifest retention of knowledge
To develop the skills to answer effectively and eleciting comprehension
To energize the mind or the imagination resulting to internalization of concepts
To check whether these concepts are internalized for use in the Students academic and functional life.
To develop the students problem solving skills and decision-making faculties
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LEVELS OF QUESTIONING 1. Literal
“right there” questions note or recall clearly stated facts and details follow directions associate quotation with speaker
2. Interpretative
think and search question indetify character traits, emotional reactions interpret figurative language anticipate events recognize sensory images sense implied meaning of words, phrases and sentences
3. Critical
give oponions, reactions to the selection
discriminate between fancy and reality, fact or opinion
identify assumptions, points of view, author’s purpose and style
determine relevance
weigh values presented
4. Integrative/Application
“typing up” questions comparing and contrasting old and new ideas gained from reading synthesizing ideas learned making a different ending
HIERARCHY OF QUESTIONS Discussed herein is the hierarchy of questions that the tachers usually ask regardless of the subjects being taught.This hierarchy is based on Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 1. Knowledge (Memory) Questions
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Trains the ability to recall, bring to mind appropriate materials learned previously such as specific names, facts, places, figures, events, concepts, principles and others. The correct answer is usually a verbatim repetition of knowledge acquired from a specific source. Typical Knowledge questions:
When was the Katipunan founded?
Who founded the Katipunan?
Identify the people involved in the Philippine Revolution.
Enumerate the demands of the La Liga Filipina. o Key words: name, tell, list, describe, recall, state, define, identify
2. Comprehension Questions Train a student to understand oral and written communications and make use of them. Comprehension questions may be manifested by the students in the following ways:
The student can express ideas in his own words. The student can separate the essential from the non-essential. The student can establish relationships among things The student can extrapolate or predict an event from a trend or pattern The student can make inferences or give the probable consequences of events.
Typical comprehension questions: 1. Explain in your own words the El Niño ang La Niña Phenomena. 2. Compare and contrast the atmosphere of the Earth and Saturn. 3. Predict what will happen to the Philippines under the Estrada presidency. Key words: extrapolate, explain, compare, predict, illustrate, infer, b estimate. 3. Application Questions Require the students to transfer what they have learned to new situations with little or no supervision. The student is expected to put some skills into practice, solve problems and construct something. Typical application questions:
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1. Which of the following best exemplifies asexual reproduction? 2. How do you express in algebraic equation – the age of the Earth is twice the age of the Moon? Key words: demonstrate, plan, solve, apply, build, develop, construct 4. Analysis Questions Require a student to breakdown an idea into its parts, to distinguish these parts and know their relationships to one another. The student is able to distinguish relevant from irrelevant data, a fact from a generalization, an assumption from a conclusion and select facts which are essential to support hypothesis. Typical analysis questions:
What part of the essay is the conclusion? What part or parts support the stated conclusion? What part of the essay is factual and what part is hypothetical? What are the fallacies in the arguments presented?
Keywords: classify, distinguish, discriminate, categorize, analyze, detect 5. Synthesis Questions The student puts together or integrates a number of ideas or facts into new arrangement. Some common focus of synthesis is the summary of the lesson either written or oral, a proposal, a plan of action, a short story play, a bulletin board display, a literary-musical program and the like. Typical symthesis questions:
How can you help improve our economy?
What are the alternative crops in order to cushion the effects of the El Niño phenomenon in our agriculture?
What plans can you propose to make the centennial celebration more meaningful?
Key words: propose a plan, formulate a solution, develop, create, make up, summarize 6. Evaluation Questions The students appraise, criticize or judge the worth of an idea, a statement or a plan on the basis of a set of criteria provided to them or which they themselves have developed. Typical evaluation questions:
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1, Is it good for the Filipinos to ratify the VFA? 2. Are you in favor of amending the present constitution? 3. Evaluate the achievements of the Ramos administration. Key words: select, judge, evaluate, decide, which do you prefer LESSON PLANNING Effective classroom management deends on a large measure on the teacher’s ability to plan interesting, student-centered, multi-activity lessons to promote a high degree of student involvement and maximum participation. Lesson planning is a vital part of teaching for all the various elements involved in instruction, such as objectives content or subject matter, instructional procedures, evaluation and related matters are given due attention. LESSON PLAN Lesson Plan is the term applied to the statement of objectives to be realized and the methods to be used in the attainment of such objectives within the specified time. Importance of Lesson Planning
Helps the teachers to be systematic and orderly.
Delimits the field to be taught for a certain class period.
Prevents waste and unnecessary repetitions of lessons already taken up.
Forces consideration of objcetives, selection of subject matter, selection of procedures, planning of activities and preparation of tests serve as an inventory of what the children have already learned.
Component of a Lesson Plan 1. Objective – States the aims which the lesson seeks to achieve. It must be Specific. Measurable, Attainable, Results-Oriented or Realistic and Time-Bounded (SMART). 2. Subjec Matter – States the topics or the titles of selectin, books used and the page numbers concerned. We also indicate the materials and value to be infused. 3. Learning Activities – These are the different activities to be undertaken to realize the objectives. 4. Evaluation – The test we usually give to determine whether the students have mastered the lessons. The part of the lesson plan that gives us feedback.
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5. Assignment – The teacher provides the topics for discussion in their next meeting or the additional activities to reinforce student learning. SAMPLE LESSON PLAN IN GRAMMAR 1. OBJECTIVE – must be specific, measurable, and attainable, and within the allotted time. 2. SUBJECT MATTER – states the titles of selection, books used and the page numbers concerned, states also the value stressed. 3. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Review – Recall of the past lesson.
Identification exercises – Unlock the new structure/vocabulary which will be used in the presentation material through the usual procedure, like showing pictures, giving situations, doing certain actions, etc.
Presentation – Present the new structure/vocabulary through any of the following presentation materials – a dialog, a story, a paragraph, a comic strip, a song, a poem, a letter, an advertisement, etc.
D. Comprehensive Check-up – Ask a number of comprehension questions which aims at the following: 1. To check the student’s understanding of the presentation material. 2. To give the students experience in using the new language structure/vocabulary E. Practice – Give at least 3 communication situations/experiences which maximize students participation and their meaningful use of the new language structure/vocabulary. Some ways to maximize student participation are the use of the following:
small group technizque dyadic exchange milling around picture charts/chart exercises real objects/cutouts/pictures dialogs/stories games /riddles / contests,etc.
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F. Generalization – Have some sentences containing the new structure written on the board or on a chart. Help the student analyze the sentences through questions, the answer to which will lead to the generalization(s). Make generalizations as simple as possible. G. Application 1. Oral – Conduct exercises similar to those under practice 2. Written – Give situation similar to those given during the oral application, have all the students write a sentence at their seats in answer to your question. Ask two students to write their sentences on the board. After everyone has finished writing, have all the students check the boardwork with your guidance. Have them also check their own sentences. If time permits, give additional situations to elicit written answers from the students. 4. FORMATIVE TEST – Give at least 5 items which are congruent with the objective. To make the students familiar with the kind of response expected of them, make at least one of the practice exercises in the lesson proper of the same type as the formative test. As much as possible, items should be related to each other, that is, they treat of the same experience or situation. 5. ASSIGNMENT – This should be an outgrowth of the lesson, not some writing task which is new or strange to the pupils. SAMPLE LESSON PLAN IN LITERATURE I. OBJECTIVE – Make this specific, measurable and attainable within the allotted time. Choose a comprehension or a study skill. II. SUBJECT MATTER – Write the title of selections and books to be used, indicating the page numbers. State also the value stressed. III. LEARNING ACTIVITIES A. Unlocking of difficulties – Unlock unfamiliar vocabulary/concepts in the selection through: 1. Rea objects/pictures/cut-outs 2. Gestures/facial expressions/demonstrations
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3. Situations/short paragraphs 4. Context clues 5. The dictionary, etc. B. Motivation –The motivation question should be: 1. A “big question” – “big” in the sense that it illicits many different answers from the students based on their experience. 2. Related to the story to be read and can be answered without the students reading the story. Motive question – It should have characteristics: 1. It is parallel to the motivation question, if possible, so that there is a smooth flow from motivation question to motive question. Example of parallel question: Motivation question – what game do you and your brothers/sisters play? Motive question – what games did the speaker and his brother play in a poem? 2. It is simple and easy to answer – just means to give the student a motive for reading. 3. The students can answer it only after reading the selection C. Silent reading of the selection/oral reading of the story D. Discussion 1. Answering the motive question 2. Answering the 4-D question which gives students a whole grasp of what the selection is about. E. Specific skills development (The skills in the objectives) 1. The selection just read can serve as springboard for the development of the skill and be the material for the first exercise. 2. Additional exercises can be taken from other materials. IV. FORMATIVE TEST Same as in the lesson plan in grammar V. ASSIGNMENT Same as in the lesson plan in grammar
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Consider the Following in Critiquing a Lesson Plan
Congruence of instructional activities used with the lesson objective(s)
Congruence of evaluation measures with the lesson objectives(s)
Appropriateness and adequacy of activities/instructional aids used.
Integration of two or more communicational skills.
Use of communication situations.
Maximum pupil participation with the teacher as facilitator
Correctness of English used.
Infusion of values.
CHILDREN WHO ARE VICTIMS OF UNEQUAL TEACHING 1. Children who are undertaught
Fail to learn what they could learn
Fall behind others and become discouraged
Develop dislike for school
May escape from schooling at earliest oppoturnity
Find themselves boxed in by lack of education 2. Children who are overtaught
Waste time in overlearning
Become board with school
May develop distaste for learning
May fail to find themselves 3. Children who are mistaught
Limit interest to subjects taught to them
May learn to dislike or fear some subjects
Fail to develop broad base for further learning
Grow up half educated 4. Children who are not taught Respond less to their environment May develop prejudices against the arts Function in a limited way in some aspects of human relationships
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May remain ignorant of important realms of human experience THE TWELVE THINGS TO DO TO IMPROVE THE GRADE OF OUR PUPILS
Let him or her know you are interested.
An important key, surround him with books.
Happiness is a vital ingredient of success.
An adequate place for study.
Help your child acquire sound study habits.
Help your child believe in himself.
Increase your child’s interest in learning
Teach your child to use reference books.
Help your child read better.
Help your child learn to write legibly and fast.
Help your child learn to listen.
Help your child learn to take tests.
TEN COMMANDMENTS OF TEACHING
THOU SHALT KNOW THYSELF
THOU SHALT KNOW THY STUDENTS
THOU SHALT KNOW THY SUBJECT MATTER WELL
THOU SHALT RESPECT THY STUDENTS AS PERSONS
THOU SHALT MOTIVATE THY STUDENTS TO LEARN
THOU SHALT COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY
THOU SHALT CIRCULATE
THOU SHALT AVOID TALKING TOO MUCH IN CLASS
THOU SHALT EVALUATE LEARNING OUTCOMES REGULARLY
THOU SHALT DO WHAT THOU SAYEST
THE 8 be ATTITUDES OF A TEACHER 1. BE COMPETENT 5. BE OPEN 2. BE CONCERNED 6. BE PATIENT 3. BE CREATIVE 7. BE POSITIVE 4. BE CONSISTENT 8. BE YOURSELF
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LIST OF BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES (TALAAN NG MGA LAYUNING PANGKAUGALIAN) I. COGNITIVE (PANGKABATIRAN) At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to: (Sa katapusan ng aralin, ang mga mag-aaral ay inaasahang): A. Knowledge objectives (Mga layuning pangkabatiran) 1. Recall, recognize data, concepts and generalization related to….. (Nagkagugunita, nakakikilala ng mga datos, mga kaisipan at paglalahat na nauugnay sa…..) 2. Deduce that… (Nakahihinuha…..) 3. Identify or recognize….. (Nakakikilala…..) 4. Tell the difference between…… (Nasasabi ang pagkakaiba ng…..) B. Inquiry and skills objectives (Mga layunin ukol sa pagsisiyasay at kasanayan) 1. Explain how…. (Nakapagpapaliwanag kung paano…..) 2. Describe and compare….. (Nakapaglalarawan at nakapaghahambing…) 3. Demonstrate how…… (Nakapagpapakita ng paraan kung paano…..) 4. Distinguish…..from…. (Nakakikilala ng pagkakaiba…..sa….) 5. Consider and use …… (Naisasaalang-alang at nagagamit…) 6. Plan carefully and….. (Maingat na nakapagbabalak at ….) 7. Conceive varied ways of …. (Nakapag-iisip ng ibat-ibang paraan…) 8. Formulate effectively….. (Nakapagbubuo nang mabisa ng….) 9. Give evidences or proofs of… (Nakapagbibigay ng mga katibayan o mga patunay ng….) 10. Weigh the validity of….. (Napagtitimbang-timbang ang katumpakan ng…..) 11. Use a variety of …… (Nakagagamit ng ibat-ibang……) 12. Locate, gather, appraise, summarize and report… (Nakahahanap, nakatitipon, Nakapagbibigay -halaga, nakapaglalago at nakapag-uulat….)
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13. Read …. Material critically (Nababasa nang masusi ang kagamitang…..) 14. Compare, interpret and abstract… (Nakapaghahambing, nakapagbibigay kahulugan at nakapagbubuod…..) 15. Conclude from available supporting evidences that…. (Nakapaghihinuha buhat sa mga nakukuhang katibayan pantulong na……) 16. Express ideas effectively in…… (Nakapagpapahayag ng mga kaisipan ng mabisa sa…..) 17. Organize materials from several sources as…. (Nakabubuo ng mga kagamitan buhat sa ilang mapagkukunan gaya ng…..) 18. Note sequences of events….. (Nabibigyang-pansin ang pagkakasund-sunod ng mga pangyayari….) 19. Examine critically…… (Nakapagsisiyasat nang masusi….) 20. Recall experiences pertinent to….. (Nakagugunita ng mga karanasang may kinalaman sa….) 21. State… clearly (Nakapagpapahayag ng…. nang maliwanag…..) 22. Consider every aspecs of ……. (Naisasaalang-alang ang lahat ng panig/bahagi ng….) 23. Select materials relevant to… (Nakapipili ng mga kagamitang may kaugnayan sa..) 24. Classify….. (Nakapagsusuri…..) 25. Analyze….. (Nakapag-uuri ng…….) 26. Differentiate …….from…. (Nakikita ang pagkakaiba 27. Define…..clearly…. (Nabibigyang kahulugan ang…..nang naliliwanagan…) 28. Infer or deduce….. (Nahihinuha or napaghuhulo .. ) 29. Correlate……. (Nakapag-uugnay…..) 30. Arrange……. (Nakapagsasaayos or naisasaayos….) 31. Discuss…… (Intelligently…. (Natatalakay ng boung talino……)
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32. Establish…… (Nakakapagpapatunay/Napananatili…..) 33. Emphasize that…. (Nabibigyang-diin na….) 34. Predict that…… (Nahuhulaan na…….) 35. Specify…… (Natutukoy/Natitiyak…….) 36. Observe carefully….. (Nakapagmamasid nang masusi….) 37. Record accurately……Nakapagtatalang tumpak….) 38. Attain……. (Naaabot/Natatamo…..) 39. Examine carefully….. (Nasisiyasat na mabuti….) 40. Disseminate….. (Nakapagpapalaganap/Napalalaganap…..) II. AFFECTIVE (ATTITUDES, APPRECIATIONS, IDEALS AND INTERESTS) PANDAMDAMIN (MGA SALOOBIN, PAGPAPAHALAGA, MITHIIN AT KAWILIHAN) At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: (Sa katapusam ng aralin, ang mga mag-aaral ay inaasahang): 1. Assume responsibility for ….. (Naisasabalikat ang pananagutan para sa ….) 2. Utilize….wisely and effectively (Nakagagamit ng…….nang matino at mabisa) 3. Observe….strictly (Mahigpit na nakapagmamasid…..) 4. Listen critically and purposively….. (Nakalalahok nang masigla sa …..) 5. Participate actively in….. (Nakalalahok nang masigla sa …..) 6. Sustain interest in…… (Naipagpapatuloy ang kawilihan sa….) 7. Share…..with… (Nakibabahagi…..sa….) 8. Tolerate….. (Nagpapaubaya/nagpaparaya……) 9. Comply with….. (Nakasusunod sa……) 10. Find pleasure in…….. (Nakatatamo ng kasiyahan sa…..)
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11. Form sound judgement …..(Nakapagpasiya ng tumpak …) 12. Venerate …..(Nagbibigay- pitagan…..) 13. Control….. (Napipigil…..) 14. Equalize…. (Napagtitimbang….) 15. Appreciate… (Napapahalagahan /Nakapagpapahalaga…) 16. Appreciate… (Humahanga….) 17. Follow…. (Nasusunod/Nakasusunod….) 18. Adjust to…. (Naibabagay…../ Naiaangkop….) 19. Value…… (Pahalagahan…../Napahalagahan….) 20. Satisfy…. (Nasisiyahan…./Nabibigyang kasiyahan….) 21. Maintain…. (Napananatili….) 22. Visit…… (Nadadalaw ……) 23. Conserve….. (Nakapangangalaga…../Napangangalagaan….) 24. Show respect for…. (Nakapagpapamalas ng paggalang sa…) 25. Initiate worthwhile projects…. (Nakapagsisimula ng mga proyektong kapaki- Pakinabang ….) 26. Commemorate….. (Alalahanin…../Gunitain…..) 27. Strengthen …..(Napalalakas …./Napatitibay….) 28. Intensify …. (Napasisidhi…. /Napatitindi…) 29. Sharpen (Napapatalas …../ (Napatatalim…) 30. Exert more effort in….. (Nakapagsisikap nang higit sa….) 31. Generate…. (Nakalilikha…/Nakapagbibigay……) III. PSYCHOMOTOR/MANIPULATIVE (PANGKASANAYAN/SAYOKOMOTOR O PAGKAKAUGNAY NG KAISIPAN AT KILOS)
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At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: (Sa katapusam mg aralin, ang mga mag-aaral ay inaasahang :)
Construct…… (Nakayayari…./Nakabubuo…..)
Build…. (Nakagagawa…../ Nakapagtatayo….)
Manipulate…… (Nakakahawak……/ Nakagagawa….)
Make use of…. (Nakagagamit nang…..)
Perform….. (Nakagagawa…../ Nakagaganap…..)
Measure…..(Nakasusukat….)
Handle……(Nakakahahawak…..)
Execute…..(Naisasakatuparan…/Naisasagawa…)
Install…..(Nakapagkakabit…/Nakapaglalagay….)
Copy…..(Nakasisipi…./Nakakukopya….)
Operate…….(Nakapagpapaandar…./Nakapagpapalakad…..)
Connect…….(Nakapagdudugtong……/Nakapag-uugnay-ugnay…)
Experiment on...(Nakagagawa ng pagsubok sa../Nakapag-eeksperimento sa…)
“Teaching is the noblest of all professions. Teachers should be proud of their calling, Knowing that not all people are capable Of being teachers, for many are called, But few are chosen.” C.D. DUKA
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TEACHING STRATEGIES Teaching has been defined in so many ways by different authors, educators and experts in the field of education, however for the purpose of this material, we will define teaching as: A FULL TIME TASK. It demands all the time, patience, strength, tolerance, understanding, endurance and sense of humor from the person who desires to be a teacher. AN ARTISTIC ACHIEVEMENT. This is reflected in the teacher’s daily projection, animation, creative planning, sincerity and enduring patience. A PROCESS OF PRAISE AND ENCOURAGEMENT. This involves loving, disciplining, helping, guiding, criticizing and accepting the child. A PROCESS OF TRANSFORMATION. This involves guiding the learner from the legend to the truth, from the unknown to the known, from the pretentious to reality and from the unworthy to the meritorious. SELF SATISFACTION AND FULFILLMENT. This is obtained from the swee smile of the child who was helped by the teacher, from his daily contributions to the classroom, and from the achievement of an expectation. This segment of the reviewer discusses some of the most common teaching strategies and techniques that the teachers usually employ to deliver the goods to their clientele – the students, in an efficacious manner. However, it is an accepted tenet and a known fact that there is no single best teaching methodology that a teacher can utilize so as to make his students learn, that is why teacher must use his prudence in the choice of appropriate and effective teaching strategy to attain his ultimate end – helping his students learn the lessons. NOTE, ORGANIZE, SUMMARIZE Students may need help in learning to apply reading skills to study techniques when preparing for class discussions, tests, and report writing. They can improve their comprehension if they learn to see how ideas are connected in an entire piece of writing.
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1. Have the student skim an assigned passage to get at general idea of the content and overall organization. Ask them to discuss the article briefly as a group, then assess how well they have understood the whole passage. 2. Instruct the students to make notes in the margins about important ideas within and across paragraphs. You might model this step with a transparency of the reading and and an example of your own notes for the first paragraph or so. One possibility is to give the students a chance to try writing marginal notes about the key ideas for one paragraph and then show them your model or elicit their suggestions. 3. Have students work on their own, making brief marginal notes in their own words of ideas from each paragraph. Special care shold be taken to recognize relationships among ideas extending across paragraphs. 4. Divide students into pairs or small groups. Have them compare their marginal notes. After they have made good headway, hand out blank transparencies to each group and have them outline the passage or part of the passage on the transparency. 5. Show outlines from two or more groups, simultaneously if possible. Have students compare similarities and differences with their own group outlines. Encourage questions about why certain points were or were not included in the outline. After discussing the outlines, have students assess how their comprehension change from the first cursory reading to the second during which they took their marginal notes. 6. Using a student generated outline, have the students summarize the article orally or in writing. Ask the students not to look at the original while they are summarizing. These summaries can be used to test comprehension. 7. As students become used to this procedure, they can begin writing and comparing their own outlines, instead of notes, with those of their classmates. 8. Semantic maps or other representations of organizational structure may be substituted for outlines. 9. This series of reading activities should be practiced several times throughout a term so that the students begin to acquire independent note-taking strategies.
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10. If students are not familiar without outlining or mapping techniques, teachers may have students take marginal notes to fill up in partially completed outlines or topic maps. Guidance through procedure should gradually decrease. 11. Not all passengers lend themselves to paragraph by paragraph analysis. Students may need some help incorporating ideas from two or more paragraphs into one section of an outline. JIGSAW READING This activity has been around for a long time and takes various forms, regardless of the type of jigsaw reading, the activity is enjoyable and helps students to conceptualize the reading passage by looking at a small part and then fitting individual pieces together. It works well as a pre-reading activity. Procedure 1. Divide the passage by paragraphs and make copies for students. 2. Arrange the class into groups according to the number of paragraphs in the reading passage. 3. Give each group a complete set of passage, making sure that each person has a different paragraph. 4. Tell the students to put the paragraphs together in an appropriate order. Have them begin by reading their own paragraphs and then telling the other members of the group what they are about. 5. Ask the groups to share with the class the ordering that they have agreed on. Discuss the reasons for the various orderings the groups selected. Set a limit – this turns the activity into a contest. For basic readers, do the activity with scrambled sentences instead of paragraphs. Distribute a copy of the original reading passage to each student. ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE, WHO DONE IT? Newspaper articles, especially those related to criminal or police actions, offer students a variety of topics, styles, and levels of difficulty. The information they contain usually includes elements related to time, place and action. Leaners must not only
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understand the information but be able to reconstruct it chronologically because journalists present the current state of affairs in the opening paragraph and then proceed to narrate the events that led to it. Procedure 1. Select articles a few paragraphs in Length. Long articles can be shortened, but they should contain enough information to make the story coherent. 2. Give the students a copy and ask them to read it. 3. Either write a chart on the board for them to complete, or reproduce it as a handout, Try to have a chart with at least two labels: time and action. 4. As soon as the students have read the article and seen the chart, ask them to fill it in, taking care to organize the information in chronological order, starting either with the most recent time or with the most remote. Have them work individually or in pairs. 5. After a few minutes, when most or all of the students have finished, have them compare their charts. 6. Complete the chart on the board following the directions the students give you. At this stage, it is important to comment on different words used to fill in the chart or on any differences in how students completed it. Reconstructing the story allows students to discuss their different interpretations of it. At this point, the students have all the elements of the story and are ready to narrate it starting from the beginning. Ask them to retell the story or rewrite it. LITERATURE: MAKING STORIES THEIR OWN When students engage in activities requiring them to reread stories. Their understanding at the literal and interpretative levels improves greatly. Ethnic folk tales, and other stories can make rereading enjoyable. Procedure
Pictomap. After they read or listen to a story, ask students to:
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- draw a map indentifying where major scenes took place - retell what happened at each place - cut out circles to draw the episodes as inset pictures - glue pictures onto the map - draw arrows to indicate event sequence
o They can go back to the story at any point of the project. This activity works well with adventure stories. Structures covered include sequence and cause effect.
Point-of-view. Using a talk show format, have students take on the roles of guests and host. As they work together to plan for questions and answers, encourage students to express their feelings and viewpoint as though they were the real characters. This activity allows to students to understand a story from an insider’s point of view. It also enables students to consider values and interpretations of events as they consider various perspectives. Role play during the actual presentation time is a wonderful opportunity for ESL students to play with ways or speaking.
Mural. Ask students to create a definite scene that best represents the story. It is necessary to emphasize careful reading or library research if necessary to get the details right. The main thrust of the projects is to interpret the tone and mood of the story. Students can experience how to create desirable effects using different media such as paint, chalk, finger print and three dimensional paper art. (Use dark paper as background, avoid white.)
Sculpture. Give clay to students to create a solid symbol for the story. It is important to have two or three students work together because through discussion they can come up with a theme or underlying message of the story. After the sculpture is done, they need to explain orally or in written form how their sculpture is a symbol for the story.
READ AND DRAW This activity aids comprehension by allowing students to look at the reading from a different point of view. It also encourages the sharing of insights into the article by students. Procedure.
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1. Divide the reading passage into five or six easy to read parts and write each part on an index card. Make sure the reading is one that lends itself well to drawing and make sure each parts has an element in it that can be drawn. 2. Divide the students into as many groups as you have parts of the reading. Explain the acitivity. Have the students working together in small groups read their part of the story and then draw what they have read. 3. Give one piece of paper and a pen to each group. Remember, students should work cooperatively. 4. After each group has drawn their portion of the story, post the drawings. 5. Have a representative from each group to explain the drawing. Tips 1. Try a reading passage that is not so easy to draw. You’ll be surprised at the srudents creativity. 2. If you have not done cooperative learning activities in the class before, you might want to introduce the concept of cooperative learning. READING RELAY In this strategy, which focuses on speed reading, skimming and scanning skills, students compete against a clock, but not against one another, if you have not done cooperative learning activities in the class before, you might want to introduce the concept of cooperative learning before you try this activity. Procedure 1. Divide the reading passage into easy-to-read parts. The students work in group, so make sufficient sets for the number of students in the class. For example, if you have 12 students and the story has three parts, make four sets. 2. Make up any kind of comprehensive questions you wish for the entire reading passage. 3. Divide the students into small groups. The number of students in each group should equal the number of reading parts you have in each set. 4. Explain the activity. Each member of the group receives a different part of the reading. They read that part as many times as they can before the signal. At the signal, the students pass the reading passage to the student on their right. This contin ues until
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each student has had an opportunity to read each part of the passage. 5. Hand out the reading to each group. Tell the students to start reading as you begin to time them. The length of time you let the students read depends on their ability and how much you want to focus on skimming skills and reading speed. 6. After the students have finished reading all the parts, collect them and give each group one copy of the comprehension questions. Ask the students to work as a group to anwer the questions. 7. Give each student the entire reading passage and ho over the comprehension questions. CHOOSING A DIFFERENT TITLE This activity is a good way of getting students to realize that authors have many options to choose from in selecting a title and that the actual title used will reflect the taste or bias of the author or editor of the newspaper or magazine in which the article appears. Procedure 1. Locate a stuitable article from a newspaper or magazine. The article should have a title and be about 250-350 words long. Prepare a list of 10 other titles for the article 5 “good” titles (i.e. titles focusing on the main idea of the article) and 5 “wrong” ones (i.e., distracters focusing on supporting details). You will need one copy of the article and one list of titles for each student. 2. Distribute the article and the list of titles. Divide the class into pairs. 3. Tell the students that they are to read the title of the article and the article itself. Then they are too look at the list of titles and choose 5 or more that are also good. Then they should number the titles from 1 to 5 starting with the one they think is best. 4. Have students work in pairs, choosing and ranking 5 titles. 5. (Optional) Have one student from each part report to the class Tips 1. As a variation, remove the original title from the article and include it among the titles on the list. Have students guess which title was actually used by the author.
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2. As an additional step, ask students to say what is wrong with the other titles in the list. 3. Another option is to have the entire class vote on what they think is the best title for the article. PIECING TOGETHER IDEAS Making distinction between general ideas and supporting details is an important part of reading comprehension. Strip stories are an enjoyable way for students to see the relationship between the bigger and smaller pieces of a text. Procedure 1. Select appropriate reading material for the class. 2. Select sentences or paraphrase portions of thereading passage and write them on strips of paper. Prepare a set of corresponding strip that say either “Main idea” or “supporting detail”. The two sets of strips must correspond exactly. The total number of strips should equal the number of students in class. 3. As the students read the material, devote class time to enhancing comprehension until the material is well understood. 4. Have students
Draw a strip from a list
Work together to matvh the strips with the quotations to the strips with the labels.
Stand in a line (with a strip) in the order that the sentences appeared in the reading passage.
Read out loud, in sequence, what is written on the individual strip.
Tips 1. For a large class, use two sets of strips and have two groups form two different lines simultaneously.
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2. Make the activity more difficult by requiring any reading material to be put away before the strips are drawn from the hat so students may not refer to it during the exercise. 3. It is important to have covered the material well before attempting this activity, but it is a nice way to conclude work on a reading passage. NEWSPAPER POSTERS Understanding the content of the sections in a newspaper is essential for proceeding in a course that uses newspapers extensively. English language newspapers also give students access to more of the English speaking world around them. This activity is a great ice breaker at the start of a term. Procedure 1. Clip an assortment of articles and other items from newspapers. Be sure to include enough items from all parts of the papers for all the groups to have plenty to choose from. 2. Provide a list of all categories to be included in the posters. For example: front page, metro, business, sports, lifestyles, entertainment, classifieds. 3. Put the students into groups. Each group uses a poster board and creates a poster that represent the various items found in the different sections, choosing from the articles and items you provide. Ask the students to label the categories. MIXED UP COMPREHENSION Lower level reading skills such as decoding and graphic cue recognition should be learned along with higher level reading skills such as applying prio knowledge to the reading passage. Procedure 1. Make up 5-10 comprehension questions on the board on the reading passage selected. 2. Write the comprehension questions on the board or have the questions prepared on a handout. 3. Have students write a reading passage that answers the questions. The students can use their imaginations and write anything but the passage must be able to answer every question.
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4. Read the stories out loud 5. Compare with original reading READING ROULETTE It is important to recognize topic sentences in paragraphs for reading and writing activities, as they are a key to understanding the text. This activity combines the search for topic sentences with speed reading and peer correction. Students also have a break from reading materials in textbooks. They read their own material and feel a sense of pride. They laugh a lot as they read what their classmates have written. They have fun. Procedure 1. Create groups of three to five students. All groups should have equal numbers. 2. Give all students the same topic sentence (complete or incomplete): It was a dark and stormy night and….. 3. Have students write for 3 minutes. 4. After 3 minutes, have them pass their papers to the classmate on their right (within their group). 5. Give students 4 minutes to read what was written by their classmate and then continue to write from where their classmate left off. 6. Give them 5 mins to repeat step 5. 7. Increase the time after each exchange of papers and keep repeating step 5. 8. Return the papers to the original writer, who will write the conclusion.
9. If there are five students in a group, the total time spent on reading and writing should be 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 = 33 minutes.
The first 3 minutes and the last 8 minutes will be utilized by the original write,
who will write the introduction and conclusion. The four other group members will write paragraphs.
10. Each student now has a student generated piece of reading (a total of six paragraphs).
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Students can correct essays with teacher monitoring. ONE MORE TIME, WITH FEELING Learners reading aloud often do so with little effect. This activity can help them develop expression. The feelings they choose may or may not be related to the text, it is quite possible, for example, to read and exciting passage while you’re retired. Procedure 1. With the class, brainstorm a list of emotions and physical states (e.g excited, happy, tired, bored, and hung over). Write them on the board. 2. Have learners select the paragraph or paragraphs they will read. They also choose one of the feelings listed on the board. Tell them they will read the selection as if they felt that way. 3. They practice reading the text aloud (to themselves) 4. In pairs or small groups, they lead the selection partners try to guess the feeling. THINGS TO DO BEFORE READING Before students begin reading any passage, they need to preview it to see what they already know in terms of content and vocabulary. Previewing makes for smoother reading and smoother reading lessons. Any one and the following directions, or a combination may be used each time a new passage is introduced. Procedure 1. Ask students to brainstorm for answers to the following questions, then write ideas on the board. - Look at the title and the headings for each section. What do you think this passage is going to be about? - Look at the pictures. What do you think this passage is going to be about? - Read the first and last paragraphs and the first sentence of each paragraph. What do you think is this passage going to be about? - Scan the passage and cross out all the words you don’t know. After you read the passage again carefully, look up the words in dictionary.
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- After looking at title, picture and so on, brainstorm the specific words expect to see in the passage. - After looking at the title and pictures, make up some questions you think this passage might answer. - What kind of passage is this? ( fiction ?Non-fiction-what kind?) Why would somebody read this? For information? Pleasure? 2. Choose words from the passage and write them on the board. Ask students to scan the passage and encircle them (to give pre-teaching of vocabulary a task) 3. Tell a story about the ground of the reading passage, or summarize the passage itself. Ask students to take notes or draw a picture of the story as you speak. 4. Have everyone read the passage. Adopted from: An assortment of Interactvie Reading Recipes from New Ways in Reading, (1993). R. Day (Ed.).Alexandra, VA: TESOL Publications. Selected by Jeff Taschner, USIS English Teaching Fellow, 1993-94
TEACHING METHODS/STRATEGIES TEACHING STRATEGY
DEFINITION
Teaching method Ways of presenting instructional materials or conducting instructional activities
Activity A generic term that refers to any learning acitivity learners might engage in.
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Assessment A learning event specifically designed to asses the learners understanding of content or his/her ability ability to perform a skill or set of skills.
Brainstorming A learning event in which a group of learners spontaneously contribute ideas
Computer Assisted Instruction
Interactive instructional technique in which a computer is used to present instructional material, monitor learning, and select additional instructional material in accordance with individual learner needs.
Computer Simulation
Computer based representation of real situations or systems
Cooperative Learning
A learning technique in which the learners are members of an interdependent problem solving group in which they collaborate, share and delegate responsibilities, practice with others of varying abilities, and practice communicating with others.
Creative Response A learning event in which the learner provides a written response
Demonstration A learning event in which an individual demonstrates how to do something
Dialog Journals Log or notebooks used by more than one person for exchanging experiences, ideas, reflection-used most often in education as a means of sustained writing interaction between students and teachers at all educational levels and in second language and othe types of instruction.
Discovery Learning An inquiry-oriented learning event in which the learner discovers
Discussion/Debate Oral, and sometimes written, exchange of opinions usually to analyze,clarify, or reach conclusions about issues, questions or problems
Drill & Practice A learning event in which a learner repeats a particular skill in order to fix in his or her mind.
Experiential Learning
Learning by doing – includes knowledge and skills acquired outside of book/lecture learning situations through work, play and other life experiences. Experiential education includes adventure education, environmental education, and service learning
Field Trip A learning event that typically takes place outside of school grounds.
Game Typically a competition or contest that involves a demonstration of understanding of content or skill.
Guided Design Reasoning-centered instructional method developed by Charles E. Wales and Robert A. Stager that uses small-group techniques and prepared outline of decision making steps to guide students through the process of resolving open-ended problems
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Hands-On A learning event that engages learners in a practical application of content and skills
Inquiry Also referred to as scientific Inquiry; refers to activities in which learners develop knowledge and understanding of how scientists study the natural world.
Interdisciplinary Participation or cooperation of two or more disciplines.
Interview/Survey A learning event in which learners interview or survey others about a particular topic.
Introduction A learning event in which a topic is presented for the firs time
Kinesthetic A learning event that involves bodily movement
Laboratory A learning event in that involves practicing science skills and using scientific equipment.
Lecture A learning event in which one person explains a topic to the rest of the group or class, and this audience takes notes and listens.
Model & Simulation A learning event in which an educator or learner models or simulates a natural or physical phenomenon
Montessori Method Child centered approach to teaching, developed by Maria Montessori and most often used in the early childhood years,that features a wide range of graded, self –motivational techniques and materials specially designed to provide sensorimotor pathways to higher learning.
Multimedia Instruction
The integration of more than one medium in a presentation or module of instruction.
Museum Education (1)Those changes brought about in the individual through ideas suggested or communicated by museum materials and their arrangement. (2)The formal or informal educational program carried on by museums.
Peer Coaching A learning event in which one learner helps another learner.
Peer Response A learning event in which one learning gives written or verbal feedback to another learner
Peer Tutoring Instruction provided by a learner , or small group of learners, by direct interaction with a peer with appropriate training or experience
Play Typically refers to the manner in which a lot of early learning occurs
Presentation Typically refers to when a student explains or shows some content to a learning audience; similar to a lecture
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Problem Solving Occurs when learners work to determine the solution to a question raised for inquiry
Programmed Instruction
Instruction in which learners progress at their own rate using workbooks, textbooks, or electromechanical devices that provide information in discrete steps, test learning at each step, and provide immediate feedback about achievement.
Project-Based Learning
A task or problem engaged in by a learner or group of learners to supplement and apply classroom studies
Reading Occurs when a learner reads something
Reinforcement Refers to learning that is practices in order to remember or otherwise embed the content or skill in the mind
Research An activity in which learners investigate or collect information about a particular subject.
Review To study material again: to reexamine the learning that occurred during a unit of study
Role Playing The deliberate acting out of a role, (possibly a role that one woud notr normally occupy),as part of group therapy or of a learning session directed towards understanding that role or the situations with which this occupants have to cope.
Self Paced Learning
Referring to materials, learning, courses, etc where the student is free to learn at his own pace. That is, the speed of presentation of learning materials is not decided by a teacher, a machine, or other students in a group, e.g as in independent learning.
Simulation and games
The use of role playing by actors during the operation of a comparatively complex symbolic model of an actual of hypothetical social process; usually includes gaming and may be all man, man computer, or all computer operations
Thematic Approach Teaching approach that organizes subject matter around unifying themes
Visual Instruction Instruction with a great variety of illustrative materials such as visual slides, films, models, and specimens may be utilized as aids in pupil understanding or appreciation; not to be confused by sight saving.
Whole Language Approach
Method of integrating language arts’ across the curriculum’ that uses the real literature of various age groups and subject fields to promote literacy (i.e., reading, writing, speaking, listening, as well as thinking, skills.)
Writing A learning event in which the learner writes something.
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GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING GUIDANCE Guidance is defined in so many ways by different authors, educators and counsellors. According to Jones, Guidance involves personal help given by someone designed to asist the person to decide where he wants to go, what he wants to do, or how we can best acomplish his physical, social, intellectual, and personal assets and liabilities as confronted by particular situations, so that he can make wise and intelligent choices and embark upon suitable courses of action. On the other hand, Crow and Crow defined it as assistance made available to a person of any age so that he can manage his own life activities, develop his own point of view, make his own decisions and carry out his burdens., Philosophical/ Legal Bases of Guidance and Counselling The 1987 Constitutions states that “all educational institutions shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism , foster love humanity ,respect for human rights , appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country,teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and personal discipline , encourage critical and creative thinking , broaden scientific and technological knowledge , and promote vocational efficiency .”(Art. XIV Sec. 3(2). Education Act of 1982 or B.P. 232 provides that the ‘students have the right to school guidance and counseling services for making decisions and selecting the alternatives in the fields of work suited to their potentialities.” Purpose/Aims of Guidance
Help the individual achieve up to the level of his own capacity, gain personal satisfaction, and make his maximum contribution to society.
Assist the individual to solve his own problems as they arise.
Assist the individual to live a well-balanced life in all aspects.
Assist teachers in their efforts to understand students
Offer teachers systematic in-service training
Provide for referrals of students by teachers.
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Different Aspects of Guidance (Brewer)
o Educational guidance (in school, guidance focuses more on personal, educational and vocational aspects)
o Vocational guidance o Religious guidance o Guidance for home relationship o Guidance for citizenship o Guidance for leisure and recreation o Guidance in personal well-being o Guidance in right doing o Guidance in thoughtfulness and cooperation o Guidance in wholeness and cultural action o Community service guidance o Health guidance
Characteristics of a Good Guidance
Guidance is an integral part of the total education program of the school.
Reaches all members of the academic community
Provides for careful interpretation and dissemination of personal data to pupils, teachers, school officials, and parents.
Provides for coordinated activity and effort.
Recognizes and utilizes the role of the homeroom teacher.
Provides adequate records, personnel and housing of materials
Provides for a continuos in service education for teachers
Counselor’s relationship with counselee should be continuos
Basic Principles of Guidance (Crow and Crow)
Every aspect of the person’s personality constitutes a significant factor of his attitudes and behavior.
Individual differences must be recognized
The function of guidance is to help a person formulate and accept stimulating worthwhile, and attainable goals of behavior.
Guidance should be a continuos process
Guidance should be extended to all persons of all ages
Parents and teachers should have guidance responsibilities.
Specific guidance problems should be referred to qualified persons
Guidance program shoud be suited to individual and community needs
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Periodic appraisal should be made of the guidance program
Programs of individual evaluation and research must be conducted
Guidance workers need special preparation and training
Guidance workers should observe a code of ethics
One staff member of the school should be responsible for the guidance of each student
Counselor should be acquainted with all available guidance agencies/services
Guidance activities are of two kinds: group and individual; not all workers are competent in both
Guidance is concerned with prevention,not cure
Guidance is counsel, not compulsion
Disciplining pupils is not a part of guidance
Principle Underlying Guidance Work (Humphrey)
Take time to solve problems and make decisions.
Let the counselee develop his own insight
Consider most indivduals as average, normal persons.
Problems arise from situations
Problems are interrelated
Integration of effort is essential
Guidance must be an integral part of the organization
Student Personnel Services (SPS) – are those specific assistance which the school makes available to the pupil as part of its total program of personnel work. These include:
Admission services – assist students for the furtherance of interests, aptitudes, and needs. Scholastic orientation – acquaint students and parents of the school requirements for compliance and its ability to satisfy students’ personal, social, vocational, religious and scholastic needs Attendance services – promotes the daily presence of students and prevent truancy and dropouts.
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Financial services – aims at assisting needy students so that they may remain in school or at orienting them to budget their funds. Housing services – intends to help students obtain living facility conducive to furtherance of educational and personal goals Food service – provides well-balanced meal in school cafeteria
Health service – aims at preserving and maintaining students’ physical well-being Remedial service – intends to render special assistance to those students having deficiencies and difficulties in some subjects Guidance service – offers personal help to students to aid them in solving special problems and fulfilling their potentials Psychological service – gives assistance to students who manifest mental and emotional disturbance Spiritual service – provides opportunities for spiritual and moral development Recreational service – enriches leisure time activities in non-scholastic interest or co-curricular acitivities.
Vocational orientation – assist in attaining an adequate understanding of the world of work and in securing self-fulfilling position in that world Coordinating service – aims at harmonizing and synchronizing efforts of the administrators, teachers, guidance workers, and staff to achieve the goals of the educational system. Guidance Services – consist of identifiable activities concerned with assisting individuals to become self-directing in making and carrying out essential choices, plans and adjustments. These include: Individual Inventory service – designed to gather all reliable data, information and records and to assemble and compile these materials for their functional use. Informative service – makes available to pupils or students kinds of information not ordinarily provided through the instructional programs. Include vocational or educational choices or in personal and social adjustment. Counseling service – services offered not only by the counselor but also teachers and administrators.
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19. Placement service – helps the child secure the most effective relationship to a job or the next step in his educational or personal program. It may be educational, vocational and curricular in character. 20. Follow-up service – is concerned with what happens to pupils while in school or after they have left school. Methods and Techniques of Guidance The efficient guidance worker tries to get an accurate picture of the child/student she helps. Specific areas include: General Information, Health, achievement, aptitudes, Personal Adjustment, interest, Plans for the future and Family Background. Techniques for gathering information about these areas are: 1. Administrative records contain facts about each student’s background, health and school history. 2. Informal teacher reports can supply helpful guidance information gathered from observation. 3. Interviews with students and parents enrich information gathered from other sources. 4. Autobiographies may be required of intermediate pupils and above 5. Use of standardized tests reveal aptitudes and other characteristics which can serve as guide in improving the instructional program 6. Conducting survey through the use of questionnaire can cover a wide area of research and quite a number of respondents 7. Observation should be conducted by the teacher and the counselor in and out of the classroom 8. Anecdotal record should be prepared by the teacher on significant incident or event that happened to the student in school 9. Case study is the most comprehensive and thorough technique of gathering information about a person with a serious problem 10. Case conference is a cooperative conference devoted to the intensive study of an individual Role of the Teacher in Guidance (Lee and Pallone) 1. Know each student 2. Understand each student 3. Empathize with each student 4. Be warm to each student 5. Accept each student completely 6. Establish a friendly, permissive classroom climate. 7. Give each student the freedom both to be and to become 8. Utilize discipline to help each student grow and develop.
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Three aspects of discipline: A. Prophylactic – consist in the establishment of classroom conditions in which the pupil is assisted to self-actualization B. Remedial – involves assistance which helps in overcoming weaknesses and developing strengths. C. Punitive – include those functions intended forcibly to induce the student to modify his behavior 9. Make each lesson learner-centered. 10. Plan lessons jointly with students 11. Be alert to guidance “openings” during the course of the lesson 12. Foster the development of positive attitude 13. Assist each student to improve his study habits 14. Individualize teaching or adjust lessons/activities to individual differences 15. Utilize group techniques. 16. Serve as model Kinds of Teacher/Parent Conference 1. Direct contact would include face to face interviews and counseling; while indirect would include the child as the intermediary, the written note or telephone conversation. 2. Scheduled conference would include the uniform system of conference for all parents at a definite limited time. Unscheduled conference would include incidental school visitation, sometimes on invitation by the teacher and at other times spontatneous and informal. 3. In-school contact would include committee or child-study groups, parent-teacher meetings or special programs and assemblies Principles of Organization and Administration of Guidance Program
Prepare a clear out statement of objectives of the program of guidance services.
Determine precisely the functions of the guidance services program
Assign specific duties to those who are to participate in the program
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Give each person assigned to a task in guidance services authority commensurate with his responsibility
Setup a form organization that is best suited to the school’s purposes, personnel, size, financial resources, and other characteristics.
Guidance and Discipline Discipline means instructing the child in the ethical principles (right from wrong) Why or Why not, and How to decide and act according to principles. Discipline imposes external standards of control on the child’s conduct; but the end goal of discipline is to motivate the child to internalize self-discipline. Classification of Child-Rearing Practices 1. Authoritarian – views the child as a mini-adult which sets unrealistic expectations and goals for the child. This involves psychological manipulation and/or punishment. Authoritarian teachers/parents undermine values education because they:
criticize and find fault
shame, belittle, and tease negatively
nag and complain, believing only in their own opinion
treat the child with annoyance and impatience
communicate with anger, sarcasm, shouts, screams and a condescending tone without explanations or reasoning.
dominate, impose, pressure, demands and are over bearing
threaten, intimidate, punish, reward or bribe frequently
provoke and antagonize
establish overly rigid rules and limitations
may spank or use oher corporal punishments
2. Permissive- allows the child to grope through situations too difficult for him to cope with no guidance and control. This type of discipline works against values education because teachers:
o overindulge, spoil, pamper o give immediate gratification and let the child have his
own way o overprotect and shielf from work and responsibilities o encourage dependency behavior by doing for the
child what he can do for himself o avoid conflicts, ignore or let things pass without
teaching or guiding
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o 3. Ambivalent style occurs when:
o opposite or conflicting values exist in the parent/teacher himself
o consistency in good child-rearing practices begin to demand daily heroic effort of the parent/teacher, i.e when teachers fluctuate between using authoritarian and permissive techniques
o one set of moral values is followed in contrast with the other
o parental moral values do not coincide with the values of other authority figures or persons who influence the child, e.g teacer, peers, religious leaders, entertainers, political figures.
4. Role modeling – role is the part assumed by anyone and modeling is the art of one who acts as a standard of imitation. Parental or teacher modeling is that very special craft of knowing what or what not to say or do at the right time when dealing with a child in order to instruct and draw forth the best in the child. It requires sensitivity and demands the practice of virtues to be worthy of imitation Role modeling is worthy of imitation if the parents/teachers;
continually struggle to seek truth and do good set the example by practicing what they preach learn from mistakes, recify and explain are willing to change and improve preserve with optimism and determination given proof of the value and meaning of life pray to God’s grace and inspiration
COUNSELING Just like guidance, counselling is defined in various ways by different experts in the field. The American Psychological Association (APA) defined counselling as helping individuals towards overcoming obstacles for personal growth. Jones on the other hand, considered counselling as an enabling process designed to help an individual come to terms with his life as it is and ultimately to grow to greater maturity through learning to take responsibility and to make decision for him. Arbuckle, defined it as an interview or conference between a student and some members of the school staff for the purpose of considering some problems of the student and endeavoring to decide on some desirable courses of actions. While Gombs
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viewed it as an attempt to aid the individual by assisting him to recorganization of attitudes, feelings and emotion such that he can make optimal use of his abilities and physical endownments. Finally, Rogers looked at it as a definitely structured relationship which allows the client to gain an understanding of himself to a degree which enables him to take positive steps in the light of his new orientation. There is no question as to who defined in a comprehensive and meaningful way, because from their definitions they all agree that counseling is an activity in which all facts are gathered together and all the experiences of the student are focused on the particular problem to be solved by him, and he is given a direct and personal help in solving the problem. Purposes of Counseling (Dusmoor and Miller) The primary purpose of counseling is to assist the individual in self-realization. This involves helping to understand what he can do and what he should do to strengthen his best qualities, to handle his difficulties rationally rather than to be driven by unconscious forces, to find suitable channels for his emotions and to move toward his more adaptable self.
Give students information on matters important to his success.
Get information about the student which will be of help in solving his problem.
Establish a feeling of mutual understanding between the student and the teacher
Help student work out a plan for solving his difficulties.
Help student know himself better, his interest, abilities, aptitudes and opportunities
Assist the student in planning for his educational and vocational choices.
Goals of Counseling (Blackman and Silberman)
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Specific steps to be followed in establishing counseling goals and methods to be used to bring about changes.
1. Problem definition. Take the initial statement of the client and determine where when, and with whom the inappropriate behavior occurs. The behavior of the client may be observed in the actual situation
2. Development and social history. Used in identifying areas of success and
failure competencies and deficiencies, interpersonal relationship patterns, adjustive behaviors, and problem areas.
3. Establishing specific goals of counseling. Goals of counseling must be stated
in specific terms, that is, in terms of particular behavior that need to be changed, which may be different for each client. The counselor and the client must agree on the goal that they want to achieve and concur that through counseling, there us a possibility of achieving it.
4. Determine methods to be used to bring out desired change. The methods
used may be different depending upon the client and the problem brought to the counseling situation.
Basic Principles of Counseling (Ordonez)
1. Counseling decisions are not compromises
2. The responsibility for these decisions must rest with the counselee.
3. Counseling with inadequate information can result in dangerous decisions
4. Couseling techniques must not be confused with administrative technique.
5. When the case warrants it, the services of psychologist must be sought.
6. Counseling is basically a learning function, subject in a large measure to the same laws of learning applicable in the classroom.
General Situations that Demand Counseling (Jones) 1. When the student needs:
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1.1 Not only information but also an interested interpretation of such information which meets his own personal difficulties. 1.2 A wiser listener with broader experience than his own, to whom he can recount his difficulties 2. When the student is unaware that he has a certain problem but unable to cope with it intelligently. 3. When the student is suffering from a major maladjustment or handicap and which demands careful diagnosis. 4. When the counselor has access to facilities to which the student does not have any access. Essentials of the Counseling Process (Strang) Relationship. The counselee has a deep sense of responsibility for taking initiative and using available resources within himself to help himself. The counselor must project warmth, responsiveness, and acceptance of the person as he is and as he can become. Basic features of relationship: a. Empathy – the power or state of imagining oneself to be another and so of his ideas and feelings or the ability to experience another person’s world as if it were his own without even losing that “as if” quality. b. Warmth – an unconditional regard-to prize the person-respect for people for what they are; a relationship in which both you and the other person are to learn from each other. c. Genuineness – regarded as open communication. The counsellor must communicate with directness and openness. He must present himself as he genuinely feels at the time of contact. Encourage the client to stop pretending, denying, hiding, concealing his thoughts and feelings.
Atmosphere. Counselor creates atmosphere of freedom and acceptance so that the client feels free to be himself and will have the courage to face his feelings.
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Facilitation of counselee’s efforts. With the psychological climate already created, the counselor through his facial expressions and bodily actions, can start the interview which will facilitate freedom of expression on the part of the counselee. Attention to adjustment in life situation. Effect a desirable program in carrying out the client’s plan within the context of the environment where the client is. Follow-Up. Individuals who have been counselee must be followed up in order to find out if new problems occur or the old problem has recurred. Classification of Counseling Methods Directive counseling or Clinical counseling (Woolf) – Permit the counselor to give the client information about himself, his opportunities and the general situation. May take the lead in conversation, point out inconsistencies or suggest action. Steps include: analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling and follow up. Non-directive or client centered technique- Puts responsibility on the client for exploring his problems, his potential environment, and his alternatives. The emphasis is on the individual, not on the problem, thus, the client does his own thinking and choosing. Eclectic approach (Warten) – Incorporate the best features of directive and non-directive methods. Other Strategies Used in Counseling (Hansen) Prescriptive. Giving advice, being judgemental, seeks to direct the behavior of the helpee or person. Informative. Being didactic, interpreting or giving instruction, imparting new information intended to shape subsequent behavior, thoughts or feelings. Confronting. Giving direct feedback,challenging the person in need by using a variety of techniques to challenge the restrictive attitudes, values, behavior, thoughts, feelings in order to help the person recognize and change these features in themselves. Cathartic. Encouraging emotional discharge intended to enable the person to release emotion (sadness, joy, tension, pain, sorrow, etc.) which has been kept “locked” from within. Catalyctic. Being reflective, enabling self-direction, the counselor encourages the person to take control of the programme of action by directing the attention to the
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needs thru a contract in which rights, duties and tasks are clearly defined so that the person can make use of his own skills. Supportive. By approving and suggesting, the counselor assist the person in their own development for mutual support. These six strategies can be grouped to form two major styles of helping or counseling. These are: a). prescriptive or directive, where the helper directs, instructs, or guides the person in need to an appropriate action and b) facilitative or developmental, where the helper is less directive and seeks to encourage the person in need to discharge emotion and reach their own realization of appropriate action. Transactional Analysis (TA) Transactional Analysis is another technique used in counseling. This is a contractual system for treating individuals within the group context. The goal is “social control” in which the adult or counselor retains the role of an executive in dealing with other people. The objectives of the client are established on a contractual basis. The requirements are as follows: the Counselor and client must mutually agree on the objectives; contract must call for some considerations; from the counselor, professional skills and time and from the client, either money or time and effort; contract must define the competencies of both parties; contract must be legal and within the ethical limits of the counselor. Eight Counseling Techniques under Transactional Analysis Transactional Analysis is effective to all types of clients and problems but each type listed below must be used for a specific purpose or objectives. 1. Interrogation – Counselor must question the client until the latter produces an adult response. 2. Specification – This take place when the counselor and the client agree on where a particular client behavior comes from. 3. Confrontation – The counselor points out the discrepancies or inconsistencies in behavior or statements. 4. Explanation – Counselor explains why the client is behaving in a certain way. 5. Illustration – Includes breaking tension and instructing. It serves to indicate to the client that both adult and child behaviors are appropriate. 6. Confirmation – Pointing out to the client the reappearance of behavior that had ceased when first confronted by the counselor.
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7. Interpretation – Counselor tries to help the client see the reasons behind a given behavior. 8. Crystallization – Counselor tells the client that the latter is now ready to give up the “game” he had been using to receive strokes. Interview: The Heart of Counseling Process (Hansen) Goals of Initial Interview
Lady the foundation for the counseling relationship.
Begin opening all the psychological realities in the Clients situations that is, helping the client to explore more deeply the problem or feelings.
Structure the situation for the Client,that is, giving idea of what couseling is like, what is expected of the client and how to make plans for further work.
Clusters of Client’s Purposes
Desire for greater understanding of feelings and behavior.
Desire for help n talking, in controlling moods, thought, and actions, desire to work on a persons to person basis.
Catharsis, that is, a wish to unburden the problem.
Gain relief from tension and get to know the counselor as a person
Seeking support.
Show the counselor the client’s knowledge of improvement.
Desire for a more response from the counselor
Kinds of Interview (Aquino) 1. According to major emphasis a. Educational guidance b. Religious counseling c. Health counseling 2. According to purpose a. Introductory interview
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b. Fact-finding interview c. Informative d. Therapeutic Essentials of the Interview Process (Aquino)
Setting – Free from distractions and constant interruptions.
Background information – Adequate information about the client.
Gaining rapport – Make the client feel at ease by establishing an atmosphere of friendliness and security.
Developing insights and putting insights into work – Ability to verbalize ideas, suppressed impulses, feelings and conflicts.
Terminating the contact – Both counselor and client should recognize that independence is attained. It should not be abrupt but should be planned.
Keeping records of the interview – Record salient points accurately and immediately after the interview.
Rules for Conducting Interview
1. Interviewer listens in a patient and friendly but intelligently critical manner.
2. Should not display any kind of authority
3. Should not give advice or moral admonition.
4. Should not argue with the client.
5. Should talk or ask questions only under certain conditions.
6. Accept the client’s attitudes and feelings.
7. Do not fire questions like a Machinegun.
8. Should not turn aside from the negative feeling that is emerging
9. Should admit ignorance about certain topics
10. Must keep control of the interview
11. Must set limits on the interview.
12. Interview must be terminated.
13. If possible, client must do summarizing
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Roger’s Conditions for Counseling (Hansen) 1. Two persons must be in psychological contact. 2. The client must be in a state of incongruence. There must at least be a feeling of vulnerability and/or anxiety. 3. The counselor must be genuine or congruent in the relationship. 4. The counselor must experience unconditional positive regard, that is, respect for the client regardless of anything. 5. Counselor must experience emphatic understanding especially of the client’s internal frame of reference. 6. Client must perceive that conditions three and four exist and that they are actual feelings on the part of the counselor VOCATIONAL COUNSELING Vocational Counseling is designed to aid people in understanding themselves in learning about the world of work, in making decisions about jobs and careers, and in making use of their jobs for their own personal lives. Developmental Stages of Vocational Counseling Stage one – Young children – Offered between the ages of five and twelve by exposing children to information about jobs in the community. Stage two – Adolescence – From 13 to 17 – Assist adolescents in understanding the importance of work as well as making decisions, selecting courses or considering the future. Stage Three – Entering the world of work – Counselor with such topics as exploration and trial, establishment, work satisfaction, work styles, and some special problems. Stage Four – Working – Counselor provides assistance in personal crises associated with work or help the worker move toward better efficiency while in the job. Stage Five – Leaving work – Counselor provides data docused on retirement plans of the client.
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Vocational Development Factors
Abilities – People need to know what their abilities are.
Interests – Client’s interest must match with occupational choice.
Values – The relationship between values, especially work values, and reward system, is a critical area for the counselor and the client to discuss.
Decision making – Involves defining the problem, developing alternative solutions, finding appropriate information, using the information, developing plans and objectives, following through and evaluation.
ETHICAL AND MORAL PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE DATA (Hansen) Principle 1 – The school has no right to elicit information from the students unless that information will be used with reasonable speed to the direct or indirect benefits of the student. Principle 2 – All assessment data must be kept confidential by the counselor unless the client’s approval is sought. Guidelines to Counselor Confidentiality (Tennyson) 1. The counselor can justify the invasion of another’s property only if the information is to be used in the school in a way which is beneficial and helpful to the student. 2. When the counselor either elicits or allows the client or parent to divulge personal information in the course of interviewing, testing, or other contract, the client or parent must be aware of the purpose for which the information is desired and the way in which it will be used. 3. The counselor must distinguish between appraisal data and those that describe his behavior and personality. 4. When a student requests that certain information be held in confidence. 5. Score’s on psychometric tests and other information be revealed if it is necessary to do so.
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Providing Assistance in Value Situations (Hansen) Helping clients in the area of values may well be the most difficult task most counselor undertake. One thing the counselor can and should do is to promote an environment in the counseling relationship that allows the client the freedom to explore, in some detail or depth, the value concerns he has. Strategies 1. Choosing from alternative – identifies the decision-making process. Client becomes aware that there is usually a process to be undertaken vefore making final decision. Questions: Have you considered alternative to that? Howlong did you look around before you decided? 2. Choosing after considering consequences – client is helped to see that various alternatives may have more positive values than others. Questions: What is the best thing you like about that idea? What would happen if everyone had your belief? 3. Choosing freely – Client looks at the degree to which outside influences may affect decisions. Questions: Is that really your own choice? Where do you suppose you got that idea? 4. Prizing and cherishing – Client learns that people frequently behave on the basis of how important an activity and behavior may be, that is all right to have some beliefs that are important even though they may be seen by others as selfish. Questions: Is that something that is important to you? Are you so proud of how you handled that? 5. Public Affirming – Involves sharing the client’s values and understanding with others, which may be done a direct manner or through actions and behaviors that reflect values. Questions: Is this something that youd like to share with others? Who would you be willing to tell that to you? 6. Acting – this leads the client to change his behavior or attitude or at least a better understanding and acceptance of behavior.
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Questions: Is that something you’d be willing to try? What would your next step be if you choose to pursue that direction? 7. Acting repeatedly – the counselor insures that the new behavior become a part of the client lifestyles and that the behavior works. Questions: Is this typical of you? Will you do it again?
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EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Education
Education is derived from the Latin word “educare” or “educere” which means to lead forh. It is defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, habits, attitudes, interest, skills and abilities and other intangible human qualities through training instructions and self-activity, and transmitting these vital elements of human civilization to posterity TECHNOLOGY Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as “smartphones” and games (both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY Educational Technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology covers the processes and systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational Technology includes, but is nto limited to, software, hardware, as well as Internet applications and activities. Educational technology is simply defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning. Educational Technology reliefs on a broad definition of the word “technology”. (www.wikipedia.org.) Educational Technology is designed to introduce both traditional and innovative technologies to facilitate and foster meaningful and effective learning. Students are expected to demonstrate a sound understanding of the nature, application and production of the various types of educational technologies. The course will likewise focus both on developing teacher support materials and the production of technology-based student outputs.
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THEORIES There are three main schools of thought or philosophical frameworks behind educational technology. These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Behaviorism This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning experiences of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C.Tolamn, Clark L. Hull, B.F Skinner and others. Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment with human learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many educators. Skinner’s Contributions B.F Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis of Verbal Behavior, and wrote “The technology of Teaching”, an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education, as well as promote his system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed the Celeration learning system similarly based on behavior analysis but quite different from Keller’s and Skinner’s models. Cognitivism Cognitive has changed how educators view learning. Since the very early beginning of the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960’s and 1970’s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivist consider to how human memory works to promote learning. After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley’s Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970’s 80’s and 90’s. It is important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major influence on Cognitive Science Theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short term memory) and long tern memory have major influence on the field of Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory.
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Constructivism Constructivism is a learning theory or educational philosophy that many educators began to consider in the 1990’s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different perspectives. Constructivist learning environment require students to utilize their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassesn (1997) suggests “well-structured” learning environment are useful for novice learners and that “ill-structured” environments are only useful for more advance learners. Educators utilizing technology when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment. Connectivism Connectivism is “a learning theory for the digital age.” And has been developed by George Siemens and Stephen Downes based in their analysis of the limitations of how we live, how we communicate, and how we learn. Donal G. Perrin, Executive Editor of the International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning says the theory “combines relevant elements of many learning theories, social structures, and technology to create a powerful theoretical construct for learning in the digital age.”(www.wikipedia.org) USE OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS John Amos Comeniums (1592-1670) wrote Orbis Pictus Sensualium or the World of Sensible Things Pictured, a book which is considered as the first book on the use of visual aids in classroom teaching. Audiovisual aids are defined as any device used to aid in the communication of an idea. As such, virtually anthing can be used as an audio visual aid provided it successfully communicates the idea or information for which it is designed.
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An audiovisual aid includes still photography, motion picture, audio or video tape, slide or filmstrip, that is prepared individually or in combination to communicate information or to elicit a desired audience response. Even though early aids, such as maps and drawing are still in use, advances in the audiovisual field have opened up new methods of presenting these aids, such as videotapes and multimedia equipment which allow more professional and entertaining presentation not only in the classrooms but also anywhere in which ideas are to be conveyed to the audience. DEVICE Device is any means other than the subject -matter itself that is employed by the teacher in presenting the subject matter to the learner. Purpose of Visual Devices 1. To challenge student’s attention 2. To stimulate the imagination and develop the mental imagery of the pupils 3. To facilitate the understanding of the pupils 4. To provide motivation to the learners 5. To develop the ability to listen Tradition Forms of Visual Aids 1. Demonstration 2. Field Trips 3. Laboratory experiments 4. Pictures, films, simulations, models 5. Real objects Classification of Devices 1. Extrinsic – used to supplement a method used Ex. Picture, graph, film strips, slides, etc. 2. Intrinsic – used as a part of the method or teaching procedure Ex. Pictures accompanying an article 3. Material Devices – device that have n o bearing on the subject matter Ex. Blackboard, chalk, books, pencils, etc. 4. Mental Devices – a kind of device that is related in form and meaning to the subject matter being presented
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Ex. Questions, projects, drills, lesson plans, etc. NONPROJECTED AUDIOVISUAL AIDS Nonprojected aids are those that do not require the use of audiovisual equipment such as a projector and screen. These include charts, graphs, maps, illustrations, photographs, brochures, and handouts. Charts are commonly used almost everywhere. A chart is a diagram which shows relationships. An organizational chart is one of the most widely and commonly used kind of chart. THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM In the advent of modern technology, computers are common classroom equipment and aid to teaching process. Aside from computers, there are still other learning tools and audio – visual aids that the teachers and the students can utilize in order to facilitate learning. These may include digital cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, and LCD projectors. Computers Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material, illustrate how to use new programs and show new websites. Class Website What better way to display your student’s work, than to create a web page designed just for your class.Once a web page is designed teachers can post homework assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much more. In current day society, children know how to use the computer and navigate their way through a website, so why note give them one where they can be published author. Just be careful as most districts maintain strong policies to manage official websites for a school or classroom. Class Blogs These are some of a variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being implemented in the classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue, like a journal, of thoughts, ideas, and assignments that also provide for student comment and reiterative reflection. Wiki are more group focused to allow multiple members of the group to edit a single document and create truly collaborative and carefully edited finished product. Wireless Classroom Microphones Noise classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with the help of microphones, students are able to hear their teachers clearer. Children learn better when they hear
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the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no longer lose their voices at the end of the day.
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ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
It focuses on the development and utilization of assessment tools to improve the teaching-learning process. It emphasizes on the use of testing for measuring knowledge, comprehension and other thinking skills. It allows the students to go through the standard steps in test constitution for quality assessment. Students will experience how to develop rubrics for performance-based and portfolio assessment. Measurement refers to the quantitative aspect of evaluation. It involves outcomes that can be quantified statistically. It can also be defined as the process in determining and differentiating the information about the attribtutes or characteristics of things. Evaluation is the qualitative aspects of determining the outcomes of learning. It involves value judgement. Evaluation is more comprehensive than measurement. In fact, measurement is one aspect of evaluation. Test consist of question or exercises or other for measuring the outcomes of learning CLASSIFICATION OF TESTS 1. According to manner of response
oral written
2. According to method of preparation
subjectivity/essay objective
3. According to the nature of answer
personality tests intelligence test aptitude test achievement or summative test sociometric test diagnostic or formative test trade or vocational test
Objective tests are tests which have definite answers and therefore are not subject to personal bias.
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Teacher-made tests or educational tests are constructed by the teachers based on the contents of different subjects taught. Diagnostics tests are used measure a students strengths and weaknesses, usually to identify deficiencies in skills or performance. Formative and summative are terms often used with evaluation, but they may also be used with testing. Formative testing is done to monitor student’s attainment of the instructional objectives. Formative testing occurs over a period of time and monitors student progress. Summative testing is done at the conclusion of instruction and measures the extent to which students have attained the desired outcomes. Standardized tests are already valid, reliable and objective. Standardized tests are tests for which contents have been selected and for which norms or standards have been established. Psychological tests and government national examinations are examples of standardized tests. Standards or norms are the goals to be achieved expressed in terms of the average performance of the population tested. Criterion-referenced measure is a measuring device with a predetermined level of success or standard on the part of the test-takers. For example, a level of 75 percent score in all the test items could be considered a satisfactory performance. Norm-referenced measure is a test that is scored on the basis of the norm or standard level of accomplishment by the whole group taking the test. The grades of the students are based on the normal curve of distribution CRITERIA OF A GOOD EXAMINATION A good examination must pass the following criteria: Validity Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. It is the usefulness of the test for a given measure. A valid test is always reliable. To test the validity of a test it is to be pretested in order to determine If it really measures what it Intends to measure or what it purports to measure. Reliability
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Realibility pertains to the degree to which a test measure what is suppose to measure. The test of reliability is the consistency of the results when it is administered to different groups of individuals with similar characteristics in different places at different times. Also, the results are almost similar when the test is given to the same group of individuals at different days and the coefficient of correlation is not less than 0.85. Objectivity Objectivity is the degree to which personal bias is eliminated in the scoring of the anwers. When we refer to the quality of measurement, essentially, we mean the amount of information contained in a score generated by the measurement. Measures of student instructional outcomes are rarely as precise as those of physical characteristics such as height and weight. Student outcomes are more difficult to define, and the units of measurement are usually not physically units. The measures we take in students vary in quality, which prompts the need for different scales of measurement. Terms that describe the levels of measurement in these scales are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Measurements may differ in the amount of information the numbers contain. These differencies are distinguished by the terms nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales of measurement. The term nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio actually form a hierarchy. Nominal scales of measurement are the least sophisticated and contain the least information. Ordianl, interval, and ratio scales increase respectively in sophistication. The arrangement is a hierarchy in the higher levels, along with additional data. For example, numbers from an interval scale of measurement contain all of the information that nominal and ordinal scales would provide, plus some supplementary input. However, a ratio scale of the same attribute would contain even more information than the interval scale.This idea will become more clear as each scale of measurement is described. Nominal Measurement Nominal scales are the least sophisticated; they merely classify objects or events by assigning numbers to them. These numbers are arbitrary and imply no quantification, but the categories must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
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For example, one could nominally designate baseball positions by assigning the pitcher the numberal 1; the catcher, 2; the first baseman, 3; the second baseman, 4; and so on. These assignments are arbitrary; no arithmetic of these numbers is meaningful. For example, 1 plus 2 does not equal 3, because a pitcher plus a catcher does not equal a first baseman. Ordinal Measurement Ordinal scales classify but they also assign rank order. An example of ordinal measurement is ranking individuals in a class according to their test scores. Students scores could be ordered from the first, second, third and so forth to the lowest score. Such a scale gives more information than nominal measurement, but it still has limitations. The units of ordinal measurement are most likely unequal. The number of points separating the first and second students probably does not equal the number separating the fifth and sixth students. These unequal units of measurements are analogous to a rules in which some inches are longer than others. Addition and substraction of such units yield meaningless numbers. Interval Measurement In order to be able to add and subtract scores, we use interval scales, sometimes called equal interval or equal unit measurement. This measurement scale contains the nominal and ordinal properties and is also characterized by equal units between score points. Example include thermometers and calendar years. For instance, the difference in temperature between 10º and 20º is the same as that between 47º and 57º. Likewise the difference in length of time betweem 1946 and 1948 equals that between 1973 and 1975. These measures are defined in terms of physical properties suc that the intervals are equal. For example, a year is the time it takes for the earth to robit the sun. The advantage of equal units of measurement in straightforwards: Sums and differences now make sense, both numerically and logically. Note, however, the zero point in interval measurement is really an arbitrary decision; for example, 0º does not mean that there is no temperature. Ratio Measurement The most sophisticated type of measurement includes all the preceding properties, but in a ratio scale, the zero point is not arbitrary; a score of zero includes the absence of what is being measured. For example, if a person’s wealth equalled zero, he or she would have no wealth at all.
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This is unlike a social studies test, where missing every item (i.e., receiving a score zero) may not indicate the complete absence of social studies knowledge. Ratio measurement is rarely abieved in educational assessment, either in cognitive or affective areas. The desirability of ratio measurement scales is that they allow ratio comparisons, such as Ann 1-1/2 times as tall as her little sister, Mary. We can seldom say that one’s intelligence or achievement is 1-1/2 as great as that of another person. An IQ of 120 may be 1-1/2 times as great numerically as an IQ of 80, but a person with an IQ of 120 is not 1-1/2 times as intelligent as a person with an IQ of 80. Note that carefully desined tests over a specified domain of possible items can approach ratio measurement. For example, consider an objective concerning multiplication facts for pairs of numbers less than 10. In all, there are 45 such combinations. However the teacher might randomly select 5 or 10 test problems to give a particular student. Then, the proportion of items that the students get correct could be used to estimate how many of the 45 possible items the student has mastered. If the student answers 4 or 5 items correctly, it is legitimate to estimate that the student would get 36 t o 45 items correct if all 45 items were administered. This is possible because the set of possible items was specifically defined in the objective, and the test were a random, representative sample from that set. Most educational measurements are better than strictly nominal or ordinal measures, but few can meet the rigorous requirements of interval measurement. Educational testing usually falls, somewhere between ordinal and interval scales in sophistication. Fortunately, empirical studies have shown arithmetic operations on these scales are appropriate, and the scores do provide adequate information for most decisions about students and instruction. Also, as we will see later, certain procedures can be applied to scores with reasonable confidence. Norm-Referenced and Criterion Referenced Measurement When we contrast norm-referenced measurement (or testing) with criterion-referenced measurement, we are basically referring to two different ways of interpreting of information. However, Popham (1988 page 135) points out the certain characteristics tend to go with each type of measurement, and it unlikely that results of norm-referenced tests are interpreted in criterion-referenced ways and vice versa. Norm-Referenced interpretation historically has been used in education; norm-referenced tests continue to comprise a substantial portion of the measurement in today’s schools. The terminology of criterion-referenced measurement has existed for
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close to three decades, having been formally introduced with Glaser’s (1963) classic article. Over the years, there has been occasional confusion with the terminology and how criterion-referenced measurement applies in the classroom. Do not infer that just because a test is published, it will necessarily be norm-referenced, or if teacher-constructed, criterion-referenced. Again, we emphasize that the type of measurement or testing depends on how the scores are interpreted. Both types can be used by the teacher. Norm-Referenced Interpretation Norm-referenced interpretation stems from the desire to differentiate among individuals or to discriminate among the individuals of some defined group on whatever is being measured. In norm-referenced measurement, an individual’s score is interpreted by comparing it to the scores of a defined group, often called normative group. Norm-referenced interpretation is a relative interpretation based on an individual’s position with respect to some group, often called the normative group. Norms consist of the score, usuallyin some form of descriptive statistics, of the normative group. In norm-referenced interpretation, the individual’s position in the normative groups is of concern; thus, this kind of positionining does not specify the performance in absolute terms. The norm being used is the basis of comparison and the individual score is designated by its position in the normative group. Achievement Test as an Example. Most standardized acheivements tests, especially those covering several skills and academic areas, are primarily designed for norm-referenced interpretation. However, the form of results and the interpretations of these tests are somewhat complex and require concepts not yet introduced in this text. Scores on teacher-constructed test are often given norm-referenced interpretations. Grading on the curve, for example, is norm referenced interpretation of test scores on some type of performance measure. Specified percentages of scores are assigned the different grades, an individuals score is positioned in the distribution of scores. Suppose an algebra teacher has total of 150 students in five classes, and the classes have a common final examination. The teacher decides that the distribution of letter grades assigned to the final examination performance will be 10 percent As, 20 percent Bs, 40 percent Cs, 20 percent Ds, and 10 percent Fs.(Note that the final examination grade is not necessarily the course grade.)
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Since the grading is based on all 150 scores, do not assume that 3 students in each class will receive as, on the final examination. James receives a score on the final exam such that 21 students have higher scores and 128 students have lower scores. What will Jame’s letter grade be on the exam? The top 15 scores will receive As, the next 30 scores (20 pearcent of 150) will receive Bs. Counting from the top score down, Jame’s score is positioned 22nd, so he will receive a B on the final examination. Note that in this interpretation example, we did not specify James’s actual numerical score on the exam. That would have been necessary in order to determine that his score positioned 22nd in the group of 150 scores. But in terms of the interpretation of the score, it was based strictly on its position in the total group of scores. Criterion-Referenced Interpretation The concepts of criterion-referenced testing have developed with a dual meaning for criterion-referenced. On one hand, it means referencing an individual’s performance to some criterion that is defined performance level. The individual’s score is interpreted in absolute rather than relative terms. The criterion, in this situation, means some level of specified performance that has been determined independently of how others might perform. A second meaning for criterion-referenced involves the idea of a defined behavioral domain—that is, a defined body of learner behaviors.The learner’s performance on a test is referenced to a specifically defined group of behaviors. The learner’s performance on a test is referenced to a specifically defined group of behaviors. The criterion in this situation is the desired behaviors. Criterion-referenced interpretation is an absolute rather than relative interpretation, referenced to a defined body of learner behaviors, or, as is commonly done, to some specified level of performance. Criterion-referenced tests require the specification of learner behaviors prior to constructing the test. The behaviors should be readily identifiable from instructional objectives. Criterion-referenced tests tend to focus on specific learner behaviors, and usually only a limited number are covered on any one test. Suppose before the test is administered an 80-percent-correct criterion is established as the minimum performance required for mastery of each objective. A student who does not attain the criterion has not mastered the skill sufficiently to move ahead in the instructional sequence. To a large extent, the criterion is based on teacher
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judgement. No magical, universal criterion for mastery exists, although some curriculum materials that contain criterion-referenced tests do suggest criteria for mastery. Also, unless objectives are appropriate and the criterion for achievement relevant, there is little meaning in the attainment of criterion, regardless of what it is. Distinctions between Nor-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests Although interpretations, not characterstics, provide the distinction between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests, the two types do tend to differ in some ways. Norm-referenced tests are usually more general and comprehensive and cover a large domain of content and learning tasks. They are used for survey testing, although this is not their exclusive use. Criterion-referenced tests focus on a specific group of learner behaviors. To show the contrast, consider an example. Arithmetic skills represent a general and broad category of student outcomes and would likely be measured by a norm-referenced test. On the other hand, behaviors such as solving addition problems with two five-digit numbers or determining the multiplication products of three-and four digit numbers are such more specific and may be measured by criterion-referenced tests. A criterion-referenced tests tend to focus more on sub skill than on broad skills. Thus, criterion-referenced tests tend to be shorter. If mastery learning is involved, criterion-referenced measurement would be used. Norm-referenced tests scores are transformed to position within the normative group Criterion-referenced test scores are usually given in the percentage of correct answers or another indicator of mastery or the lack thereof. Criterion-referenced tests tend to lend themselves more to individualizing instruction than do norm-referenced tests. In individualizing instruction, a student’s performance is interpreted more appropriately by comparison to the desired behaviors for that particular student, rather than by comparison with the performance of a group. Norm-referenced test items tend to be of average difficulty. Criterion-referenced tests have item difficulty matched to the learning tasks. This distinction in item difficulty is necessary because norm-referennced tests emphasize the discrimination among individuals and criterion referenced tests emphasize the description of performance. Easy items, for example, do little for discriminating among individuals, but they may be necessary for describing performance.
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Finally, when measuring attitudes, interests, and aptitudes, it is practically impossible to interpret the results without comparing them to a reference group. The reference groups in such cases are usually typical students or students with high interests in certain areas. Teachers have no basis for anticipating these kinds of scores; therefore, in order to ascribe meaning to such a score, a referent group must be used. For instance, a score of 80 on an interest inventory has no meaning itself. On the other hand, if a score of 80 is the typical response by a group interested in mechanical areas, the score takes on meaning. STAGES IN TEST CONSTRUCTION I. Planning the Test A. Determining the Objectives B. Preparing the Table of Specifications C. Selecting the Appropriate Item Format D. Writing the Test Items E. Editing the Test Items II. Trying Out the Test A. Administering the First Tryout – then Item Analysis B. Administering the Second Try-out then Item Analysis C. Preparing the Final Form of the Test III. Establishing Test Validity IV. Establishing the Test Reliability V. Interpreting the Test Score MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS IN TEST CONSTRUCTION The following are the major considerations in test construction: Type of Test Our usual idea of testing is an in-class test that is administered by the teacher. However, there are many variations on this theme: group tests, individual tests, written tests, oral tests, speed tests, power tests, pretests and post tests. Each of these has different characteristics that must be considered when the tests are planned. If it is a take-home test rather than an in-class test, how do you make sure that students work independently, have equal access to sources and resources, or spend a sufficient but not enormous amount of time on the task? If it is a pretest, should it
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exactly match the past test so that a gain score can be computed, or should the pretest contain items that are diagnostic of prerequisite skills and knowledge? If it is an achievement test, should partial credit be awarded, should there be penalties for guessing, or should points be deducted for grammar and spelling errors? Obviously, the test plan must include a wide array of issues. Anticipating these potential problems allows the tst constructor to develop positions or policies that are consistent with his or her testing philosophy. These can then be communicated to students, administrators, parents and other who may be affected by the testing program. Make a list of the objectives, the subject matter taught, and activities undertaken. These are contained in the daily lesson plans of the teacher and in the references or textbook used. Such tests are usually very indirect methods that only approximate real-world applications. The constraints in classroom testing are often due to time and the development level of the students. Test Length A major decision in the test planning is how many items should be included on the test. There should be enough to cover the content adequatelym but the length of the class period or the attention span or fatigue limits of the students usually restrict the test length. Decisions about test length are usually based on practical constraints more than on theoretical considerations. Most teachers want test scores to be determined by how much the student understands rather than by how quickly he or she answers the questions. Thus, teachers prefer power tests, where at least 90 percent of the students have time to attempt 90 percent of the test items. Just how many items will fit into a given test occasion is something that is learned through experience with similar groups of students. Item Formats Determining what kind of items to include on the test is major decision. Should they be objectively scored formats such as multiple choice or matching type? Should they cause the students to organize their own thoughts through short answer or essay formats? These are important questions that can be answered only by the teacher in terms of the local context, his or her students, his or her classroom, and the specific purpose of the test. Once the planning decision are made, the item writing begins. This tank is often the most feared by the beginning test constructors. However, the procedure are more common sense than formal rules.
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POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PREPARING A TEST 1. Are the instructional objectives clearly defined? 2. What knowledge, skills and attitudes do you want to measure? 3. Did you prepare a table of specifications? 4. Did you formulate well defined and clear test items? 5. Did you employ correct English in writing the items? 6. Did you avoid giving clues to the correct answer? 7. Did you test the important ideas rather than the trivial? 8. Did you adapt the test’s difficulty to your students ability? 9. Did you avoid using textbook jargons? 10. Did you cast the items in positive form? 11. Did you prepare a scoring key? 12. Does each item have a single correct answer? 13. Did you review your items? GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN CONSTRUCTING DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS
The test items should be selected very carefully. Only important facts should be included.
The test should have extensive sampling of items.
The test items should be carefully expressed in simple, clear, definite, and meaningful sentences.
There should be only one possible correct response for each test item.
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Each item should be independent. Leading clues to other items should be avoided.
Lifting sentences from books should not be done to encourage thinking and understanding.
The first person personal pronouns I and we should not be used.
Various types of test items should be made to avoid monotony.
Majority of the test items should be of moderate difficulty. Few difficult and few easy items should be included.
The test items should be arranged in an ascending order of difficulty. Easy items should be at the beginning to encourage the examinee to pursue the test and the most difficult items should be at the end.
Clear, concise, and complete directions should precede all types of test. Sample test items may be provided for expected responses.
Items which can be answered by previous experience alone without knowledge of the subject matter should not be included.
Catchy words should not be used in the test items.
Test items must be based upon the objectives of the course and upon the course content.
The test should measure the degree of achievement or determine the difficulties of the learners.
The test should emphasize ability to apply and use facts as well as knowledge of facts.
The test should be of such length that it can be completed within the time allotted by all or nearly all of the pupils. The teacher should perform the test herself to determine its approximate time allotment.
Rules governing good language expression, grammar, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization should be observed in all items.
Information on how scoring will be done should be provided.
Scoring keys in correcting and scoring tests should be provided.
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POINTERS TO BE OBESERVED IN CONSTRUCTING AND SCORING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS A. RECALL TYPES 1. Simple recall type a. This type consists of questions calling for a single word or expression as an answer. b. Items usually begin with who, where, when and what. c. Score is the number of correct answers. 2. Completion type a. Only important words or phrases should be omitted to avoid confusion. b. Blanks should be of equal lengths. c. The blank, as much as possible, is placed near or at the end of the sentence. d. Articles a,an, and the should not be provided before the omitted word or phrase to avoid clues for answers. 3. Enumeration type a. The exact number of expected answers should be stated b. Blanks should be of equal lengths c. Score is the number of correct answers. 4. Identification type a. The items should make an examinee think of a word, number, or group of words that would complete the statement or answer the problem. b. Score is the number of correct answers. B. RECOGNITION TYPES 1. True-false or alternate-response type
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a. Declarative sentences should be used. b. The number of “true and“false items should be more or less equal. c. The truth or falsity of the sentence should not be too evident. d. Negative statements should be avoided. e. The “modified true-false” is more preferable than the “plain true-false” f. In arranging the items, avoid the regular recurrence of “true” and “false” statements. g. Avoid using specific determiners like; all, always, never, None, nothing, most, often, some, etc. and avoid weak statements as may, sometimes, as a rule in general etc. h. Minimize the use of qualitative terms like: few, great, many, more, etc. i. Avoid leading clues to answers in all items. j. Score is the number of correct answers in “modified true-false and right answers minus wrong answers in “Plain true-false”. 2. Yes-No type a. The items should be in interrogative sentences b. The same rules as in “true-false” are applied. 3. Multiple-response type a. There should be three to five choices. The number of choices used in first item should be the same number of choices in all the items of this type of test. b. The choices should be numbered or lettered so that only the number or letter can be written on the bank provided. c. If the choices are figures, they should be arranged in ascending order. d. Avoid the use of “a” or “an” as the last word prior to the listing of the responses. e. Random occurrence of responses should be employed
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f. The choices should be related in some way or should be at the end of the statements. g. The choices should be related in some way or should belong to the same class. h. Avoid the use of “none of these” as one of the choices. i. Score is the number of correct answers. 4. Best Answer type a. There should be three to five choices all of which are right but vary in their degree of merit, importance or desirability b. The other rules for multiple response items are applied here. c. Score is the number of correct answers. 5. Matching type
There should be two columns. Under “A” are the stimuli which should be longer and more descriptive than the responses under column “B”. The response may be a word, a phrase a number or a formula.
The stimuli under column “A” should be numbered and the responses under column “B” should be lettered. Answers will be indicated by letters only on lines provided in column “A”
The number of pairs usually should not exceed twenty items. Less than ten introduces chance elements. Twenty pairs may be used but more than twenty is decidedly wasteful of time.
The number of responses in column “B” should be two or more than the number of items in Column “A” to avoid guessing.
Only one correct matching for each item should be possible.
Matching sets should neither be too long nor too short.
All items should be on the same page to avoid turning of pages in the process of matching pairs.
Score is the number of correct answers.
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C. ESSAY TYPE EXAMINATIONS Common types of essay questions. (The types are related to purposes of which the essay examination are to be used.)
Comparison of two things
Explanation of the use or meaning of a statement or passage
Analysis
Decision for or against
Discussion How to construct essay examinations.
Determine the objectives or essentials for each question to be evaluated
Phrase question in simple, clear and concise language.
Suit the length of the question to the time available for answering the essay examination. The teacher should try to answer the test herself.
Scoring:
a. Have model answer in advance b. Indicate the number of points for each question c. Score a point for each essential ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE OBJECTIVE TYPE OF TESTS Advantages
The objective test is free from personal bias in scoring It is easy to score. With a scoring key, the test can be corrected by
different individuals without affecting the accuracy of the grades given.
It has high validity because it is comprehensive with wide sampling of essentials.
It is less time-consuming since many items can be answered in a given time.
It is fair to students since the slow writers can accomplish the test as fast as the fast writers.
Disadvantages It is difficult to construct and requires more time to prepare. It does not afford the students the opportunity in training for self-
and thought organization
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It cannot be used to test ability in theme writing or journalistic writing.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE ESSAY TYPE OF TESTS Advantages
The essay examination can be used in practically all subjects of the school curriculum.
It trains students for thought organization and self expression
It affords students opportunities to express their originality and independence of thinking
Only the essay test can be used in some subjects like composition writing which cannot be tested by the objective type test.
Essay examination measures higher mental abilities like comparison, interpretation, criticism, defense of opinion and decision.
The essay test is easily prepared.
It is expensive
Disadvantages
The limited sampling of items makes the test unreliable measure of achievements or abilities
Questions usually are not well prepared
Scoring is highly subjective due to the influence of the correctors personal judgement
Grading of the essay test is inaccurate measure of pupils achievements due to subjectivity of scoring
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STATISTICAL MEASURES OR TOOLS USED IN INTERPRETING NUMERICAL DATA Frequency Distributions A simple, common sense technique for describing a set of test scores is through the use of a frequency distribution. A frequency distribution is merely a lisitng of the possible score values and the number of persons who achieved each score. Such an arrangement presents the scores in a more simple and understandable manner than merely listing all of the separate scores. Consider a specific set of scores to clarify these ideas. A set of scores for a group of 25 students who took a 50-item test is listed in Table 1. It is easier to analyze the scores if they are arranged in a simple frequency distribution. The frequency distribution for the same set of scores is given in Table 2). The steps that are involved in creating the frequency distributions are: First, list the possible score values in rank order, from highest to lowest. Then, a second column indicates the frequency or number of persons who received each score. For example, three students received a score of 47, two received 40, and so forth. There is no need to list score values below the lowest score that anyone received.
Table 1. Score of 25 Students on a 50-item test
Student Score Student Score
A 48 N 43
B 50 O 47
C 46 P 48
D 41 Q 42
E 37 R 44
F 48 S 38
G 38 T 49
H 47 U 34
I 49 V 35
J 44 W 47
K 48 X 40
L 49 Y 48
M 40
Table 2. Frequency Distribution of the 25 Scores of Table 1
Score Frequency Score Frequency
50 1 41 1
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49 3 40 2
48 5 39 0
47 3 38 2
46 1 37 1
45 0 36 0
44 2 35 1
43 1 34 1
42 1
When there is a wide range of scores in a frequency distribution, the distribution can be quite long, with a lot of zeros in the column of frequencies. Such a frequency distribution can make interpretation of the scores difficult and confusing. A grouped frequency distribution would be more appropriate in this kind of situation .Groups of score values are listed rather than each separate possible score value. If we were to change the frequency distribution in Table 2 into a grouped frequency distribution, we might choose intervals such as 48-50, 45-47, and so forth. The frequency corresponding to interval 48-50 would be 9(1+3+5). The choice of the width of the interval is arbitrary, but is must be the same for all intervals. In addition, it is good idea to have an odd-numbered interval width (we used 3 above) so that the midpoint of the interval is a whole number. This strategy will simplify subsequent graphs and description of the data. The grouped frequency distribution is presented in Table 3. Table 3. Grouped Frequency Distribution
Score Interval Frequency
48-50 9
45-47 4
42-44 4
39-41 3
36-38 3
33-35 2
Frequency distributions summarize sets of test scores by listing the number of people who received each test score. All of the test scores can be listed separately, or the scores can be grouped in a frequency distribution. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY Frequency distributions are helpful for indicating the shape to describe a distributions of scores, but we need more information than the shape to describe a
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distribution adequately. We need to know where on the scale of measurement a distribution is located and how the scores are dispersed in the distribution. For the former, we compute measures of central tendency, and for the latter, we compute measures of dispersion. Measures of central tendency are points on the scale of measurement, and they are represesntative of how the scores tend to average. There are three commonly used measures of central tendency: the mean, the median, and the mode, but the mean is by far the most widely used. The Mean The mean of a set of scores is the arithmetic mean. It is found by summing the scores and dividing the sum by the number of scores. The mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency because it is easily understood and is based on all of the scores in the set; hence, it summarizes a lot of information. The formula for the mean is as follows: X _ X = ---------- N Where _ X is the mean, X is the symbol for a score, the summation operator (it tells us to add all the X’s N is the number of scores. For the set of scores in table 1 X = 1100 N = 25, So then _ 1100 X = --------------- = 44 25 The mean of the set of scores in Table 1 is 44. The mean does not have to equal an observed score; it is usually not even a whole number. When the scores are arranged in a frequency distribution, the formula is: _ fX mdpt X = ------------------ N
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Where fX mdpt means that the midpoint of the interval is multiplied by the frequency for that interval. In computing the mean for the scores in Table 3, using formula we obtain: _ 9(49) + 4(46) + 4(43) + 3(40) + 3(37) + 2(34) X = ----------------------------------------------------------------- = 43.84 25 Note that this mean is slightly different than the mean using ungrouped data. This difference is due to the midpoint representing the scores in the interval rather than using the actual scores. The Median Another measure of central tendency is the median which is the point that divides the distribution in half; that is, half of the scores fall above the median and half of the scores fall below the median. When there are only a few scores, the median can often be found by inspection. If there is an odd number of scores, the middle score is the median. When there is an even number of scores, the median is halfway between the two middle scores. However, when there are tied scores in the middle of the distribution, or when the scores are in a frequency distribution, the median may not be so obvious. Consider again the frequency distribution in Table 2. There were 25 scores in the distribution, so the middle score should be the median. A straightforward way to find this median is to augment the frequency distribution with a column of cumulative frequencies. Cumulative frequencies indicate the number of scores at or below each score. Table 4 indicates the cumulative for the data in Table 2.
Table 4. Frequency Distribution, Cumulative Frequencies for the Scores of Table 2
Score Frequency Cumulative Frequency
50 1 25
49 3 24
48 5 21
47 3 16
46 1 13
45 0 12
44 2 12
43 1 10
42 1 9
41 1 8
40 2 7
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39 0 5
38 2 5
37 1 3
36 0 2
35 1 2
34 1 1
For example, 7 persons scored at or below a score of 40, and 21 persons scored at or below score of 48. To find the median, we need to locate the middle score in the cumulative frequency column, because this score is the media. Since there are 25 scores in the distribution, the middle one is the 13th, a score of 46. Thus, 46 is the median of this distribution; half of the people scored 46 and half scored. When there are ties in the middle of the distribution, there may be a need to interpolate between scores to get the exact median. However, such precision is not needed for most classroom tests. The whole number closest to the median is usually sufficient. The Mode The measure of central tendency that is the easiest to find is the mode. The mode is the most frequently occurring score in the distribution. The mode of the scores in Table 1 is 48. Five persons had scores of 48 and no other score occurred as often. Each of these three measure of central tendency – the mean, the median, and the mode means a legitimate definition of “average” performance on this test. However, each does provide different information. The arithmetic average as 44; half the people scored at or below 46 and more people received 48 than any other score. There are some distributions in which all three measures of central tendency are equal, but more often than not they will be different. The choice of which measure of central tendency is best will differ from situation to situation. The mean is used most often, perhaps because it includes information from all of the scores. When a distribution has a small number of very extreme scores, though, the median may be better definition of central tendency. The mode provides the least information and is used infrequently as an “average”. The mode can be used with nominal scale data, just as an indicator of the most frequently appearing category. The mean the median, and the mode all describe central tendency:
The mean is the arithmetic average
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The median divides the distribution in half
The mode is the most frequent score. MEASURES OF DISPERSION Measures of central tendency are useful for summarizing average performance, but they tell us nothing about how the scores are distributed or “spread out” around the averages. Two sets of test scores may have equal measures of central tendency, but they might differ in other ways. One of the distribution may have the scores tightly clustered around the average, and the other distribution may have scores that are widely separated. As you may have anticipated, there are descriptive statistics that measure dispersion, which also are called measures of variability. These measures indicate how spread out the scores tend to be. The Range The range indicates the difference between the highest and lowest scores in the distribution. It is simple to calculate, but it provides limited information. We subtract the lowest from the highest score and add 1 so that we include both scores in the spread between them. For the scores of Table 2, the range is 50-34 + 1 = 17. A problem with using the range is that only the two most extreme scores are used in the computation. There is no indication of the spread scores between the highest and lowest. Measures of dispersion that take into consideration every score in the distribution are the variance and the standard deviation. The standard deivation is used great deal in interpreting scores from standardized tests. The Variance The Variance measures how widely the scores in the distribution are spread about the mean. In other words, the variance is the average squared between the scores and the mean. As a formula, it looks like this: _ S2 = (X – X)2
-------------------------------------
N An equivalent formula, easier to compute is: X2 _ S2= ---------- X2
N
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The computation of the variance for the scores of Table 1 is illustrated in Table 5. The data for students K through V are omitted to save space, but these values are included in the column totals and in the computation. The Standard Deviation The standard deviation also indicates how spread out the scores are, but it is expressed in the same units as the original scores. The standard deviation is computed by finding the square root of the variance. S = S2
For the data in Table 1, the variance is 22.8. The standard deviation is 22.8, or 4.77. The scores of most norm groups have the shape of a “normal” distribution-a symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution with which most people are familiar. With a normal distribution, about 95 percent of the scores are within two standard deviations of the mean. Even when scores are not normally distributed, most of the scores will be within two standard deviations of the mean. In the example, the mean minus two standard deviations is 34.46, and the mean plus two standard deviations is 53.54. Therefore, only one score is outside the mean.
Table 5. Computation of the Variance for the Scores of Table 1
Student Score
x
Score-Mean
x-x
(Score-mean)2
(x-x)2
A 48 4 16
B 50 6 36
C 46 8 4
D 41 -3 9
E 37 -7 49
F 48 4 16
G 38 -6 36
H 47 3 9
I 49 5 25
J 44 0 0
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
W 47 3 9
X 40 -4 16
Y 48 4 16
Totals 1100 0 570
To determine the mean:
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_ 1100 X = -------------- = 44 25 Then to determine the variance: - (X – X) 2 570 S2 = -------------- = ---------- = 22.8 N 25 The usefulness of the standard deviation becomes apparaent when scores from different test are compared. Suppose that two test are gibven to the same class – one on fractions and the other on reading comprehension. The fractions test has mean of 30 and a standard deviation of 8; the reading comprehension test has a mean of 60 and a standard deviation of 10. If Ann scored 38 on the fractions test and 55 on the reading comprehension test, it appears from the raw scores that she did better in reading than in fractions, because 55 is greater tha 38. But relative of the performance of the others in the class, the opposite is true. A score of 38 on the fraction test is one standard deviation above the mean – a score that is lower than average. Clearly, when comparison is made relative to the class mean, Ann’s performance on the fractions test in better than her performance on the reading comprehension test. In fine, descriptive statistics that indicate dispersion are the range, the variance, and the standard deviation. The range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores in the distribution plus one. The standard deviation is a unit of measurement that shows by how much the separate scores tend to differ from the mean. The variance is the square of the standard deviation. Most scores are within two standard deviation from the mean. Graphing Distributions A graph of a distribution of test scores is often better understood than is the frequecncy distribution or a mere table of numbers. The general pattern of scores, as well as any unique characteristics of the distribution can be seen easily in simple graphs. There are several kinds of graphs that can be used, but a simple bar graph, or histogram, is as useful as any. The general shape of the distribution is clear from the graph. Most of the scores in this distribution are high, at the upper end of the graph. Such a shape is quite common for the scores of classroom tests. That is, test scores will be grouped toward the right end of the measurement scale. A normal distribution has most of the test scores in the middle of the distribution and progressively fewer scores toward the extremes. The scores of norm groups are
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seldom graphed but they could be if we were concerned about seeing the specific shape of the distribution of scores. Usually, we know or assume that the cores are normally distributed. SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION Social dimensions may refer to all obstacles to access, progress and completion in education – with the strongest emphasis on barriers to access to education. Social dimensions is a wide concept, encompassing several factors. These include obstacle to access created by tuition fees, the structural discrimination towards marginalized groups in education, based on socio-economic factor’s cultural or ethnic background, or physical disabilities. Education should play a strong role in fostering social cohesion, reducing inequalities and raising the level of knowledge, skills and competences in society. Based on the societal aspiration that the student body entering, participating in an completing in education at all levels should reflect the diversity of our populations. It reaffirms the importance of students being able to complete their studies without obstacles related to their social and economic background. THE FOUR PILLARS OF LEARNING The United Nations Educational and Scientific Organization (UNESCO) has identified the four pillars of learning as follows: 1. Learning to Know It is a means for people to learn to understand the world around them. It is necessary for them to lead their lives with some dignity, develop their occupational skills and communicate with other people. Regarded as an end, it is underpinned by the pleasure that can derived from understanding, knowledge and discovery. That aspect of learning is typically enjoyed by researchers, but good teaching can help everyone to enjoy it. 2. Learning to Do This area is closely associated with the issue of occupational training: how do we adapt education so that it can equip people to do the types of work needed in the future? It emphasizes the knowledge component of tasks, even in industry, as well as the importance of services in the economy. 3. Learning to live together The purpose is to teach pupils and students about human diversity and to instill in then an awareness of the similarities and interdependence of all people. Thus,
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teaching the history of religious or customs can provide a useful reference tool for molding future behavior. 4. Learning to Be The fundamental principle is that education should contribute to every person’s complete development – mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic appreciation and spirituality. More than ever, the essential task of education seems to make sure that all people enjoy the freedom of thought, judgement, feeling and imagination to develop their talents and keep control of as much of their lives as they can.(www.unesco.org). ETHICS Ethics as defined earlier is the art and science that deals with the morality of human acts. Human Act – act that proceeds from the deliberate free will of man. Acts of Man – acts that do not proceed from the deliberate free will of man. These are sometimes instinctive. Types of Human Acts In Relation To Reason 1. Good – in harmony with the dictates of right reason 2. Evil - in opposition to the dictates of reason 3. Indifferent – when it stands in no positive relation to the dictates Elements of Human Acts 1. Knowledge Ex .I cannot desire to go to KIRIBATI unless I know it 2. Freedom No restrictions – free to choose Ex. desired to marry her boyfriend 3. Voluntariness – Latin voluntas – will - a will act. Not by force Ex. volunteered to marry him. Modifiers of Human Acts
Ignorance is the absence of intellectual knowledge in man.
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Concupiscene refers to the bodily appetites or tendencies like: love, hatred, joy, grief, passion, daring, fear and anger
Fear – Shrinking back of the mind from danger
Violence – external force applied by a free cause which vitiates man’s free will.
Habit – born of frequently repeated acts. Norms of Human Act
Law is derived from the Latin word “ lex ” . St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the author of Summa Theologiae defined law as an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good by the one who has charge of the society.
Types of Law 1. According to author a. Divine – God Church – ecclesiastical b. Human laws State – civil 2. According to duration
eternal
temporal
3. According to manner of promulgation of physical – govern creatures and beings a. Natural Law Natural – moral law b. Positive law – enacted by positive acts of legislators 4. According to prescription a. Affirmative – prescribes an act to be done b. Negative – prohibits the doing of an action
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5. According to effect of violation
Moral – violation is fault of sin penal – violation is punishable but has no sin Mised – violation is punishable and sinful
2. Conscience – practical judgement of reason upon which an individual act is considered good which is to be performed or evil which to be avoided. State of conscience
correct or true-certain erroneous doubtful
VALUES Values is derived from the Latin word “valere” meaning to be worthy to be of worth. It is defined in different ways by various authors. But, we shall define it as anything that can be desired and something chosen from alternatives, acted upon and enhances creative integration and development of human personality. PROPERTIES OF VALUES
Relative – subject to change good for what? And for whom?
Subjective – good for one but not for others
Objective – has an absolute character - Summun Bonum – Supreme Good – God
Bipolar – good and bad o Ex. beautiful – ugly
Hierarchical – scaled graduation - according to priority
CLASSIFICATION OF VALUES (Andres)
Useful or utilitarian – other useful things are obtained from it
Pleasurable or delectable – provides pleasure to the subject
Befitting or becoming good – develops, completes and perfects the subject.
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Individual person human person
Accidental values – temporal, impermanent, variable
Natural human values – befit man every place at every time
Primary values – chosen, acted upon, necessary for authentic development of man. Chosen from alternatives
Secondary values – obligatory values Ex. Children governed by parental rules
Moral/Ethical – obligatory in character Basic and urgent in life and activities of man
Religious – ultimate Divine Value
Cultural Value – includes poetry, music, painting, unique characteristics important to a culture
Fourfold test of Robin Williams to determine cultural values
Extensiveness
Duration of Value
Intensity
Prestige of value carrier
10 .Social values – friendship, family ties and the likes HIERARCHY OF VALUES Hierarchy of values refers to the different scales or graduation of prioritizing values. Listed below are some philosophers and their respective hierarchy of values. PLATO (427-347 B.C)
Knowledge – philosophers
Honor – warriors
Money/Business – artisans/merchants
Pleasure
Passion
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MAX SCHELER
Pleasure values
Vital or welfare values
Spiritual or cultural
Sacred – religious DEFECTIVE NORMS OF MORALITY Defective norms of morality is the term given to the different philosophical beliefs about morality which somehow do not conform to the universally accepted standards of human morality. Listed below are some of these non-conformists’ moral ideologies; HEDONISM is the belief that morality is determined by the acquisition of pleasure. What is pleasurable and anything that bring pain is immoral. The supreme end of man is acquisition of pleasure and delight. The foremost advocates of this ideology were Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) of England, Epicurus and Democritus of ancient Greece. UTILITARIANISM subscribes to the idea that an acts is good if it brings good result or the achievement of one’s goals and it is bad if it fails make man attain his goals. The forerunners of this belief were Herbert Spencer and Charles Sanders Pierce. Types of Utilitarianism
o individual or egoism o social or altruism – the greatest good for the greatest
number. Moral Rationalism is the belief that human reason is the sole source of all moral laws. It was advocated by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) of Prussia
Moral Evolutionism is the idea that morality is not absolute but keeps on changing until such time it reaches the perfect state. It was advocated by Friedrich Nietzcshe (1844- 1900) of Germany who believed that the society must produce strong people and kill the weak,which eventually became the basis of Hitler’s ideal of Aryan supremacy.
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Moral Positivism. This theory advocates that state laws are the bases of all moral laws, ergo it is good if is in accordance with the laws of the state and anything that opposes the state laws must be rejected. The foremost advocate of this ideology was Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) of England.
Moral Sensism is the belief that man is endowed with special moral sense that
can distinguish good or evil. Therefore, an action is moral if it is harmony with this human sense and immoral if not in harmony with this sense.
Communism is an economic theory which is based on the ideals of a classless
society as expounded in the UTOPIA written by Sir Thomas More of England and COMMUNIST MANIFESTO written by Karl Marx of Germany, who believed that history is marked by the constant struggle between classes of people and in order to attain an ideal state, the burgeois or the ruling class must be overthrown by the proletarian or the working class. This ideology denies the existence of God and views religion as an opium.
It does not recognize human freedom and immortality of man’s soul. It treats man
as just an economic animal
MODERN PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCAT
HUMANISM In the ancient literature of Greece and Rome, humanity and the things that interest and concerned humanity in this life were the focus or central theme. At this period of revival, humanism was a philosophy that rejected supernaturalism, regarded man as a natural object and asserted the essential dignity and worth of man and his capacity to achieve self-realization through the use of reason and scientific method. It was characterized by the revival of classical letters, an individualistic and critical spirit and concerns. This movement started in Italy and later spread to other European countries. REALISM Realism as opposed to the realistic movement in the medieval period is defined as the type of education in which natural phenomena and social institutions rather than languages and literature are made the chief subjects of study. It is also considered as an educational philosophy which advocates that education should be concerned with the actualities of life and prepare for its concrete
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duties. It presumably arose as a reaction opposing humanism and religious formalism that held education captive for nearly three centuries (1300’s to 1700’s). DISCIPLINISM This theory, also known as formal discipline, was based on Aristotle’s “faculty” psychology which asserted that the mind is made up of certain faculties such as memory, reason, will, judgement, etc. and each of which needs special activities for its training and development. This theory maintained that the power developed in any faculty by the study of a school subject can be used equally well in other subjects or to meet any other experience in life. Adherents of this theory maintained that Mathematics, because of the universality of its principles, and linguistic because of the orderly arrangement of its parts, should be given considerable emphasis for they were peculiarly well adapted to the training of all the power of the mind like memory and reasoning. Foremost of the advocates of this philosophy was John Locke who believed that when the child is born his mind can be compared to “tabula rasa” or a blank tablet, and whatever experiences the child will acquire it will be imprinted into that tablet and he will carry these experiences until he grows old. RATIONALISM Rationalism was the educational philosophy prevalent in Europe in the latter part of the seventeenth century. It took its roots during the period known as the “age of reason” or “age of enlightenment”. This philosophy claimed that human reason was the sole source of knowledge and the sole determiner whether things or actions were acceptable or not. Anything that did not conform to human reasoning should be blatantly rejected. Moreover, the rationalist upheld the right of a person expose his own ideas and opinions, liberty of conscience and freedom of thought and expression. This movement aimed at the development of individuals by means of restraints based upon his reasons. By these man can his lot and can contribute to the common good and welfare of his institutions and society. NATURALISM Naturalism is the educational philosophy which adamantly opposed formalism. This tenet advocated that education should be in accordance with the nature of the child. Therefore, all educational practices should be focused towards the natural development of all the innate talents and abilities of the child.
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This was based on the ideals of Jean Jacques Rousseau who believed that man, by nature, is basically good and the influences of the society are the things that drive man to do evil acts. Rousseau wrote EMILE, a novel which is now considered as the Gospel of the child’s educational freedom. IDEALISM This school of thought holds that knowledge is independent of sense perception or experience. It lays stress on the mental idea, intrinsic or spiritual value rather than physical fact or material value. It also asserts that man as a part of the universe is a purposive being and knows some truths by reasoning logically in the relationship between values, and that true ideas exist innately in the sould of man. Idealism also claims that man’s knowledge is based on his mental state and the mental stimulus perceived by man’s soul comes from an infinite spirit which is God. And God is the “summum bonum” or the highest good to whom all absolute good, beauty and values are found. In education, idealism argues that the individual’s freedom should be emphasized and guaranteed. The idealist claim that education must provide for the development of the mind of every pupil, and in order to realize this, the school must concentrate on intellectual, moral, judgement, and aesthetic development of the students. This, they contend, can only be made possible through a subject matter-centered curriculum designed to provide students with the best ideas of human culture and civilization. On the other hand, the idealist expect the teachers to be role models of intellectual, moral, aesthetic and vocational excellence to their students. They should teach by example. PRAGMATISM It is the doctrine that claims that the meaning of a proposition or idea lies in its practical consequences. This can be attributed to the teachings of ancient intellectual like Heraclitus of ancient Ephesus and the Sophist. Yet pragmatism is education and in modern perspective is credited to Professor John Dewey, Charles Pierce and William James, some of the most famous American educators and philosophers. This philosophy is very much related to experimentalism.
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It is derived from the Greek “Pragma” meaning a thing done, a fact that is practiced. This philosophy stresses that education is in vain or furtile if it does not perform the social functions assigned to it, and unless it is considered as a social institution itself. The pragmatist claim that society cannot fulfill the educational task without an institution designed for this purpose. And the school must maintain intimate relation with society, if its role is to be played well. They also assert that the school, main functions are (1). Being a specialized institution designed to represent society to the child in simplified form; (2). Being selective in qualitative, if not ethical manner as it represents society to the young, the school is in a position to exercise value judgements in representing society; (3). Being responsible in giving the child a balanced and genuinely representative acquaintance with the society. (Butler, 1968) The aim of education as far as the pragmatist are concerned is the total development of the child through experiencing or through self-activity or the “learning by doing” dictum postulated by John Dewey. They also suggest that to this end the curriculum must offer subjects that provide opportunities for various projects and activities that are relevant to the needs, abilities and interests as well as the socio-economic conditions of the learners. They further believe that the learner must be made the center of all educative processes – a concept based on Dewey’s tenet that educational is life, education is growth, education is a social process, and education is the construction of human experience. PROGRESSIVISM It is an equally new approach to the philosophy of education. Like pragmatism, it claims that the child’s growth and development as an individual depend on his experiences and self-activity. This philosophy emphasizes that educational concern must be on the child’s interest, desires and the learner’s freedom as an individual rather than the subject matter. It asserts that learning is a dynamic or active process and a learner must learn what he lives and must accept and respond to his experiences based on the degree of his understanding of a particular situation.
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Progressivism adheres to the ideas that thinking and reasoning should be emphasized, and that good and successful teaching utilizes the principle of self-activity, and stimulates thinking and reasoning. It also recognizes the fact that no two individuals are exactly alike the principle of individual differences. Therefore, the activities and experiences to be provided by the school should meet the needs and should be in accordance with the abilities of every child. Finally, it stresses group discussion and group activities as effective means of self expression and development. EXISTENTIALISM It is a philosophical doctrine which emphasizes the freedom of human beings to make choices in a world where there are no absolute values outside man himself. This doctrine is primarily attributed to Soren Kierkegaard, a 19th century Danish philosopher who adamantly argued that human existence was marked off from all other kidns by man’s power to choose. The decisions that a man makes will enable him to realize what kind of person he will be and will make him distinct from other people. And if a person has developed and is aware of his own identity he will be able to find meaning and purpose for his existence. For these and other arguments, the existentialist have no concrete concept to support the existence of God or any absolute value. They believe that man is the molder of his own destiny. For them truth is never absolute, but is always relative to each of individual who is the sole determiner of the truth for himself, and every value is always dependent upon the free choice of every man. They further advocate that existence is the basic value for every man and the significance of every value lies upon the circumstances pertaining to man’s existence. Education to the existentialist should enable man to make choices for his life. It should be a means to open his very eyes to the naked truth of his existence and be aware of his status quo and in so doing education serves as a guiding spirit for him in making prudent decisions and wise actions. They believed that a classroom should be market of free ideas that would guarantee complete individual freedom. The student must be allowed to decide for himself and undertake activities which he believes are significant and beneficial to his life, whereas, the teacher should only act as a guide, a resource person or facilitator of learning and most not interfere in the decisions of the student. The teacher has “the right to teach his students how to think but not what to think.” ESSENTIALISM
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Essentialism is a philosophical theory that ascribes ultimate reality reality to essence embodied in a thing perceptible to the senses. In education, it is a philosophy holding that certain basic ideas and skills or disciplines essential to one’s culture are formulable and should be taught to all alike by certain time-tested methods. The schools should inculcate into the minds and hearts of the students the values that are hailed and are considered important by society. The educational institutions as far as essentialism is concerned are the agencies for the propagation and perpetuation of these long-cherished cultural traits and not an entity to oppose such values.
ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY
The East (Orient) is the home of some of the world’s famous religious and philosophical beliefs as well as great philosophers and sages. This section takes a closer look at these ideologies. HINDUISM Hinduism is the predominant religion of the peoples of India. This religion has a triad of chief god’s known as Trimurti composed of Brahma -the Supreme Spirit, Vishnu - the preserver, who is thought to have taken various human forms including Krishna, ( the hero in the epic Mahabharata) and Rama, and the third is Shiva – the destroyer and recreator who represents theforce for change in the universe and is depicted both as the supreme ascetic and as the supreme lover. In Hinduism, people are divided into four classes known as the caste system: Brahmans, the priest; Kshatriyas, the nobles and the warriors; the Vaisyas, the traders, cultivators and peasants; Sudras, the servants. Outside the castle system are the Untouchables also known as the outcasts. The practice of Hinduism is a complex ofo rights and ceremonies performed within the framework of the caste system under the supervision of the priest. Under this ideology, the sum of the human being’s actions carried from one life to the next results in either an improved or worsened fate. This belief is also known as the law of Karma – process or series of birth and rebirth until one attains perfection and eventually reaches nirvana, which is the place of unending happiness and bliss. The Veda is the most sacred of all the Hindu scriptures composed of four main collections: Rig Veda – humns and praises; Yahur Veda –
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prayers and sacrificial formulas; Sama Veda – tunes and chants; and Atharva Veda – magical formulas. BUDDHISM According to tradition, the founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha Gautama, who most probably lived from 563-483 B.C. He was son of a wealthy leader belonging to the Sakya Clan. He was born in the foothills of the Himalayas in what is now known as Nepal. Throughout his early life his father sought to protect him from the sorrows of the world. He was reare in the palalce and was married to a beautiful princess who bore him a son. Despite his riches, Gautama eventually escaped from his wealthy environment and outside the palace, he met an old dying man, a sick man afflicted by a disease, corpse being carried to the cremation ground and a shaven-headed wandering religious beggar, but radiating peace and joy. Gautama resolved to leave his wife and son and to live the life of an ascetic. For six years, with five companions he strove to find release from the weariness of existence. Later he left his companions and went to meditate under the Bo tree by the River Gaya, it was there that he received enlightenment and from then was known as Buddha “the enlightened one.” Buddha advocated the Four Noble Truth to wit: 1) the noble of suffering-all mortal existence is characterized by suffering: 2) the noble truth on the origin of suffering-thecause of suffering is desire; 3) the noble truth on the cessation of desire-to stop desire means to stop suffering; and 4) the noble truth to the way of the cessation of desire the stopping of desire comes by following the Noble Eightfold Path to break the chain of Karma and reach Nirvana. The Eightfold Path on the other hand are 1) Right View; 2) Right Resolve; 3) Right Speech; 4) Right Action; 5) Right Livelihood; 6) Right effort; 7) Right Concentration; and 8) Right Contemplation or Ecstasy. CONFUCIANISM Confucianism is the body of beliefs and practices that are based on the Chinese classics and are supported by the authority of Kung fu-tzu or Confucius although he himself maintained that he was a transmitter rather than a creator. Confucius was born in 551 B.C in the city of Lu in Northern China, and died around 479 B.C He taught the importance of life which means propriety and orderliness, and the ideal of a gentleman whose life is governed by propriety filial piety.
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For almost 2500 years Confucianism has been the religion of the great masses of China. The teachings of Confucius are found in the Analects – a collection of discussions and saying. The Confucian Scriptures are known as the Six Chinese Classics: 1). Shu Ching – The Book of History; 2). Shi Ching- the book of Poetry; 3.) I Ching – the book of Changes 4.) Li Chi – the Book of Rites; 5). Yueh Ching – the Book of Music; 6.) Ch’un Chu - Spring and Autumn Annals. Many dherents to this belief considered it as a way of life, a code of moral and social behavior, rather than a religion. Thus, they need not believe in any god and they may follow their master, Confucius, and at the same time profess another religion. TAOISM The word tao literally means path or way. It may denote a way of acting or a principle of teaching. Tao is the inexpressible source of all being, the First Cause, The Ultimate Reality. It is the principle which moderate and controls the universe, the way in which men live in harmony with the universe. The original teachings of Taoism are found in Tao Te Ching, China’s most influential book. The book is attributed to Lao Tzu (born in 604 B.C.) but is now believed to be an anthology of brief passages dating from about the 4th century B.C, Lao Tzu’s very existence is disputed today. His name means “Old Master”, a title applied to a number of teachers in the period following Confucius. To follow the Tao is to follow the way of the nature. The “watercourse way”. Water flows softly and effortlessly to humble places; yet even so it can be the most overpowering substance. So, too, with the followers of Taoism, he is likely to be mystsical and quietist: by stilling himself, his senses and appetites, he can gain an inner perception of the Tao, a oneness with the Eternal, a harmony with the Principle underlying and penetrating the whole world. He attains enlightenment. Te means virtue or power, and a follower of popular Taoism seeks to harness this power through magic and rituals. He is likely to be preoccupied with death and the quest for immortality. Taoist writing include Chuang Tzu – the formal treatise of philosophical Taoism and Tao Te Ching (The Way and its Power) the classic of mysticism, of first importance in the Taoist religion. SHINTOISM Shinto is not a Japanese word. It was coined from the Chinese shen (gods) and tao (the way), when Buddhism first entered Japan. The intention was to distinguish the
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older religion – “the way of the Kami” from the new Buddhism. Kami has no exact translation for it applies to animals, plants, seas, mountains, all natural phenomena, and even to the ancestors. It expresses a feeling of awe and wonder. Ancient Shinto combined this veneration of nature with rites of an ancient agricultural fertility cult. Traces of both practices can be seen today in worship of the one of the foremost Kami, the Sun Goddess Amaterasu, at the famous shrine at Ise; at the pilgrimage to the summit of Mount Fuji; in planting and harvesting ceremonies; and in the veneration of Sacred trees. ZOROASTRIANISM Zoroastrinism is the religion founded Zoroaster of Zarathustra (ca 700 B.C.) Its theology is dualistic, the Good God Ahura Mazda or Ormuzd being opposed by the Evil God, Angra Minyu or Ahriman.They are pressume to be perpetually in conflict but eventually the victor will be Ormuzd. A ceremony was devised for purifying and keeping clean both the soul and body. The worship was at altars on which burnt the scared fire and sacrifices are offered. A priestly class was instituted and the dead were exposed to vultures. JUDAISM Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people. The Jewish people trace their history as told in the Hebrew Bible, in particular the Pentateuch – the first five books of the Bible also known as the Torah (Law) from the patriarchs – Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, Abraham crossed from Mesopotamia in about 1800 B.C to settle in Canaan also known as the “promised land – the land flowing with milk and honey”. Abraham begot Isaac and Isaac begot Jacob and Jacob had twelve sons who took refuge during the time of famine in Egypt where they became slaves. Around 1250 B.C. their descendants known as the Hebrews were led out of Egypt by Moses. This was the Exodus. On their way to the promise land, God gave Moses the Books of the Law engraved in tablets of stones. These are known as the Mosaic Laws which guide the lifestyle and religion of the Jewish people. The God of Israel, known as Yahweh, revealed Himself as the God of history and not simply a tribal deity or nature spirit but the creator of everything who is in total control of the world which He Himself has created in the beginning of time. Moses himself did not enter the Promised Land. It was his successor, Joshua, and the Judges who moved into the land and settled the people. They were in turn succeeded by a line of Kings beginning with Saul, David and his son Solomon.
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Their successors divided the Kingdom into Judah and Israel. The Sacred Scriptures of Judaism are the: Bible (Old Testament) a collection of books written over a period of 1,00 years and written by different authors; the Torah (Law) – the first five book of the Bible attributed to Moses; the Mishnah (repetition) – ethical and ritual teaching based on the Bible; Talmud (study) – based on the Mishnah with futher reflections The key to beliefs of the Jewish people are summarized as:
The existence of the creator
The unity of God
The incorporeality of God (God is a spirit)
The eternity of God
The obligation to serve and worship God alone
The existence of prophecy
The superiority of Moses to all the prophets
The revelation of the Law to Moses in Mt. Sinai
The unchanging nature of the law
God is omniscient (all knowing), omnipotent (all powerful) and omnipresent (everywhere)
Retribution in this world and the next
The coming of the Messiah
The resurrection of the dead CHRISTIANITY Christians take their name from Jesus Christ. Jesus was born in Bethlehem. In Judea, sometime between 6 and 4 B.C. to a devout Jewish couple named Mary and Joseph, descendants of King David. He grew up in Nazareth, in Galilee and at the age of 30 was baptized in the River Jordan by a prophet called John the Baptist. John had been preaching and baptizing people, as a mark of repentance for sins. He heralded the coming of one greater than himself. After his baptism, Jesus gathered wound him a band of twelve disciples, and went about the countryside preaching, teaching and healing the sick. He announced the coming of God’s rule and declared the need for people to repent of their sins and believe the Good News of Gods kingdom. At the age of 33, Jesus was arrested, tortured and put to death by the Roman authorities, with the collaboration of Jewish secular and religious leaders, probably about A.D 29-30. He died by crucifixion, a common but very painful method of execution. But he rose from the dead three days later, appeared to some women followers and His disciples, and a number of occasions during the next forty days, and then returned to His Father in heaven. Christians therefore believe in a living Christ not a dead hero. The
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crucifix and the cross have become the symbols of the suffering Savior and the risen Lord. The Christians believe that Jesus Christ is both Son of God and Son of Man – fully human and fuly divine and without sin. In Him, One God, Creator of the heavens and the earth, came down to men, in order to raise men to be with God. This is the incarnation, achieved through his birth of a virgin mother, conceived by the Holy Spirit Jesus took on himself the limitations of human nature. He also took responsibility for the sins of the human race, reconciling God with men and men with God. This is the atonement, achieved through his death. But he died only to rise again to new life. This is the resurrection. Those who believe in Jesus are not only saved from their sins but will be raised to new life when Jesus comes again. Meanwhile, through the Spirit of God living in them, they are guided and strengthened in their pilgrimage on earth. The Christian canon of scripture, known as the Bible, was finally agreed on between AD 170 and 220. It contains 39 books of Jewish scriptures ( the old testament) and 27 books of Christian scriptures, (The New Testament). Some people add to these the Apocrypha, a collection of Jewish writings which formed part of Greek version of the Jewes scriptures, but which were excluded from the accepted Hebrew Canon. The New Testament consist of four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles or the Letter of Paul, the General Letters and the Revelation to St. John. The Christians belive that the Bible is the written Word of God, which bears witness to Jesus, the Living Word (Logos). (Langley, 1987) ISLAM Islam is which literally means submission to God is one of the three monotheistic religions in the World. Its followers, the Muslims, are those who commit themselves in the surrender to the will of God (Allah). Islam traces its origin to the Prophet Muhammad, who was born in Mecca, Arabia, about AD 571, the time where a power vacuum existed between two great empires of East and West – Persia and Byzantine. Muhammad, who was orphaned at an early age, was looked upon by his relatives until a rich uncle sent him on trading expeditions to the north where it is reported that he met Christians. At the age of 25, a
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rich forty year old widow named Khadija proposed to him and eventually bore him three daughters but no son. In middle life, Muhammad began to show mystical traits and developed habit of withdrawing to the hills for contemplation. On one such occasion, at the age of forty he received a revelation calling him to denounce the paganism and polytheism of Mecca and preach the existence of one God – Allah. Then in 622, at the request of the people of Medina, he left Mecca for Medina accompanied by his followers. This is known as celebration of hijra or emigration – the event from which the Muslim calendar begins. Meanwhile Muhammad had expelled most of the Jewish tribes to whom he hoed to win and gradually incorporated the Bedouin tribes of Western and Central Arabia into the Muslim community. In 630, he attacked Mecca and captured Muhammad immediately set about eliminating the polytheists and rededicated the ancient sanctuary of the Ka’aba to Allah, making it the central shrine of pilgrimage for Muslims. In 632 Muhammad died without naming a successor. He was succeeded by a series of Caliphs, (successors) the first being Abu Bakr and Umar. The Islamic faith is centered on the Five Pilalrs of Islam: 1. Shahada (confession of faith) – There is no other God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet. 2. Salat (prayer) – Muslims pray five times daily facing Mecca – at daybreak, noon, mid afternoon, after sunset and early in the night. They also go to the Mosques during Fridays. 3. Zakat (almsgiving) – Muslims give 21/2 and a half percet of their income and other properties to charity. 4. Ramadan (fasting) – During this period the Muslims do not eat, drink, smoke or engage in sex between dawn and sunset. 5. Hajj (pilgrimage) – A Muslim is required to go to Mecca at least once in his lifetime. Soon after the death of Muhammad, the revelations which he received were put together from oral and written sources to form the Qur’an (recitation), which the Muslims belive as the infallible word of God sent down from heaven and that nothing has changed it. Next in importance to the Qur’an is the Hadith (tradition), which is the
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record of the life and activities of Muhammad and the early Muslim communities. It contains the Sunna (Example) of the prophet and the standards which all the Muslims should follow. The Qur’an and the Sunna have combined to form the Shiari’a (law) an extraordinary comprehensive guide to life and conduct (Langley, 1987)
PART III
PRACTICE EXAMINATIONS
“GENERAL EDUCATION”
ENGLISH
The correct answers are colored in red. 1. He is considered as the greatest English writer. He is also known as the “Bard of Avon” a. Geoffrey Chaucer c. William Shakespeare b. Sir Walter Scott d. Francis Bacon 2. Of the following quotations, which is the best example of an aphorism? a. That is no country for old men b. I fear thee, ancient mariner c. Fools rush in where angels fear to thread d. Out of the frying pan and into the fire 3. He is known as the father of horror stories a. Edgar Allan Poe c. Willam Faulkner b. Mark Twain d. Harriet Beecher Stowe
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4. Severe financial crisis would cause reduction in teaching positions, increase in class sizes, decrease in the number of special programs, reduction of supplies, etc. In such a situation, those who will be most affected in schools are a. school administrators c. parents b. students d. teachers. 5. Taking an examination is like baking an apple pie. The first step is to gather the ingredients, mix them, prepare the crust, place it on a pie pan, and then bake in an oven at 350 degrees. This suffers from- a. an omitted conclusion c. a hasty generalization b. alliteration d. a faulty comparison 6. In Macbeth we see a man whose downfall was vaused by a. supernatural intervention b. a naturally blood thirsty disposition c. an unfair plot against his life d. overwhelming ambition for power 7. How much money did you bring for shopping?” Which of the following answers this question? a. I have some change in my purse b. None, but I have a credit card c. I have P500.00 inside the envelope in my desk d. All the cash I have was spent at the grocery store yesterday 8. Don Quixote, hero of Cervantes immortal novel, rode forth – a. in quest of the holy grail b. to see the world and seek fortune c. to defend the oppressed and right the wrong d. to see his king and country 9. The ash from Mt. Pinatubo has been found to have gold content of only 20 parts per billion which is far below commercial levels. As such, officials have warned against hopes of a new “gold rush” a. There is new hope for boosting the economy of the Phiippines b. The gold content of the ash from MT. Pinatubo does not have commercial value. c. There is a possibility of existing gold mines beneath Mt. Pinatubo d. There is a need to explore what else lies beneath Mt.Pinatubo
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10. Adults acquire new words and experience primarily through – a. casual explanation from peers c. exposure to their use b. formal instruction in school d. use of thesaurus 11. A readability mismatch happens when the reading levels of books exceed the reading levels of the students. In this situation, the students experience frustration and they fall short of the expected and desired output. A student who finds himself/ herself in such a mismatch will likely do which of the following? a. Present an argument that the selection or story read was not properly written. b. Write a comprehensive reaction paper regarding the selection or story read. c. Give intelligent critique of the selection or story read. d. Manifest an expected and commensurate emotional reaction to the selection or story read. 12. Gothic architecture is known for its – a. decorated ceilings c. height b. pointed arches d. round domes 13. All of the following correctly descrives the BALLAD, EXCEPT – a. a ballad often rhymes a b c d. c. a ballad often uses learned language b. a ballad uses dialogue d. a ballad is a narrative poem 14. An electric industrial company has developed a computer program that can use photographs of faces to predict how an unborn child will look like a. A computer analyzes facial characteristics from a photograph b. A computer can predict the looks of future children as well as of their parents c. A computer can choose the right mate and predict the ageing process d. A computer can predict the number of children of newlyweds. 15. Van Gogh, the artist, felt that GOD should not be judged on this earth which he felt represents one of his sketches that tuned out badly. Which of the following maybe inferred from this passage? a. Van Gogh felt that more evil than good exists on earth b. Van Gogh felt that this earth was created but not completed by GOD c. Van Gogh felt that GOD created more than one universe d. Van Gogh believed that more than one earth exists.
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16. Values education is integrated in the curriculum of all levels. Which of the following supports this statements. a. New teachers will be hired b. Additional classrooms will be needed c. Values education is stressed in all subjects at all levels d. There is need for training of teachers to teach 17. According to current linguistic theories, which of the following is the best definition of the meaning of a word. a. Its general, dictionary definition. C. Its corresponding idea in the mind b. its object to which it refers d. Its use in particular situation 18. Once I passed through a populous city imprinting my brain for future use with its shows, architecture, customs, traditions. Yet now, of all that city I remember only a woman I casually met who detained me for love of me. This passage is an example of – a. blank verse c. metered poetry b. prose d. free verse. 19. In writing his Autobiography, Benjamin Franklim stated that he was unable to arrive at perfection. Yet, I was by the endeavor, a happier and better man I otherwise should have been if I had not attempted it. Which of the following best describes Franklin attempt to achieve perfection? a. Cleanliness is next to Godliness c. Nothing ventured, nothing gained b. Time is money d. Ambition is its own reward 20. In the Count of Monte Cristo, Edmond Dante was wrongfully imprisoned in – a. the conciergerie c. Devils Island b. The Bastille d. the Castle of Chillon 21. Teachers have the responsibility for the development of childrens competencies in basic concepts and principles of free speech. Therefore, if we want children to develop their own voices in a free society, teachers must support participatory democratic experiences in the daily classroom activities through— a. considerations for cultural and gender differences b. concept and principles of free speech c. indoctrination on the principles of society d. developing childrens citizenship competence 22. The Nibelungenlied is a – a. Latin Myth c. Chinese legend
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b. Medieval German epic. Russian folk song 23. This is Tom, whom I am sure, will be glad to help you/ a. No, Change c. Tom who I am sure b. Tom, whom I am sure d. Tom, who I am sure 24. Ronnie has scarcely no equal as a pitcher – a. No change c. has scarcely with equal b. has scarcely an equal d. has hardly and equal 25. Having studied eight weeks, he now feels sufficiently prepared for the examination. a. Since hes been spending the last eight weeks in study b. Due to eight weeks of study c. No change d. Fort eight weeks he studies so 26. The belief of ancient scientist was that the maggots are generated from decaying bodies and filth and are not formed by reproduction a. The ancient scientist believe c. The ancient scientist beliefs were b. No change d. The ancient beliefs of scientist was 27. The amount of water in living cells vary, but it is usually 65 percent and in some organism maybe as high as 95 percent or more of the total substance. a. The amount of water varies in living cells b. No Change c. The amount of water vary in living cells d. The amount of water in living cells varies 28. The respiratory membrane, through which exchange of gases occurs, are the things of the lungs a. through which exchanges of gas occurs c. No change b. After gases are exchanged d. through which gas is exchanged 29. Delegates to the political convention found difficulty to choose a candidate from among the few nominated. a. it difficult in making the choice of b. No change c. it difficult to choose d. making a choice difficult in selecting
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Select the letter of the word or phrase that defines the capitalized word(s) in each sentence. 30. Lepidopterology is WHERE YOU STUDY moths and butterflies. a. Moths and butterflies are studied Lepidopterology b. The study of moths and butterflies is Lepidopterology c. Lepidopterology is the study of moths and butterflies d. Lepidopterology studies moth and butterflies 31. He was NEITHER QUALIFIED to lead this country NOR WAS HE SERIOUS a. Neither was he qualified nor was he serious to lead this country b. He was neither qualified nor serious to lead this country c. Neither qualified nor serious was he to lead this country d. He was qualified but not serious to lead this country 32. SHE ENJOYS PLAYS, CULTURAL EXHIBIT, AND TO WALK EVERY MORNING. a. She goes to plays, cultural exhibits, and walking every morning b. She enjoys plays, cultural exhibits and morning walks. c. She enjoys going to plays, exhibitions and to walk every morning d. She goes to plays, watching exhibits, and walking every morning 33. Patricia is taller than ANY GIRL in her class a. Patricia is the taller grl in the class b. Patricia is taller than other girls in the class c. Patricia is the taller than other girls in the class d. Patricia is taller than any other girl in her class 34. The hunter stalked the wild boar slowly, cautiously and IN A SILENT MANNER a. And in silence c. And silently b. And also used silence d. Any by acting silently 35. How much HAS FUEL COSTS RAISED during the past year? a. Has fuel costs rose c. Have fuel costs risen b. Has fuel costs risen d. Have fuel cost raised 36. About a thousand people GATHERED, THEY WERE THERE PROTESTING the construction of a nuclear power plant. a. Gathered, protesting against c. Gathered to protest b. Gathered for the purpose of protesting d. Gathered-they were protesting
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37. There was a QUEUE at the launch counter a. New service strategy c. Line of people awaiting for their turn b. Slow service d. Fast service rendered 38. That was the most CHAOTIC era of the Hundred Years War. a. Helpless c. Disgusting b. Unfortunate d. Disorderly 39. Astrology is the form of DIVINATION a. State of bliss c. Unfortunate events b. Sanctification d. foretelling future events 40. There was an ESOTERIC lecture on holography a. Something ancient c. Irrefutable proof b. Out of Context d. Understandable only by a select group 41. The brain can store ADMONITORY information a. Past experience c. Valuable data b. Advanced knowledge d. Warning to avoid danger 42. Those tribes are INTREPID pioneers of the islands. a. Handworking c. Very brave b. Self-reliant d. Supernatural 43. TRANSCENDENTAL meditation is practiced in Yoga a. Momentary c. heavenly b. Interpretative d. Supernatural 44. They were showered with extraordinary AMENITIES of the luxurious hotel. a. Hostilities c. Pardons b. Comforts d. Jokes 45. Form all the report of the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration, we DEDUCED that we were in for bad weather a. Led away c. Undermined b. Subtracted d. reached a conclusion
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46. There was a CONFLAGRATION in the forest of Palawan. A General assembly c. Large destructive fire\ b. Fierce encounter d. Massive free planning 47. The EQUINOX usually occurs on or close to March 21 and September 23. a. Time when days are longer than the nights b. Time when day and night are equal length all over the earth c. Time when heavy rainfall d. Time when days are shorter than the nights 48. The usually DOCILE cows become unruly duringa storm. a. Lovable c. Easy to manage b. Helpless d. Innocent 49. The next millennium in another PHASE in history a. A shadow of the past c. A trouble to anticipate b. A confusion of mind d. A stage or changing state of development 50. She had ILLUSIVE dreams of instant wealth a. Tending to slip away c. moving swiftly b. Beyond comprehension d. Based on false ideas
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FILIPINO 1. Kami ang kabataang siyang magiging pag-asa ng bayan. a. Pagtula c. Pagtukoy b. Pagtanong d. Pasasalamat 2. Sabihin ang gawa ng pagsasalitang ito. Iwasan ang imburnal, may nagtrabaho” a. Pagtukoy c. Babala b. Pagkukuwento d. Pasasalamat 3. Oo. Ate, ___________________ na muna ako nang tubig a. Umaakyat c.mag-akyat b. umakyat d. mag-aakyat 4. Ikaw naman kasi nagpahuli ka pa a. Pagkontrol ng kilos ng iba c. Pagbibigay ng impormasyon b. Paglikha d. Pagbabahagi ng damdamin 5. Hoy, Michelle! Tigilan mo muna ang ________ at kumain ka muna” a. Lalabhin c. paglaba b. Lalabhan d. paglalaba 6. Ang tinawag na madamdaming mananaysay ni Carmen Guerero Nakpil ay si – a. Virgilio S. Almario c. Teo S. Baylen b. Teodoro A. Agoncillo d. Alejandro Abadilla 7. Ito ay isang dulang nagsasalayay ng buhay at kamatayan ng ating mahal na poong Hesukristo at masasabing parang PASYONG itinatanghal sa entablado. Ito ay ang – a. Moro-moro c. Karagatan b. Senakulo d. Duplo 8. Ang mga sumusunod, maliban sa isa, ay ilan sa mga akdang pampanitikang nagdala ng malaking impluwensya sa buong daigdig. a. Ang Koran c. Ang Banal na Kasulatan b. Ang Divina Comedia d. Ang Romeo at Julieta 9. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pinakatamang pangungusap?
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a. Isang guro na lalaking anak na bunso ni Marcia John. b. Isang guro na si John, ang bunsong anal na lalaki ni Marcia c. Isang guro na bunsong lalaking anak ni Marcia si John d. Isang guro na si John na bunsong lalaking anak ni Marcia. 10. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pinakatamang pangungusap? a. Ang pabrikang pinagtrabahuhan nila malapit sa amin ay bago’t Malaki. b. Ang bago’t malaking pabrikan pinagtatrabahoan nila ay malapit sa amin c. Ang pinagtatrabahuhan nilang malapit sa amin ay bago’t malaking pabrika d. Ang pabrikang malapit sa amin, bago’t Malaki ay pinagtrabahuhan nila. 11. Kami ay nakikipagsapalaran sa lunsod. Ano ang ayos ng pangungusap? a. Di-karaniwan c. Walang paksa b. karaniwan d. Walang pandiwa 12. Ang mahalagang ambag ni Severino Reyes sa dulang tagalog na ang hangarin ay reporma sosyal At patriotism ay ang __ a. Ang kalupi c. Walang Sugat b. R.I.P d. Puso ng Isang Pilipino 13. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pinakatamang pangungusap? a. Nagpapabata ang pulbos sa kutis na Clinique. b. Nagpapabata sa kutis ang pulbos na Clinique c. Nagpapabata ng mukha sa kutis ng pulbos na Clinique d. Nagpapabata sa kutis ng mukha ang pulbos na Clinique 14. Ikinalulungkot ko ang mga nangyayari a. Paghula c. Paghingi ng paumanhin b. Pagsagot d. Pagtatanong 15. Piliin ang gawi ng pagsasalita: Ipinadala niya ang mga aklat sa mga kaklase a. Direksyon c. Sanhi b. Aktor d. Layon 16. Piliin ang gawi ng pagsasalita: Kasiyahan ko nang Makita kayong nagmamahalan a. Pangarap c. Pagkuha ng impormasyon b. Pagkontrol ng kilos d. Pagbabahagi ng damdamin
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17. Ang kaugnayan ng pagkakapatay kina Burgos, Gomez at Zamora sa panitikang Pilipino ay __ a. nanaliting masigla ang diwang Pilipino b. nakagising sa damdaming makabayan ng mga Pilipino c. natutong lumabag sa batas at lumaban sa maykapangyarihan ang mga Pilipino d. naimpluwensyahan ang diwang alipin ng mga Pilipino. 18. Sa Lunes na pala tayo pupunta sa Subic. Ano ang _______ mong pagkain?” Tanong ni Lito. a. Nadala c. Dadalhin b. Dinala d. Dinadala 19. Isa sa mga mahalagang dapat taglayin ng isang tao ay ang pagtitiwala sa sarili. Ang taong wala nito ay nagiging mahiyain. Ibinababa ang kanyang sarili, mahirap magtagumpay sa kanyang mga hangarin at nanatiling naiingit lamang. Ang pangunahing kaisipan ay matatagpuan sa __ a. Ikalwang pangungusap c. Ikaapat na pangungusap b. Ikatlong pangungusap d. Unang pangungusap 20. Ipinagmalaki mo siya BAHAG naman apala ang kanyang BUNTOT. Ang ibig sabihin ng may malaking titik ay __ a. kuripot c. duwag b. mahiyain d. traidor 21. Walang tubig kahapon. Ito ay pangungusap na __ a. Walang pandiwa c. May panaguri b. Walang paksa d. May Paksa 22. Ang kauna-unahang nagsalin sa Tagalog ng MI ULTIMO ADIOS ni Jose Rizal ay is __ a. Emilio Jacinto c. Andres Bonifacio b. Apolinario Mabini d. Rafael Palma 23. KUMATHA ANG MAKATA NG TULA. Ang kaganapan ng pandiwa sa pangungusap na ito ay __
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a. layon c. pangnakaraan b. tagaganap d. ganapan 24. Kabaliwan at paglulustay ang inyong ginagawa taun-taon. Higit na marami ang maralitang nangangailangan ng salapi at at dunong. Ang nagsasalita ay ___ a. Kuripot c. praktikal b. Maramot d. matipid 25. Piliin ang gawi ng pagsasalita: Ayokong sumunod sa mga sinasabi mo. a. Pakiusap c. pagtanggi b. babala d. pamungkahi 26. Pinakamahalagang nobelang Pilipino sa maraming taon na nalimbag noon 1906 at tumalakay nang masinsinan sa paksang puhunan laban sa paggawa at sa sosyalismo a. Kundangan c. Salawahang Pag-ibig b. Ang Pangginggera d. Banaag at Sikat 27. Ang mga sumusunod maliban sa isa ay mga sagisag-panulat ni Marcelo H. Del Pilar. Ito ay ang __ a. Pupdoh c. Kinting Kulirat b. Dolores Manapat d. Piping Dilat 28. Ang karangalan ng pagka- “ Unang tunay na makata ayon” sa mananaliksik ay ibinibigay sa kanya at nalathala noong 1708 ang kanyang tulang ipinalalagay na may katangian ng tunay na tula. Siya ay si __ a. Jose Corazon de Jesus c. Francisco Balagtas b. Felipe de Jesus d. Jose dela Cruz 29. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pinakatamang pangungusap? a. Ang mga kabataan kung maliwanag ang buwan ay nagtatakbuhan sa lansangan at naglalaro b. Ang mga kabataan ay naglalaro kung maliwanag ang buwan at nagtatakbuhan sa lansangan c. Ang mga kabataan ay naglalaro at nagtatakbuhan sa lansangan kung maliwanag ang gabi d. Ang mga kabataan sa lansangan ay naglalaro at nagtatakbuhan sa lansangan. 30. Ikaw ba ang dapat sisihin sa nangyari? a. Pagbati c. Pagbibigay ng impormasyon b. Pagsasadula d. Pakikipagkapwa
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MATHEMATICS
1. A computer system is actually made up for actual physical machines known as – a. Monitor c. Printer b. hardware d. software 2. List the fractions 1/9, 2/15, and 3/15 from LEAST to GREATEST. a. 3/2 1, 1/9, 2/15 c. 1/9, 2/15/ 3/21 b. 1/9, 3/21/ 2/15 d. 2/15, 3/21, 1/9 3. Which of the following gives the sum of the polynomials (a2 + b2 + ab) and (3a2+4ab – 2b2)? a. 4a2+b2+5ab c. 3a2 +5ab-2b2
b. 5a2+5b2+5ab d. 4a2+5ab-b2
4. Of 50 students enrolled in the subject, curriculum and instruction 90% took the final Examination at the end of the term. Two thirds of those who took the final examination passed. How many students passed the exam? a. 33 c. 34 b. 45 d. 30 5. The entry of data and commands into the computer system is made possible through the – a. printer c. monitor b. keyboard d. diskette 6. If 4a=b, then a is equal to _____ a. 4+b c. b/4 c. 4b d. 1/4b 7. If p is a positive integer in the equation 12p=q, then q must be a – a. negative even integer c. negative odd integer b. positive odd integer d. positive even integer 8. The arithmetic mean of a set of 50 numbers is 38. If two numbers, 45 and 55, are discarded. The mean of the remaining set of numbers is a. 36.5 c. 37.0 b. 37.24 d. 37.5
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9. Which of the following values is CLOSEST to the square root of 4000? a. 22 c. 200 b. 63 d. 19 10. The value of the expression 3xy + 5y + 7 when x=2 and y=3 is— a. 36 c. 34 b. 42 d. 40 11. The following table shows some fixed algebraic correlations of the quatities m and n. What is the value of n if m is equal to – 4?
M n
3 -9 2 -6 1 -3 0 0 -1 3 -2 6
a. 9 c. -9 b. -12 d. 12 12. if 5x>0, which of the following must be TRUE? I. x<0 II. 1/x > 0 III. –x<0 a. II. Only c. I and II b. II and III d. I only 13. Which of the following Figures represents closed curves? a b. c. d.
a. b,d and e c. a and b
b. a,b and d d. b and d
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14. A cube is rectangular solid, the length, with and height of which have the same
measure called the edge (e) of the cube. The volume of the cube is found by “cubing”
the measure of the edge. What is the volume of the cube whose edge is 4cm?
a. 27cm3 c. 206cm3
b. 64 cm3 d. 125cm3
15. While attempting to explain the role of imitation in language acquisition,
investigators studied the different aspects of language development. An inference which
parents will make from this passage is that they should
a. be concerned when a child imitates their language
b. shuld be unconcerned as imitation is too complex
c. realize that their child’s imitations may reflect several aspects of language
acquisition
d. realize that their talking may over-stimulate their child’s activities.
16. If a function is defined by the set of ordered pairs (1,2), 2,4), (3,8), (4,16), (5,y), then
the value of Y is –
a. 10 c. 20
b. 32 d. 25
17. If n<m and a<b then _____
a. n+a>m + b c. n=a
b. m = b d. n+a < m+b
18. Why is 1/ 5 called a unit fraction?
a. The number 5 is the denominator
b. The unit is less than one
c. Unit fractions have 1 as the numerator
d. It is between 0 and 1, the basic unit.
19. The amount of simple interest denoted by “I” paid by the bank on a savings account,
uses which of these formulas?
a. I= principal invested x annual rate of interest x months
b. I= principal invested x annual rate of interest x years
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c. I = Principal invested x annual rate of interest x years x months
d. I = principal invested x annual rate of the interest
20. In the figure below, MNOP is a parallelogram. Give the measurements, find the Area
(A) and Perimeter (P) of the below figure.
M
3” 4
P 6” O
a. A = 24 sp. In. P = 20inches c. A = 18 sq. in. P = 20 inches
b. A = 18 sq.in.P = 18 inches d. A = 22 sq.in.P = 27 inches
21. If the scores in Mathematics test of 45 students are arranged from the highest to the
lowest, the 23rd score is the
a. mean c. median
b. variance d. mode
22. Express the integer 50 as percent.
a. 5% b. 50% c. 500% d. 5000%
23. To find the perimeter (P) of a rectangle that has length of 16 inches and a width of
12 inches, which of the following equations can be used?
a. P=2 (16) (12) c. P =2(16) + (12)
b. P= (16) + (12) d. P= 2 (16) + 12)
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24. Which of the following illustrates the procedure and correct answer of multiplying 2
½ x 3 2/3?
a. =3/5 x 6/3 = 9/5 x 30/5 = 270/5 = 54
b. 2/5 x 3/11 = 5/50 x 30/50 = 150/5 = 30
c. 5/2 x 11/3 = 55/6 = 9 1/6
d. 2/3 x 5/2 = 4/6 x 15/6 = 60/6 = 10
25. The final grades and corresponding credits earned by a college student are given
below. What is her grade point average ofr the term if. Grade A = 4; Grade C = 2; Grade
D = 1
Subject Credit Grades
English 5 A
Mathematics 3 C
Social Science 3 B
Foreign Language 2 D
P.E 2 B
a. 2.00 b 2.87 c. 3.50 d.3.25
26. What is cube root? (32 x 3)?
a. 9 b. 3x3 c. 27 d. 3
27. A vehicle consumes one liter of gasoline to travel 10 kilometers. After a tune-up, it
travels 15% farther on one liter. To the nearest tenth, how many liters of gasoline will it
take for the vehicle to travel 230 kilometers?
a. 20.15 b. 23 liters c. 23.15 liters d. 20 liters
28. A rectangular solid is right-angled figure that has length, width and height. Find the
volume of a rectangular solid whose: length = 6cm, width = 4cm, height = 3cm.
a. 90 cm3 b. 48cm3 c. 72cm3 d.20cm3
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29. If the score of 10 students are: 76,80,75,83,80,79,85,80,88,90 the mode is –
a. 85 b. 79 c. 88 d. 80
30. In the figure below, a square and circle intersect. If N is the center of the circle, what
percent of the circle remains unshaded? (Consider 360 degrees in the circle.)
N
a. 50% b. 25% c. 30% d. 45%
31. A rectangle has sides of 10 and 12 units. How can the area of a square be
computed if it has the same perimeter of the rectangle?
a. Add 10 and 12, double the sum, divide by 4, then multiply by 4.
b. Add 10 and 12, double the sum, then multiply by 4
c. Add 10 and 12, double the sum, divide by 4, then square the quotient
d. Add 10 and 12, double the sum, divide by 4, then multiply by
32. The ratio of men to women at Mabuhay Highschool is 3:7. If there are 6,153 women
in the said school, how many men are at Mabuhay High School?
a. 2,051 b. 2,637 c. 879 d. 1.895
33. Which of the following is the numerical form for “twenty thousand twenty”?
a. 2,020 b. 2,000,020 c. 20,020 d. 20, 000, 20
34. If each of the five members in a basketball team shakes hands with every other
member of the team before the game starts, how many handshakes will there be im all?
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a. 6 b. 8 c. 10 d. 9
35. How many twenty thousand are there in one million?
a. 100 b. 500 c. 50 d. 1000
36. A number which is divisible only by itself and I is called prime. Which of the following
are prime?
I.9 II.3, III. 113, IV. 121
a. II, III and IV only c. I and II only
b. II and III only d. All are prime
37. Change the following percents to decimals: 23%, 5%, 3%,3.5%
a. 2.3, .500, .30, 30.5 c. 23, .05, .03, .035
b. .23, 50, 03, 3.05 d.023, 5.00, 3.0, 03.5
38. What is the range of the following: 86, 70, 83, 90, 85, 78, 79, 81,87.
a. 12 b. 15 c. 16 d. 20
39. Multiple regression equation analysis in a study revealed the relative contribution of
story elements to reading achievement, and that the contribution of these story
elements is substantial. Which of the following conclusions about the correlation of story
elements to reading achievement is suggested in the finding?
a. That other important story elements be included in the analysis
b. That story elements are important variables to consider in reading achievement
c. That correlation of 1.0 is needed for this study to be significant
d. That there is a little variance between story elements and reading achievement
40. What value of x will satisfy the equation 5x + 7 = 3x – 9?
a. x=-16 b. x = +8 c. x=10 d. x=8
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NATURAL SCIENCE
1. Which of the following audio-visual sets of equipment can best project visual
materials in a classroom that is difficult to darken?
a. Filmstrips c. Colored materials
b. Opaque projector d. Overhead projector
2. Symbiosis is defined by biologist as individual of different species living together in
intimate association, regardless of whether the association is harmful, neutral, or
beneficial. All of the following pairs are examples of symbiosis EXCEPT__
a. ants and aphids c. cats and mice
c. human and tapeworms d. dogs and cats
3. Which of the following statement about atomic structure is NOT right?
a. All atoms of the same atomic numbers are atoms of the same element
b. An atom can gain or lose electrons without changing its charge
c. Atoms are mostly empty space
d. Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
4. Which of the following statements is TRUE of nuclear fission?
a. The energy process is dentical to that which occurs in the sun.
b. Energy is obtained by getting nucleus of the atoms to break up or split
c. Matter from the lighter atoms is changed into energy
d. Scientists can combine lighter atoms to form heavier atoms.
5. All of the following statements about the routinary use of pesticides are TRUE,
EXCEPT
a. Due to the widespread use of DDT, a new type of house fly emerged
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b. It results in the evolution of exciting new types of organisms.
c. It may not only kill the intended insects but also those that feed on them
d. Pesticides tend to become progressively less effective as the organisms become
immune.
6. The skull of a person increases in size rapidly during__
a. puberty b. babyhood c. adolescence d. adulthood
7. Apparently, the loss of weight of objects immersed in a fluid is due to __
a. Archimedes principle c. Newton’s theory
b. specific gravity d. A cup of flour
8. Metabolism and combustion are chemically similar. They both result in the oxidation
of some compounds. If completely oxidized, which of the following foodstuffs would
yield the MOST Thermal Energy?
a. a cup of ice cream c. A cup of milk
b. A cup of sugar d. A cup of flour
9. In countries where medical skill and a public understanding about health and disease
are widespread, which of the following changes are evident?
I. Accidental deaths have decreased
II. The communicable disease death rate has decreased
III. Infant mortality rate has decreased
IV. More people live a full life
V. People live long enough succumb to degenerative disease.
a. I, II, III c. I, II, III, IV, V
b. II, III, IV, V d. I, II, II, V
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10. Which of the following parts of the circulatory system carries digested fats away
from the small intestines?
a. Pancreatic duct c. Pulmonary artery
b. Arterial capillaries d. Lacteals
11. When the Sun, Earth and Moon are arranged as shown in Figure below, what
phenomenon is likely to occur?
SUN
a. Lunar eclipse c. Solar Eclipse
b. Earthquake d. Neap tide
12. When water evaporates, it changes into which of the following states?
a. Solid c. Gaseous
b. Matter d. Liquid
13. Which of the following statements is NOT true about comets?
a. Comets are mostly frozen gases and cosmic dust.
b. Comets glow by their own light
c. Coments generally have elongated elliptical orbits
d. Comets may go around the sun in any direction.
14. A group of students tried to find out how volume would affect the mass and density
of a piece of metal. The data are shown on the table below:
Trial Volume (cm3) Mass(g) Density (g/cm3)
1 10 15 1.5
2 40 60 1.5
3 5 7.5 1.5
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4 160 240 1.5
Based on the trials made, which among the following conclusions can be formulated?
I. Density of a material is constant
II. Mass is inversely proportional to volume
III. Volume is directly proportional to mass
IV. Density is dependent on mass and volume
a. III and IV b. I and III c. I and II d. I and IV
15. a change in the shape or size of an object can be classified as ___
a. mechanical change c. nuclear change
b. physical change d. chemical change
16. In what state are most matter in the universe?
a. Gas b. Liquid c. Solid d. Plasma
17. Two glass tumblers that are stuck one nside the other may be loosened by –
a. pouring cold water on the outside tumbler after filling the inside tumbler with equally
cold water.
b. pouring hot water on the outside tumbler after fillinf the inside tumbler with equally
hot water.
c. pouring cold water on the outside tumbler after filling the inside tumbler with hot water
d. pouring hot water on the outside tumbler after filling the inside tumbler with cold water
18. A thermometer measures___
a. energy b. heat c. pressure d. temperature
19. The volume and mass for each of five metal pieces are shown in the table below.
Which of the metal pieces has the LOWEST density?
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METAL VOLUME MASS
Beryllium 100 185
Calcium 100 155
Osmium 10 225
Titanium 10 45
Zinc 1 7
a. Zinc b. Calcium c. Beryllium d. Osmium
20. Which of the following forms of energy travels in waves?
a. Chemcal energy c. Mechanical energy
b. Sound energy d. Electrical Energy
21. A British physicial and bacteriologist, Sir Ronald Ross was awarded the Nobel Prize
in medicine for his researches in the ___
a. liquid fuel rocket c. transmission of malaria
b. prevention of hepatitis d. control of cholera
22. When lighted, the energy of the alcohol in a lamp is ___
a. lost while heating is done.
b. transformed from chemical to mechanical energy
c. transformed from chemical to heat energy
d. completely destroyed
23. Which process occurs when dry ice, CO2 (s) is changed into CO2 (g)?
a. evaporation c. sublimation
b. Condensation d. Decomposition
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24. The first Filipino who was declared as national scientist and who has contribute
much in discovering local plants that can be use as medicine is ___
a. Dr. Pacifico Marcos c. Dr.Elisio Kintanar
b. Dr. Henry Mosely d. Dr. Alfredo C. Santos
25. Two items of similar shapes and weights are drop simultaneously in a ten-storey
building. Which of the following statement is correct about the falling rate of the objects?
a. The shape of the object has a minor effect on the falling rate
b. The weight of the object has no effect on the falling rate
c. The distance of the fall has an effect on the falling rate
d. The resistance of the air has no effect on the falling rate
26. The El Niño phenomenon which grabbed control of the world’s weather machine is
identified by climatologists as
a. landslides, flashfloods, warm air currents
b. lack of rains, droughts, crop failure
c. heavy downpours, tropical storms in some parts of the earth
d. all of these
27. A soda-acid type fire extinguisher is recommended for putting out fires which
involves burning ___
a. insulation on wires c. dru chemicals
b. fats or vegetable oil d. painted woodwork
28. An atom or a group of atoms which has an excess/deficiency of electrons is called—
a. electron c. ion
b. proton d. molecules
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29. Fossils are most likely to be found in __
a. Metamorphic rocks c. Sedimentary rocks
b. igneous rocks. D. ocean floor
30. If a doctor descrives a patien as dehydrated, he means that the patient---
a. has a contagious disease c. needs oxygen
b. needs insulin d. has lost a great deal of water
31. Radium was discovered by ___
a. Albert Einstein c. Joseph John Thomston
b. Pierre and Marie Curie d. Albrecht Van Haller
32. A board the space shuttle, astronauts strap themselves to a wall or bunk when they
sleep. This is because during a change of shuttle velocity an unstrapped sleeping
astronaut would likely slump into the shuttle wall and be injured. These astronauts have
to be strapped down because___
a. they are unable to sleep while floating free in space
b. gravity is weak to have them remain in bed
c. their body functions have to be constantly monitored
d. their bodies have inertia
33. Four circular holes of equal size arranged from top to bottom were to cut to 2cm
apart into a large plastic bottle. The holes were covered with tape, and the bottle was
filled with water. The tape was then removed. Which of the following statements will
BEST describe the result?
a. Water from the top hole will squirt out the farthest
b. Water from each hole will squirt out the same distance from the battle
c. The sudden release of water will cause the bottle to collapse
d. Water from the bottom hole will squirt out the farthest
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34. The history of the earth has been divided by scientists into eras. Which of the
following shows the arrangement of these areas into the proper sequence from the
oldest to the most recent?
a. Precambrian, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, Paleozoic
b. Paleozoic, Cenozoic, Precambrian, Mesozoic
c. Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic, Precambrian
d. Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic
35. Which of the following is closest to normal body temperature?
a. 32º F c. 212º F
c. 50º C d. 37º C
36. A change in the composition of a substance resulting in the formation of a new
substance is called ___
a. nuclear change c. Physical change
b. mechanical change d. Chemical change
37. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE?
I. Water in a cup and water in a pot at 100 ºC have molecules of the same degree of
activity
II. It takes more burning of fuel to produce a pot full of boiling water than to produce a
cupful.
III. The unit used in measuring the quantity of heat is the calorie
IV. A pot full of water has a greater number of active molecules than those a cupful of
water
a. III and IV only c. None of these statements
b. All of these statements d. I and II only
38. Which of the following causes the seasons?
a. The rotation of the Earth about the Sun
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b. The rotation of the Sun about the Earth
c. The distance of the earth from the Sun
d. The tilting of the Earth on its axis
39. Which of the following statements best explains why copper is the metal most widely
used in electrical wiring?
a. It is the best conductor of electricity
b. It is cheaper than aluminum
c. It is a better conductor than aluminum and cheaper than silver.
d. It has high resistance to electricity
40. To achieve ecological balance, which of the following of components should an
aquarium contain.
a. Water, fish c. Water, plants
b. Water, snail, fish d. Water, Snail, plants, fish
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SOCIAL SCIENCE
1. The Comprehensive Land reform Program (CARP) provides a person, association, or
corporation cannot own or retain agricultural land which is more than how many
hectares?
a. 10 b. 7 c. 5 d. 3
2. Without limiting the rights of parents to rear their children, the Constitution provides
compulsory elementary education for ___
a. adult citizens and out of school youth c. all physical able individuals
b. all children of pre-school age d. all children of school age
3. Which of the following teaching-learning process demonstrates the action learning
approach to values education?
a. Students engage in role playing of different characters
b. Teachers assigns groups to discuss different national moral issues
c. Students and teachers participate in a community immersion program
d. Teacher and student’s debate actively on moral issues
4. What is the social scientist’s explanation of the relationship of a leader to history?
a. Had any great leader been different than he was, the course of would have been
different.
b. Leaders are product of their times
c. History is a reflection of great leaders
d. Every great movement is the lengthened shadow of a great man.
5. Who was known as the “Tagalog Joan of Arc” because of her exploits during the
revolution?
a.Trinidad Tecson c. Gregoria de Jesus
b. Teresa Magbanua d. Agueda Kahabagan
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6. Which is the correct chronological order of the events in history listed below?
I. Execution of Dr. Jose Rizal
II. Declaration of the first Philippine independence
III> The EDSA Revolution
IV> World War II
a. I, IV, II, III b. II,I,IV,III c. II,I,III,IV d. I, II, IV, III
7. Who was the founder and first editor of La Soladaridad in Barcelona, Spain and was
considered the greatest orator of the Filipino colony in Spain?
a. Mariano Ponce c. Marcelo H. del Pilar
b. Graciano Lopez d. Gregorio H. del Pilar
8. Which of the following forces of social change have the greatest impact upon the
traditional Filipino family in the 20th century?
a. Speicialization and Assimilation c. Industrialization and Urbanization
b. Socialization and Stratification d. Immigration and Migration
9. To be moral person is to ______
a. Be acceptable by society
b. Know and act upon the “ought to be” and the “ought to do”
c. Be able to follow the dictates of one’s conscience
d. Be integrated in speech, feeling, thinking and action
10. During the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg was fought in _________
a. Virginia c. Pensulvania
c. Georgia d. South Carolina
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11. Which of the following characterizes the behavior pattern of deferred gratification?
a. the lower class c. the middle class
b. the minority groups d. the upper class
12. Democracy refers to the involvement of all the citizens in the control of government,
while an oligarchy relegates control of government to _____
a. a religious group c. an autocrat
b. a select few d. the mother country
13. The katipunan in Cavite was divided into two factions – the Magdiwang and the
Magdalo while the Magdiwang in Cavite was led by Mariano Alvarez, who led the
Magdalo faction?
a. Ciriaco Bonifacio c. Baldomero Aguinaldo
b. Daniel Tirona d. Artemio Ricarte
14. The benevolent assimilation proclamation on December 21, 1898 was the first
official indication of American policy regarding the Philippines. It is expressly indicated
the intention of the United States to stay in the Philippines by exercising the right of
sovereignty over the Filipinos. Who was the American President who issued
“Benevolent Assimilation” policy?
a. Wilson c. Roosevelt
b. Eisenshower d. McKinley
15. In the teaching of democratic beliefs in the classroom, which of the following is
MOST consistent with current educational thought?
a. The teacher should effectively lead the discussion on current affairs in the classroom
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b. Democratic belief can be taught based on respect for individual worth and faith in the
ability of people to govern themselves
c. Democracy as the smoothest form of government is emphasized
d. Democratic beliefs can betaught by assuring that celebrations are observed to honor
national heroes
16. Mass society is described as being composed of anonymous individual. The word
“anonymous” is used to convey the idea that the individuals involved ______
a. have little influence on decision making since they are not organized
b. are unaware of other individuals exposed to the same stimuli
c. are known only to those who control the mass media
d. are unaware that there are mass audiences.
17. The Constitution provides that no educational institution shall be established
exclusively for aliens, except those for ______
a. citizens of ASEAN member countries
b. Permanent alien residents
c. foreign diplomatic personnel and their dependents
d. employers of Filipino overseas workers in the Middle East
18. In every society, certain positions are assigned to individuals on the basis of age,
sex , marital status, and similar other criteria. These patterns are _____
a. taught in school c. universally accepted and practiced
b. culturally defined d. learned from parents
19. An aspect of Philippine culture that does much to promote interpersonal
communication beyond the community boundary is ______
a. zarzuela c. Tagalog movies
b. election d. fiesta celebration
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20. Which is LEAST likely to be a function of a trade association?
a. influencing government policy
b. protecting the reputation of the industry
c. encouraging competition
d. standardizing size of products
21. Thou shall love God and thy honor above all things. God as fountain of all truth, of
all justice and all activity; thy honor is the only power which will be oblige thee to be
truthful, just industrious. This one of the commandments lifted from whose Decalogue
a. Andres Bonifacio c. Emilio Jacinto
b. Emilio Aguinaldo d. Apolinario Mabini
22. It is important to consider that the world population problem cannot be adequately
resolved by simply producing more food. Increased food reproduction cannot keep pace
with current increases in world reputation. “ It maybe concluded from this quotation that
the author ____
a. favors a policy allowing food production to keep pace with population
b. opposes cooperative sharing of the worlds food resources
c. opposes economic sanctions agagints countries that encourage overproduction of
food
d. advocates a drastic reduction in the birth rate
23. One of the stages in moral development approach which is an instrumental
relationship is best illustrated by ______
a. Everyone is an instrument for good deeds
b. I will do what I think is right no matter what happens
c. Good work is rewarded and bad work is punished
d. You scratch my back and will scrath yours
24. Of the following statements, the best example tha represents functional illiteracy is
_______
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a. inability to comply with graduation requirements
b. inability to apply basic communication skills in expressing ideas
c. failure to pass a qualifying examination
d. failure to graduate from highschool
25. A society that adopts the democratic view of education places great emphasis on
_____
a. the selection of textbook to be use in school
b. the essential dignity of all individuals
c. choice of leaders in charge of education
d. compulsory schooling for all citizens
26. Through the process of socialization, the indicidual is able to ____
a. become an adult member of society
b. satisfy his personal needs and drives
c. learn to dialogue with peers and adults
d. function as contributing member of the group
27. The principal legal forms of business organizations are ____
a. open shop, union shop, closed shop
b. partnership, charter, single proprietorship
c. single proprietorship, partnership, corporation
d. corporation, charter, stock company
28. Emilio Jaconto’s literacy works were written in Tagalog and a small part in Spanish
The best in all of his works was written on October 8, 1897. It was visibly an animation
of Rizal’s “Mi Ultimo Adios” what was the title of this poem?
a. Amor Patrio c. Ala Patria
b. Ala Juventud Filipina d. Mi Madre
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29. The right to life, liberty, property as well as the pursuit of happiness are basic human
rights which are embodied in an international document signed by different countries on
December 10, 1948. What is this document?
a. U.S Constitution c. Universal Declaration of Human Rights
b. Social Contract d. Magna Carta
30. The Code of Kalantia which was allegedly written in 1443 gave the early Filipinos
insight into ______
a. the country’s education system
b. the formal and informal system of eduatio
c. families characterized by nobility
d. personal and social relations
31. The primary source of the objectives of education in the Philippines at present is the
______
a. Report of the Monroe Commission c. Tyding McDUffe Act
b. Philippine Constitunio d. The Swanson Report
32. The fundamental aim of the ASEAN as an organization of Southeast Asian Nations
is to ______
a. safeguard the peace and prosperity of the region
b. develop the natural resources of the member countries
c. foster economic, social and cultural cooperation
d. Provide facilities for professional and technical training
33. The voyage of Ferdinand Magellan is considered the greatest single achievement n
the history of sea exploration and discovery because it _____
a. made Spain the mistress of the sea
b. prove that the world is not flat
c. marked the discovery of westward route to the East
d. marked the first circumnavigation of the globe
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34. An important factor which has contributed to the weakness in the internalization
desirable social values is the ____
a. minimum recognition and appreciation given to teachers
b. lack of models among the very people expected to exemplify these values
c. lack of follow up systems from one grade level to another
d. use of approaches which are mainly cognitive rather than effective
35. The preservation and development of Filipino culture should be one of the
responsibilities of the State as provided in the Constitution in order to promote ____
a. international recognition c. national interest
b. national identify d. historical awareness
36. The breakdown of feudalism started first in _____
a. Hungary c. Russia
b. France d. England
37. The Filipino wants to be accepted by his fellowman for what he is and to be treated
according to his status. He can achieve this by ---
a. offering his services in whatever form that suits him
b. participating in group activities that interest him
c. being obedient to all demands that come his way
d. socializing with his fellowmen within norms of society
38. One of the strengths of the Filipnio character is “pakikipagkapwa-tao” This is
manifested in all of the following EXCEPT—
a. Malasakit c. Lakas ng Loob
b. Pakikiramay d. Pakikiramdam
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39. The Philippine Constitution, recognizing the natural right and duty of parents in
rearing the youth for civic efficiency and developing moral character, mandates that this
should be supported by the _______
a. community b. schools c.church d. government
40. After the revolution, Macario Sacay went underground and established a republic
based on the ideology of the Bonifacio, Jacinto and the Katipunan. What do you call the
republic established by Macario Sacay at his headquarters on top of Mount San
Cristobal?
a. Republika ng mga Pilipino c. Republika ng Katagalugan
b. Repulbika ng San Cristobal d. Republika ng Katipunan
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PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
FACILITATING LEARNING, CHILD
AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT,
TEACHING PROFESSION AND
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
1. Researchers established that complete coordination of motor activities is attained at-
a. pre-natal stage c. adolescence stage
b. childhood stage d. infancy
2. Parent and teachers are considered as authorities and models by children at the
early childhood stage. What does this statement imply?
a. Parent should enforce strict discipline at home and teachers in school
b. Teachers and parents should serbe as role models at all times
c. Teachers should demand complete obedience from the learners in school
d. Parent teacher conference should always be an activity in school
3. This is the stage when the learner becomes confused and starts to experience
indentify crisis. Which of these stages is it?
a. early childhood c. late childhood
b. early adulthood d. adolescent
4. Which of the following will trigger additional development if a child is exposed to more
challenges and stimuli in his surroundings?
a. potentials c. emotional development
b. intelligence d. interest
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5. Which of the following is usually considered the most important factor in a child’s
observable classroom behavior?
a. intelligence c. cultural background
b. heredity d. universal norms
7. Which of these theories holds that human activity is based on the interaction of
stimuli and responses?
a. association c. cognitive-field
b. vector d. social-learning
8. The tendency to imitate elders is very strong in the early childhood stage. Teachers
should therefore be very good0
a. role models c. facilitators of learning
b. counselors d. disciplinarians
9. Psychologicall, there is unity in all learning; however, there are distinct types of
learning that are recognized. One is affective learning that involves-
a. understanding of the external world through the use of the senses
b. formation of concepts and ideas
c. acquisition of attitudes, ideas, judgement and values
d. acquisition of facts and information
10 Identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins. Which of the following
statements/principles is supported by this?
a. Heredity has a part in determining physical appearance
b. Intelligence is determined partly by pre-natal nutrition
c. Environment affects both fraternal and identical twins
d. Intelligence hinges in physical structure
11. Childrens interest are generally largely dependent on their experiences.Which of the
following is an implication of this statement?
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a. The curriculum should provide vital experiences if the school must use its
opportunities to develop interest
b. A large part of the subject matter has to be easy if they are to be interesting and
within the learners experience
c. The experience of the child reduces the area in which the school may choose to
develop interest
d. The school should not develop interest outside the experience of the child
12. The female gonads which are responsible for the production of egg cells are also
known as ______
a. uterus c. fallopian tube
b. ovary d. cervix
13. It is the process by which an organism inherits the characteristics traits of the
parents
a. heredity c. development
b. maturation d. fertilization
14. The child’s concept of right and wrong is based on external criteria laid down by
adults during the stage of pre-conventional morality. This is based on the ideas of-
a. Erikson c. Kohlberg
b. Piaget d. Dewey
15. During the pre-operational stage, language skill emerges and the child uses words
to represent ideas. This theory is attributed to _____
a. Wallace c. Kohlberg
b. Piaget d. Dewey
16. When the daughter is competing with the mother for the father’s attention, the
daughter is said to be experiencing _____
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a. electra complex c. Oedipus complex
b. identify crisis d. sexual deviation
17. Denzel’s mother noticed that her son always wants to get her attention and is
jealous of his father. Denzel then can be classified under what psychoanalyctic stage of
development?
a. latency c. phallic
b. genital d. oral
18. Classical conditioning theory is always attributed to him for his experiment involving
the dog’s salivation as a reaction to the sound of the buzzer.
a. Bandura c. Pavlov
b. Lewin d. Skinner
19. Section 5, Article XIV, of the constitution states that academic freedom shall be
enjoyed in:
a. state colleges and universities.
b. all institutions of higher learning
c. public assemblies
d. all elvels of learning
20. As provided for in the Educationa Act of 1982, how are the institutions of learning
encouraged to set higher standards of quality over and above the minimum required for
state recognition?
a. academic freedom c. formal education
b. continuing professional education d. voluntary accreditation
21. Which of these statements regarding professional teachers is the major difference in
the professionalization of teachers and teaching as promulgated in Presidential Decree
1006 and in Republic Act 7836?
a. Assigned at the tertiary level in both private and state colleges and universities
b. Assigned at the elementary and secondary levels in both public and private schools
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c. Holder of valid professional license and certificate of registration
d. Appointed on full-time basis and on a permanent status.
22. Education is a continuos process of experiencing and of receiving or reorganizing
experiences, according to John Dewey. Which of the following situations is apt to
happen in education as influenced by Dewey’s philosophy?
a. Education takes place in the school where the individual is exposed to specific, self-
contained experiences
b. Education may take place anywhere and anytime the individual to desires
c. Education is never completed and goes on throughout life
d. Education may take place formally or informally to enable the individual to grow
23. The main function of a philosophy of education is to _____
a. Define the goals and set the direction for which education is to strive
b. Aid the learner to build his own personal philosophy
c. Reconsider existing educational goals in the light of society’s needs.
d. Provide the academic background prerequisite to learning
24. A teacher who subscribes to the pragmatic philosopgy of education believes that
experience should follow learning. In her teaching, she therefore exerts efforts in-
a. Requiring learners full mastery of the lesson
b. Encouraging learners to memorize factual knowledge
c. Equipping learners with the basic abilities and skills
d. Providing learners opportunities to apply theories and principles
25. The control and the administration of all educational institution shall be vested in the
citizens of the Philippines” is stipulated in ______
a. P.D 6-A c. P.D No. 176
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b. P.D 1006 d. 1987 Constitution
26. The first kindergarten also known as “a garden where children could grow” was the
product of research by _____
a. Pestalizzi b. Herbart c. Rousseau d. Froebel
27. Which of the following embodies the operation “Return to the Basics”
a. New Secondary Education Curriculum
b. National Elementary Achievement Test
c. National Secondary Achievement Test
d. New Elementary School Curriculum
28. Which of the following is a mandate of the 1987 Consitution that the sate shall
maintain to fight illiteracy?
a. Formal and non-formal education should be free and compulsory for all children and
adults
b. Free education in both elementary and high school and compulsory in elementary
education for all children of school age.
c. Education at all levels should be free and compulsory
d. Free and compulsory education for both elementary and high school for all children of
school age.
29. Whoch of these philosophies is reflective of that of Dewey’s which stresses the
development of an individual capable of reflective thinking specially that of being able to
solve the problem he faces individually or collective ly?
a. Developmentalism c. Rationalism
b. Experiementation d. Disciplinism
30. Which of the following abilities is stressed by humanistic education?
a. Enjoy the great works of man such as the classics
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b. Learn the different philosophies of education
c. Make man distinctly civilized, educated and refined
d. Development man into thinking individual
31. The Athenian ideal of education is to form a cultural soul in a graceful and
symmetrical body. How can this be achieved?
a. by giving more focus on health education
b. by adapting the philosophy “know thyself”
c. by improving emphasis on physical education
d. by a well- balanced development of mind, body and sould
32. The government prescribes a higher percentage on the administration of
educational institutions to Filipino citizens in order to _________
a. Ensure the teaching of Filipino
b. Minimize the unemployment problem
c. Protect the rights of the citizens
d. Produce globally competitive graduates
33. Which of the following was the fundamental reason why John Dewey proposed a
transformation of the public school system?
a. He recognized that a traditional academic education did not serve the ideals of a
democratic society
b. He recognized that the intellectual motivation of the students was declining
c. He recognized that industrizlization was destroying the home, neighborhood, and
church.
d. He recognized that change and innovation were essential ingredients of the
progressive movement
34. Basic education includes secondary education. Which of the following contributed to
the establishment of secondary schools?
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a. Humanistic education c. Rationalism
b. Reformation d. Realistic
35. His philosophy advocated a classical type of liberal education or the study of the
humanities
a. Irving Babbitt c. John Dewey
b. Jean Jacques d. Aristotle
36. What was the philosophy of education in the Philippines before the establishment of
the public school system?
a. Idealism c. Humanism
b. Realism d. Pragmatism
37. Which of these options was not recommended by EDCOM?
a. provisions for special education
b. institutionalization of pre-school education
c. strengthening of Values Education
d. Increasing the number of state colleges and universities
38. The present military training in our school curriculum is an influence of____
a. Greece b. Athens c. Sparta d. Rome
39. The Royal Decree of December 20, 1863 established in the Philippines a system of-
a. high school education c. higher education
b. intermediate education d. primary education
40. Whose philosophy expounded the concept of the laboratory school?
a. Plato c. Jean Jacques Rousseau
b. John Dewey d. Irving Babbitt
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41. Whose influenced the present emphasis on character Education and Values
Education in our school system?
a. Confucius c. Gandhi
b. Tagore d. Bonifacio
42. Who expounded on the need to study the child carefully for individualized
instruction?
a. Boccacio c. Erasmus
b. Ascham d. Da Feltre
43. Tutoring of learners is now practices in our school provided it is not done by their
own teacher but by an outsider. Which of these Western philosophies influenced this
practice?
a. Egyptian c. Roman
b. Greek d. Athenian
44. Whose philosophy inspired the inclusion of Physical Education in the curriculum and
the replacement of lectures with textbooks?
a. Da Feltre c. Petrarch
b. Boccario d. Erasmus
45. The present Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act had its beginning on what
period of Roman History?
a. A.D. 275-259- government established a monopoly on education
b. A.D 100-AD 175- government increased its subsidy for education
c. 132 B.C. - A.D 100 – Latin literature and grammar were perfected
d. 295 B.C- 153 B.C- schools were elementary only
46. He suggested that competition and awards should be used to motivate people
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a. Aristotle b. Plato c. Herbart d. Socrates
47. The singing of the National Anthem is an offshoot of the philosophical ideals of
_____
a. nationalism c. Pragmatism
b. Naturalism d. Socialism
48. The idea of Practical Arts and Home Economics is an offshoot of the philosophical
ideals of _________
a. Confucius b. Gandhi c. Rizal d. Tagore
49. A popular mass education for the Filipinos under the American regime came into
being upon the passage of ____________
a. Act No. 74 in 1901 c. Monroe Education Survey of 1929
b. Education Decree of 1863 d. Royal Decree of 1865
50. An Adolescent combines his ability to use deductive and inductive reasoning in
realistic rules that he can respect and live by. When he does this, how does he perceive
his environment?
a. He views the world from his own perspective
b. He sees the world through the eyes of other people
c. He interprets evetns from a limited points of view
d. He sees events apart from himself and other people
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PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING FIELD OF
STUDY, EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND
PRACTICE TEACHING
1. If the children are cooperatively engaged with the teacher in a group project the
children will discipline themselves as each member of the group exercise-
a. obedience to the teacher c. peer influence
b. special interest d. moral cpmpulsion
2. A student collapsed in her social Studies class. It was found out that she did not eat
her lunch. What principle is shown in this situation?
a. physiological need c. safety need
b. security need d. psychological need
3. Which of these combination of classes is organized in places where the required
number or pupils of the same grade levels has not met the required number to make up
a separate class thus the teacher apportions class time for instruction to every grade
level within the class?
a. multi-grade c. extension
b. heterogenous d. homogenous
4. Manual-aesthetic activities involving attitudes and feelings are primarily expressive of
emotions and balues not thoughts. An example of this motor skill is _____
a. baking a cake with background music
b. manipulating a bowling ball to achieve a strike
c. dancing and playing musical instruments
d. saving a board for the wall of a book cabinet
5. Education is a life long process. This simply means that education-
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a. takes place in the school where the individual is exposed to specific, self-contained
experiences
b. Is a continuos process of experiencing and reorganizing experiences
c. May take place anywhere and anytime the individual so desires
6. These are some of the motivational theories. I. Humanism, II. Cognitivism, III.
Behaviorism. Which of these theories views the consequences of behavior as regulator
and controller of an individual’s action?
a. II only c. I and II only
b. III only d. II and III only
7. Whih of the following is not a correct statement regarding positive and negative
reinforcement as they relate to behavior change in the classroom?
a. Positive reinforcement refers to the rewarding of certain responses to specific stimuli.
b. Social disapproval is a form of negative punishment
c. Punishment tends to be more effective than rewards in controlling behavior
d. Punishment suppresses behavior but does not change it
8. An appreciation lesson is one that is designed to lead the class to conduct and enjoy
something. Which of the following statements closely approximate the meaning of the
above?
a. One cannot fully appreciate what he does not understand or enjoy.
b. A teacher should plan lessons that will guide children to appreciate what is beautiful
and worthwile.
c. An appreciation lesson should be a lesson in values.
d. Appreciation lessons help pupils weigh and clarify values.
9. Which of the following activities should be resorted to by a teacher if a fifth grade
pupils tells him “I want to draw the corridor, but I can’t make it look right?
a. Give him a book of perpective to study and copy
b. Advise the pupil to draw something else which does not require perspective
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c. Ask the pupil to learn the rules of perspective
d. Make the pupil observe carefully similar form from the classroom window or his own
street
10. Which of the following refers to the repetition of facts and skills which the teacher
wishes to reinforce for mastery?
a. Drill c. Recitation
b. Review d. mastery
11. In the educative process the three most important factors are the-
a. child, teacher and parents
b. child tacher and methods of teaching
c. child, teacher and subject matter
d. child, teacher and venue for learning
12. Which of the following is the best time for a teacher to setup routine activities that
will contribute to affective classroom amanagement?
a. During each homeroom day
b. On the very first day of school
c. Daily at the start of the session
d. As soon as the students have established and adjusted their shedules
13. Which of the following refers to the orderly steps and procedures used by the
teacher to make the learning process more meaning ful and interesting?
a. Learning continuum c. Plan
b. device d. method
14. In teaching, the teacher reaches a step where data are critically evaluated and a
conclusion is fenerally arrive at. How is this step called?
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a. application c. presentation
b. generalization d. preparation
15. In large classes where little of the work can be individualized, the most effective and
practical way to individualized instructions is to-
a. Give the pupils freedo to launce individual projects
b. Devise group activities which afford every pupil an opportunity to work at his own
level
c. Assign homework and check it regularly
d. Assign programmed material for out of school hours
16. Which of these is the MOST important principle that a teacher should follow in
initiating a program of positive reinforcement?
a. Punish negative behavior and reward positive behavior
b. Provide regular opportunity for socially acceptable behavior
c. Make sure the reward comes immediately after the appropriate behavior.
d. Consider peer approval and recognition
17. Which of these methods aptly applies to lessons needing experiments?
a. laboratory c. demonstration
b. process approach d. problem solving
18. Punishment should not be often used as reinforcement because-
a. Research findings on the relative effects of reward and punishment are not yet
conclusive.
b. It is deterrent for effective pupil growth
c. It motivates the child’s to conform
d. It undermines the child’s feeling of self-confidence
19. Any change should be made on the basis of evaluation. Which of the following
points to this statement?
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a. Facts should be collected
b. Place for revision are based in terms of judgement made
c. Grades are arbitrarily assigned
d. Judgement are based on facts
20. If you will use a fild in your class presentation, which of the following will you do?
a. To tell the class to pay close attention to what they are gone to see because a quiz
will be given after theshow
b. Conduct a preparatory discussion and a follow-up in which the relationship of the film
to work of the class is established
c. Not to tell the class anything about it in advance in order that interest will be high
d. To assume that the film need not be related to the work of the class as long as they
enjoy seeing it
21. The best way the teacher can be sure of the appropriateness of an instructional
material is to _____
a. tru it out before using it in class
b. consider its cost
c. consider its availability
d. considet its technical quality
22. Which of the following should class management and discipline problems take into
consideration?
a. Changing rules show weakness on the part of the tacher
b. The proper functioning of the classroom and the individual interest of the learners
should be interrelated
c. Class management is based on a teacher’s ability to subordinate the interest of
individual students
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d. The interests of the individual child are more important than the classroom as a
whole.
23. Task analysis involves the breaking down of a learning task into subtassks or
subskills. Given a task to retell a story, which of the following skills in NOT needed
a. to outline a selection c. to identify topic sentence
b. to disseminate information d. to arrange events in sequence
24. You are assigned to teach students with varied abilities. You want to teach a more
homogenous grouping. Which type of grouping will tend to benefit your students?
a. high ability grouping c. low ability grouping
b. mixed ability grouping d. witn-in class ability grouping
25. The trend of focusing attention on the child’s interest, abilities and needs and on the
improvement of community living necessitate the use of the –
a. conceptual approach c. project method
b. integrative technique discovery approach
26. What is the best way to reduce the plateau in the learning curve?
a. Use a variety of situations in the learning process
b. Introduce new materials in the learning situation
c. Provide better space and rest periods during learning
d. Use a another form of motivation for learning
27. What makes the experimental method better than the lecture method?
a. Pupuls memorize whatever principle they learn and retain it longer
b. Materials used in the experiement assure retention of learning
c. Learner discovers the principle by themselves and thereby understand it better
d. Experiement is a form of a play activity which children enjoy with understanding
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28. Which of the following is the essential feature of the eclectic method?
a. It is the most used method
b. It is applicable to all types of learner
c. It combines all the best features of all other methods
d. It is recommended by curriculum experts
29. Mrs. Alvera is encountering problems on classroom discipline?
a. enforece a system of rewards and punishments
b. Plan constructive and purposeful activities
c. Punish erring students in front of the class
d. Tell the class that she is the person in authority
30. The main reason for the use of remedial teaching is to ____
a. Guide the child to look for the proper procedure to learn what is taught
b. Re-study something which was wrongly taught
c. Guide the child to correct his own errors in all types of learning
d. Provide more opportunities to repeat what was taught for better mastery
31. In the class of Mrs. Dioneda, she asked the question “How can you distinguish facts
and opinions in the study presented?” How is this question classifies?”
a. Analysis c. Application
b. Evaluation d. Comprehension
32. Instructional objectives should inform one who is to perform the desired behavior,
the actual desired behavior, the result, the relevant conditions under which the behavior
is performed and-
a. The best items to be used in evaluating the objectives
b. The criterion to be used in evaluating the success of the performance
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c. The materials and references to be used
d. The criteria to be followed in carrying out the lesson
33. What must a teacher keep in mind during oral reading?
a. Children do not enjoy reading aloud
b. Oral reading increases comprehension and recall better than silent reading
c. Understanding pupil’s difficulties is the important goal
d. This is the best method for determining good readers.
34. Proper selection is the first concern of a teacher who plans to use some audio-visual
devices. Which of the following criteria must be considered by the teacher? I. Suitability
of the material for the intended purpose; II. Availability of the material; III. Quality: IV.
Cost
a. I, II and IV c. I and III
b. II and IV d. I, II, III and IV
35. The new tacher entered a noisy classroom. She routed immediately at the students
desperately trying yo get order and discipline. Since then the teacher has not controlled
the class. Which is the most probable cause of the teacher’s failure?
a. The new teacher wants to show the class who is the authority
b. Rules and procedures are not defined to sustain order
c. The class wants to test the ability and patience of the teacher
d. The student’s reactions to the teacher are the consequences of her behavior
36. As manager of the learning situation, the teacer is responsible for the setting up of a
physical environment that is most conductive to learning. She could see to it that-
a. The efficiency with which time and energy are spent on the part of the students and
the pupils are considered
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b. The type of class reactions to the learning situation are well directed by the teacher
c. The lighting and ventilation of the room and flexivle arrangement of equipment are
relevant to the type of activity being pursued
d. The effectiveness of class routine in the daily class activities is carried out.
37. Individuals differ from each other in their interest, abilities, needs and their learning
style at any given point in time. Which type of instructional program may best enhance
the academic achievement of students?
a. remedial instruction c. traditional instruction
b. Adaptive instruction d. computer-assisted instruction
38. In dealing with classroom misconduct, teachers tend to ____
a. plan long curative responses
b. respond to basis causes
c. respond to immediate causes
d. seek stronger punishment than parents would
39. The success of the discovery approach entails following certain principles. Such
principles are as follows except one. Which is this?
a. Learning through self discovery is enhance by individualized and small group
explorations
b. Children discover relationships and make generalizations in their own individual ways
c. Methods used by children in learning through self-discovery should not be likened to
the ways in which scientists think, work and organize knowledge
d. Cildren learn as a result of their observations and the experiences they undergo
40. The audio-visual experience is an opportunity for the teacher to guide students for
more fruitful learning. Learning will be more effective if the learners______
a. are told to remember and memorize facts
b. listen attentively and jot down notes
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c. participate actively through open discussion
d. are given quizzes immediately after the presentation
41. Which of these processes can be used to prevent forgetting and unlearning?
a. motivation c. evaluation
b. presentation d. drill and review
42. Inquiry lessons require the use of questions in instructing the learner to analyze;
interpret and draw conclusions form data gathered. Which type of questions ask for
additional data on application of principle?
a. leading questions c. historical question
b. probing questions d. informational questions
43. The educational implementation of research findings relative to the ability of dull
learners and bright learners to organize and generalize is for the teacher-
a. to give both dull and bright learners concrete and abstract experiences to serve as
basis for generalizing
b. to make the bright learners guide the dull ones in learning to generalize
c. to make the bright learners to generalize and the dull ones to memorize
d. to give the dul leaners more concrete experiences to serve as basis for generalizing
44. Textbooks can be used to best advantage by ______
a. utilizing th study questions found at the end of every chapter
b. using them one at a time
c. basing achievement tests on them
d. combining them with many other kinds of instructional materials
45. Which of the following will you do first to establish goodclass management?
a. Discuss the work plan for the year
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b. Prepare a seat plan
c. Train the class in the distribution of materials
d. Discuss the required rules for proper class behavior
46. Ms. Reyes is preparing for her afternoon class. Which of these criteria should be her
primary consideration in her choice of instructional devices?
a. appropriateness c. availability
b. novelty d. attractiveness
47. Which of the following should be observed relative to the method in a review?
a. It should be longer and more complicated than a development lesson
b. It should be the same as that used in teaching the subject
c. It should not be the same as that used in teaching the sucject
d. It should follow a definite time pattern and structures.
48. Which of the following devices provide the appropriate interface between a
communication link and system to another?
a. RAM c. ANALOG
b. INTERNET d. MODEM
49. Which of the following softwares will you use if you want to create programs and
customize applications?
a. applications software/program c. operating system
b. programming language d. business software
50. The blinking underline in a computer that indicates the “active” or “ working” point
file is the
a. arrow b. dot c. cursor d. pointer
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ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
1. The most frequent score in a distribution is the _____
a. mode b. mean c. midpoint d. median
2. Which is the most stable measures of central tendency?
a. median c. percentage
b. mean d. percentile rank
3. Norms obtained in a certain school evaluate pupil/students performance
a. national norms c. grade norms
b. local norms d. age norms
4. What should a teacher do before constructing items for a particular test?
a. Review the previous lessons
b. Determine the length of time for answering it
c. Announce to the students the scope of the test
d. Prepare the table of specifications
5. Under what type of multiple choice test can this question be classified? “Which of the
following statements expresses this concept in different forms?
a. Cause c. Defintion
b. Association d. Difference
6. Setting up criteria for scoring essay tests is meant to increase their ____
a. realibility c. objectivity
b. validity d. usability
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7. Read the following objective carefully “After listening to a group report ecology the
students are expected to defend their position in the issue. “ To what domain does it
belong?
a. Psychomotor c. affective
b. cognitive d. perceptive
8. The control group in an experimental study is the group which is ______
a. compared to the normal group
b. not given the treatment under study
c. given the treatment under study
d. not included in the study
9. Carol obtained a 97 percentile rank in an aptitude test. This means that ______
a. she answered 97% of the items correctly
b. she belongs to the 97% of the group who took the test
c. 97% of the examinees did better than her who took the test
d. she surpassed 97% of those who took the test
10. Stanines may be used as means of integrating raw scores. What is its basis?
a. distribution of the raw scorfes in a sampling population
b. distribution of the percentages in the normal curve
c. unselected and identical population
d. purposive and random populations
11. A class got a mean raw score of 50 and a SD of 5 in an 80 item in physical test. If
Nica is a member of the class and her score is 60. Which of the following describes her
performance?
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a. Nica scores 2 standard deviations below the class mean
b. Nica missed answering correctly 49% of the test items
c. Nice scores 2 standard deviations above the class mean
d. Nice scored better than 60% of his classmates
12. What is the advantage of using computers in processing test results?
a. Its processing takes a shorter period of time
b. Test results can easily be assessed
c. Its statistical computation is accurate
d. All of these
13. Which of the following statements about the validity and realibility of a test is TRUE?
a. A valid test is always valid but a reliable test is not always valid
b. A reliable test measures what intends to measure
c. A reliable test contains representative items from all important topics covered
d. A valid test consists of test items that have moderate levels of difficulty
14. The English class of Ms. Reyes is composed of students with different mental
abilities although they are in the same curriculum level. What should she do first so she
can make a good start?
a. Ask them to tell something about themselves
b. Make them write a brif composition about their plans and aspirations
c. Determine their strengths and weakness through a diagnostic test
d. Call for a dialog with parents
15. The major shortcoming of school grades or mark is that:
a. the school different clientele find them satisfactory
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b. they make students become more cooperative
c. the same grade may mean differently to different teachers
d. they reflect the true word on performance
16. What is the first step teacher should take in carrying out a research?
a. identify the problem c. advance hypothesis
b. gather data d. formulate tentative solution
17. Which of the following is a tool for evaluating personal social adjustment of
students?
a. Interview guide c. Sociometry
b. Observation checklist d. all of these
18. The following are factors affecting the evaluation of essay responses EXCEPT:
a. the present condition c. Answers written on the papers
b. mood of the rater d. volume of the test papers
19. It is generally belived that the best way of meeting the needs of mentally superios
learner is through _____
a. enriching the curriculum
b. accelerating them
c. involving them in extra-curricular activities
d. providing opporutinities for hem to help the slow learners
20 What should be AVOIDED in arranging the items of the final form of the test?
a. Space the items so they can be read easily
b. Follow a definite response pattern for the correct answers to insure ease of scoring
c. Arrange the sections such that they progress from the very simple to very complex
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d. Keep all the items and options together on the same page
21. Which of the following test items is compatible with the given objective?
OBJECTIVE: “Demonstrate ability to apply rules involved in multiplying part of digit
numbers” Test items:
a. Multiply the following set of numbers
345 987 543 194
264 208 270 456
b. multiply 234x56
c. Multiply the following set of numbers
316 152 235 456
13 46 37 89
d. Multiply 315 x 25
22. In which of the following types of research would data processing using computers
be MOST advantageous?
a. descriptive c. experimental
b. historical d. causal-comparatibe
23. In which of these research methods can the researcher control certain variables?
a. qualitative c. experimental
b. descriptive d. historical
24. Of the following types of tests which is the most subjective is scoring?
a. multiple choice c. simple recall
b. matching type d. essay
25. In constructing achievements tests, the first step is to:
a. determine the highest rating to be given to students
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b. assess the teaching capability of teachers
c. determine the content and skills covered by test
d. determine the characteristics of highest takers
26. Which of the following methods would improve the validity and reliability of an
examinations?
a. providing hints in answering the test items
b. providing time allotment for each item
c. giving long essay test items
d. giving weights to the items for scoring
27. The following are test score in geometry arranged in a descending order 52 52 42
41 37 37 37 37 30 30 30 25 28. Based on the data given, what is the mean?
a. 36.77 b. 34.60 c. 33.92 d. 33.08
28. The following are reasons why we evaluate the learning outcomes EXCEPT:
a. provide tangible evidence useful in interpreting school achivements to the community
b. provide parents information on how well their children are doing in school
c. analyze the learning task
d. monitor student progress
29. What recognized principle in test construction is violated in this item?
The food value of camote tops is:
1. mineral
2. mineral and iron
3. protein
4. all of these
a. Each item should test only one idea
b. The linguistic difficulty of the items should be low
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c. make all options grammatically consistent with the item
d. Avoid textbook wording or stereotyped phraseology
30. Miss Dioneda observes that some of her pupils do well in written tests but they
seldom participate in oral activities. It would be advisable for her to:
a. make use of group dynamics such as buzz sessions, small group discussions, etc.
b. tell the students that full credit is given to written work
c. assign the students to take turns in reading the lessons to the class
d. stress to the students that participation in the recitation makes up 25% of their
grades.
31. During the first grading period, a student obtained failing marks in five academic
subjects. Which of the following test would best explain his performance?
a. aptitude c. personality
b. attitude d. mental ability
32. Measuring the work done by a gravitational force as a learning task. Is what level of
cognition?
a. knowledge c. evaluation
b. application d. comprehension
33. It is the value representing typical or average performance of persons of various age
groups.
A national norms c. grade norms
b. local norms d. age norms
34. It refers to the process of evaluating a single test items by any of several methods. It
usually involves determining the difficulty and the discriminating power of the item, and
often its correlation with some criterion.
a. inventory test c. factor analysis
b. item analysis d. normal distribution
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35. Which of these completion items is best
a. type of guidance that is goal-oriented
b. Goal-oriented guidance is called guidance
c. Guidance is goal oriented
d. Developmental is goal oriented
36. The first process in analyzing score is _____
A .finding the mean c. ranking
b. grouping d. tallying
37. The lower limit of the step 45-49 is ____
a. 44 b. 44.5 c.45 d. 49
38. The standard deviation is a measure of _____
a. central tendency c. reliability
b. relationship d. variability
39. In making the step distribution the first thing to do is ____
a. decide on the class interval c. rank the scores
b. find the range d. tally the score
40. The non-intellective dimensions of a person is his ____
a. achievement c. personality
b. character d. skill
41. Evaluation is effective and useful only when the result is _____
a. reliable
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b. ttrue and valid
c. used to promote programs suited to the learners
d. used to promote or fail a student
42. Tandardized test when conducted at the national level require____
a. random implementation c. specific guidelines
b. reading of instruction d. uniform administration
43. Content validity is determined by the degree to which _____
a. there are enough time to measure the ability of the pupils
b. the contents are valid
c. the items representative samples of the content of the course
d. none of these
44. The crude mode is the ____
a. highest score
b. highest score minus the lowest score
c. score with the highest frequency
d. standard deviation
45. The distance of the scores from the mean is called ____
a. deviation c. mode
b. mean d. range
46. In order to find out if there is relationship between age and level of intelligence the
measure to be used is ____
a .analysis of variance c. standard deviation
b. correlation d. t- test
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47. The countring meadian when the number of cases is even is ____
a. average of the two middlemost score c. middle most score
b. highest score d. range
48. The same test is administered to different groups at different places at different
times. This process is done in testing the ____
a. comprehensiveness
b. objectivity
c. realibility
d. validity
49. Multiple choice test is considered as the best type of test because _____
a. it is easy to conduct
b. it contains many responses
c. it measures several competencies in one test
d. it possesses the qualities of other types of tests
50. It tells the relative position of a score from the rest of the scores
a. arrangement
b. frequency
c. percentage
d. rank
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SOCIAL DIMENSIONS IN EDUCATION
1. Which of the following statements is true about teacher – parent relationship?
a. Parent should be welcome in school and treated with consideration
b. Parents should be welcome only during PTA meetings
c. Parents are given the rights to interfere in school management
d. Parent should be given a hand in evaluating student’s performance in school
2. A person strives to work at a given task because of a need. Which of the following
situations can make a person strive to meet his needs?
a. Ask pupils to submit test questions or reactions from which you can select items for
tests or topics for discussion
b. Minimize the unpleasant consequences of student involvement
c. Utilize your comprehension as teacher in making final decision in the classroom
d. Use unfamiliar materials as examples in order to arouse their curiosity
3. You have a student who is always boasting in the class his mastery of the Bible
because he is protestant. How would you react being a Catholic?
a. Challenge him to a debate
b. Share with him your knowledge of the Bible
c. Keep silent and respect his belief
d. Listen to him once in a while
4. Mrs. Dioneda was scheduled to give district demonstration one morning but her
husband needed her presence in his office. What should she do under these
circumstances?
a. Send a note to her principal asking to be excused
b. Go with her husband to support him and then proceed to her demonstration even if
she would be late.
c. Send her lesson plan to her co-teacher who can substitute for her
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d. Arrange her schedule so that she can be with her husband immediately after her
demonstration 5. All the statements below are kinds of pleasure. Which one is morally good?
a. Pleasure in winning in a beauty contest by means of ballot
b. pleasure in offering one’s hard-earned grades to one’s parents
c. pleasure in winning in a chance number game
d. pleasure in winning in a sports game by default
6. The chairman of a committee which you are a member of, came to you personally
inform you about a meeting at 2:00 in the afternoon the next day. You are sure you
could not attend it because of an ealier appointment that is equally important. What
would you do?
a. Send a proxy to the meeting instead
b. Call upon before the meeting starts and tell her you will not be able to attend
c. Answer “yes” as if you are sure you will attend
d. tell her honestly that you wanted to but you have committed yourself to other
appointment.
7. Happiness is different from pleasure in being abiding consequence of result which is
noy destroyed even by the presence of pain. The best illustration of this principle is:
a. a student topping the board exam
b. a mother giving birth
c. an engaged couple getting married
d. a jackpot winner collecting his prize
8. The barangay leaders request you to explain the present comprehensive agrarian
reform program to the barangay members. What would be the best thing to do?
a. Inform them that implementing rules and guidelines are being prepared in the
Congress
b. Invite a resource speaker from DAR
c. Take it up as a lesson in all intermediate classes for further dissemination to parents.
d. Distribute copies of the hand outs on the Comprehenesive Agrarian Reform Program
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9. As a parent and at the same time a teacher, which of the following will you do to
show your cooperation to a PTA project in your school to be financed with the proceeds
of the sales from the school canteen where food prices are a little bit higher?
a. But all your food in the school canteen but request for a discount
b. Bring baon for you and your children but always make it a point to buy something
from the school canteen
c. Bring baon enough for you and your children even if you really do not like to do it
d. Buy all your food the school canteen even if you cannot afford to do so everyday
10. How can you help a habitual borrower of money get rid of his habit?
a. Do not lend him anymore
b. Let him do something for you in return for the money you lent him
c. Direct him to others
d. Ask for a collateral for the cash he is loaning
11. Since you are looked up to as a leasder in the community, what would you do if the
barangay captain seeks your advice on some important matters?
a. Inform the barangay captain that you have to get permission from your principal
b. Recommend a co-teacher to take your place
c. Discuss with the barangay captain how you can be of best help to him
d. Impress upon the barangay captain that you really know what to do for all his
problems
12. Which of the following is another illustration of happiness?
a. a family dining at a 5 star hotel
b. a family admiring their newly bought car
c. a family looking at their crops ready to harvest
d. a family on their way to Hongkong holiday
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13. Which of the following situations will manage conflicting situations to bring out
values enhancing nationhood?
a. kidnapped victims refusal to report cases to authorities and paying ranson money
instead
b. The coddling of squatters before election time and evicting them after election
c. Aling Tacing and her son patiently pick out worms and insects in their vegetable plots
rather than use insecticides made from foreign chemicals
d. Hostage taking incidents leading to the granting of the hostage takers demands in
exchange for the release of the hostages
14. A barangay captain needs money to save their barangay and neighboring
barangays from food flood caused by illegal logging. There is no appropriations for this
project. Which of these actions will you take?
a. Involve the community in preparing a financial plan
b. Accept the offer of the richest illegal logger to finance project
c. Stop all illegal loggers in engaging with their illegal work
d. Involve all citizens in the barangay and its neighbor to do reforestation
15. You teach in a “privileged” school were each classroom is air-conditioned. Aware of
the preset economic problems of the country, how do you think your schools can
contribute to the solution of this problem of the country?
a. Students cannot be made to sacrifice and recite in warm classrooms especially that
they do not directly cause the country’s economic problem
b. Air-conditioning of classrooms could be cut off on certain days especially if they are
not in use
c. Savings on cutting down air-conditioning could be spend on other worthwhile
activities for the students
d. Air conditioning is such a small-matter that savings on it could hardly affect the
economy
16. Which of the following situations will manage conflicting situations to bring out
values enhancing nationhood?
a. Filipino models posing nude to advertisers
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b. Ambush interviews of politician
c. Distributing lands to the land less tenants
d. Celebrating the Centennial of Independence
17. You were asked by your head to buy gifts for the family of their foreign friend. You
were told to decide. Which of these gifts you will buy?
a. embroidered Philippine products
b. chinaware dining set
c. a set of towels and imported bed sheets with pillow cases
d. a pair of very expensive elephants for goodluck
18. The chairman in the election precinct wants you to change the entries in the election
returns in exchange for special favors. It would be best for you to:
a. say No and be firm in your decision
b. say Yes but do not do it
c. change some as sicretely as you can
d. tell him to make the changes himself
19. Which of the following situations will manage conflicting situations to bring out
values enhancing nationhood?
a. A barangay captain accepts relief goods to help the flood victims
b. An old fashioned grandmother insists in the pamanhikan way of asking for the hand
of her grandson socialite fiancée
c. A Filipina entertainer in a formal gathering requiring wearing of the official attire of
one’s country opted instead to wear something similar to another country’s costume
d. A Filipino singer wants to impress his audience in a foreign land by singing the songs
of the foreign country and imitating the way the songs are sang by native speakers of
that country.
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20. Which of the following is the best situation wherein you can balance responsibility
and accountability?
a. A fireman responds to a fire call because all the other firemen are doing so
b. A fireman responds to a firecall to save life and property
c. A fireman responds to a firecall because he is paid to do so
d. A fireman responds to a firecall because his fire chief’s reprimands him if he does
not.
21. Which of the following will manage conflicting situations to bring out values
enhancing nationhood?
a. Shoemaker decided to abandon his shop to go to the city
b. A fisherman taught his son how to use dynamite in order to geta bigger catch
c. A Filipina beauty queem candidate for a world title tried to imitate native English
speakers in answering questions
d. Conchita gifted her British visitng friend with native bags, sandals and hand
embroidered blouse
22. Which of the following is the best situation wherein you can balance rights and
authority?
a. Mrs. Tan sets ten oclock for her 15 year old son’s curfew hour
b. Mrs. Tan allows her 15 years old son to stay out as long as he wants
c. Mrs. Tan completely forbids her 15 year old son to stay out at night
d. Mrs. Tan allows her 15 years old son to stay out late as long as he is with friends
23. Which of the following is the best situation wherein you can balance responsibility
and accountability?
a. a carpenter, paid on an hourly basis rushes his work to accomplish more unmindful of
the quality work.
b. A carpenter, paid on an hourly basis delays his work to get bigger pay
c. A carpenter paid on an hourly basis does his work with the right quality only when the
master carpenter is present.
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d. A carpenter, paid on an hourly basis tries to finish as much as possible without
sacrificing quality
24. When a teacher practices professional ethics, which of the following he is not likely
to do?
a. maintains cordal relationship with his colleagues
b. shares an outstanding outcome of an undertaking with others
c. engages is gossips
d. respects his superiors
25. In his relationship with his superior the teacher should:
a. work with self-vested interest
b.work with the without expecting any material benefits
c. expect to be promoted for every favor done to them
d. adopt an indifferent attitude
26. A teacher can best help a withdrawn child to assert himself and win the respect of
his classmates by:
a. a gicing him opportunity to show his talents
b. providing him leadership roles
c. always calling him to answer question
d. encouraging him to study harder to outwit his classmates
27. The best way for a teacher to impart values to his pupils is:
a. constant repetition of actions to make them routinary
b. inflicting corporal punishment
c. acting as a role model
d. always scolding his pupils
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28. While serving during the elections, some trouble makers enter your precinct. What
do you think is the most appropriate thing to do?
a. Challenge them to a duel
b. Close the precinct and go home
c. Ignore them and look for a safe place
d. Seek the assistance of law enforcers
29. Schools must train the students to be productive for the following reasons: I.To
become economically self reliant; II. To cushion the impact of El Niño; III. To compare
favorably with thise in other parts of the world, IV. TO gain control over others.
Which of the following belong to our educational philosophy?
a. III and IV c. II and III
b. I, II and IV d. I and III
30. Which of the following conduct of a teacher will merit the confidence and respect of
parents?
a. One who dresses properly depending on the occasion, mingles with all kinds of
parents and entertains all complaints
b. One who gives on the spot decision over cases which require careful deliberation
c. One who deals only with well-to-do parents and intelligent pupils.
d. One who dresses properly, arranges he hair meticulously, and entertains only the
high officials of government and school.
31. Which of the following situations will manage conflicting situations to bring out
values enhancing nationhood?
a. After a 20 year stay in London as a house speaker. Mila decided to return to her
country and share her retirement pay with her relatives and friends in the form of a
business venture
b. Illegal recruitment of Filipinos by Foreigners
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c. Filipinos act as a frug couriers unsuspectingly to foreign lands by foreign drug
syndicates
d. Filipino actresses accepting roles against Filipina modesty in favor of attractive
renumeration.
32. Which of thefollowing will you do if somebody confided to you an offense which will
implicate your brother?
a. Find out the full account of the matter.
b. Tell him to report the matter to the authorities
c. Advise the person who confided to you to get the services of the lawyer.
d. Encourage him to keep quiet so as not to implicate your brother
33. Underground economy is a great help in improving the country’s economy. Banana
cue, camore cue, barbecue and the like are sold in school and other public places.
Students are captive buyers.To augment her income, Mrs. Reyes is selling in school.
Which of the following does Mrs. Reyes need to do?
a. Increase the price of hers since the students will no longer go out of the campus
b. Ask her students to sell her items in different places
c. Sell her items lower than the prevailing price to help the students
d. Seek her co-teachers to help her sell her items.
34. Which of the following situations will mange conflicting situations to bring out values
enhancing nationhood?
a. A local manager took his company’s counterpart based abroad to a very typical resort
famous for all Filipino cuisine and entertainment
b. The balut vendor who agrees with the foreigners that balut are rotten eggs that
should not be eaten
c. A balikbayan comes home wearing leather jacket, high leather boots, and dark
glasses one summer evening
d. A balikbayan teenager greets her grandmother with a “hi” instead of kissing her
hands to show that she is now a state-side
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35. Garbage disposal has become a serious problem in your community. Garbage are
scattered and flies are feating on it. As a teacher which of the following will be your
priority?
a. Lead the students to burn there own trash in their own yard.
b. Create a desire among your students to clean the community as an outcome of your
lesson
c. Start a campaign to put up a covered garbage can in every home
d. Write the major for assistance in cleaning the place
36. The key to continuing community support for an instructional program is to –
a. Develop a program responsive to changing need of the community
b. Allow community participation in the evaluation of teacher’s performance.
c. Maintain an instructional program that stresses a traditional academic education
d. Rely on the media to improve the image of the school
37. Which of the following Filipino attitudes is enhanced by the teaching of “Planting
Rice is Never Fun”?
a. Increase ones tolerance c. Dislike for works
b. Love for the farm d. Love for music
38. An inventor is offered by a foreigner four times as much as what he will get
practicing in the Philippines. He refused the offer. Is he right? Which of the following is
the best answer?
a. No, because opportunity knock but once
b. Yes, because is invention will help improve the country
c. Yes, because the beneficiaries of his invention are his relatives
d. Yes, because the amount he will get from the foreigner can also be spent in the
Philippines.
39. Which of the following situations will manage conflicting situations to bring out
values enhancing nationhood?
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a. A logger was asked to replace the trees he cut
b. Filipino contract workers abroad accepting lower wages than other contract workers
from other countries performing the same job
c. A baby dress exporter changes the quality, workmanship wise, of the goods she
deliver to her foreign partner after learning of the great profit her partner is getting
d. Local manufacturers agreeing business partners to provide cheap labor by Filipino
workers.
40. Pick out the teacher-student relationship that was violated when Miss Vera gave
Marie a grade of 75% in her Science class due to poor conduct?
a. a teacher should not make deductions on pupils scholastic rating for acts that are not
manifestations of poor achievement
b. A teacher may deduct on pupil’s scholastic ratings for acts that are manifestation of
poor moral values
c. Maintain an instructional program that stresses a traditional academic education
d. Rely on the media to improve the image of the school
41. Norman, a second year student, received a failing grade in English in the second
grading period. The teacher requested a conference. During the conference the
teacher’s in trying to make a point, compared Norman’s grade with the other members
of the class. An argument ensued between the parent and the teacher. Which of the
following is a fundamental mistake the teacher made in conducting the conference?
a. The teacher did not close the conference with a constructive comment
b. The teachers comment directed attention away from the problem
c. The tacher did not have an interview guide to use during the conference
d. The teacher showed her bias against the students
42. A police officer informs you that there has been a rash of stealing within the vicinity
of the school. He asks you for the names of some clients you believe might have been
involved. Which of the following will you do?
a. Remind the police officer of confidentiality of information
b. Promise him that you will ask information about hiss crime
c. Provide him with the names of likely suspects
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d. Ask him to seek permission from the principal
43. What will you do with the extra amount of voluntary contribution you solicited from
your class for typhoon victims?
a. Spend the extra contribution for their own needs
b. Return the extra amount to them
c. Buy some snacks and distribute them to your pupils
d. Use the extra contribution to but visual aids
44. Which of the following should a teacher do if she cannot pay the monthly installment
of an appliance she got a department store in their town?
a. Offer to return the used appliance to the store on the condition that she will be
regunded on the monthly installment she paid
b. Move to another neighborhood to escape payment
c. Reject any notice of demand for payment to make the impression that she did not
receive any
d. Inform the manager of the store personally and make a satisfactory arrangement of
payment on or before the due date.
45. Which of the following is the best situation wherein you can balance responsibility
and accountability?
a. A construction firm who won the lowest bid for the construction of a bridge emplots
the lowest paid workers to justify his lowest bid
b. A construction firm who won the lowest bid for the construction of the bridge hurries
his workers so they can work on other projects
c. A construction firm who won the lowest bid for the construction of a bridge lets his
workers to themselves while he looks on other project to bid on.
d. A construction firm who won the lowest bid for the construction of a bridge carefully
supervise his workers on the project.
46. Which of the following will you recommend to a senior highschool scholar who is
impregnated by a fellow student?
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a. Forece her boyfriend to marry her
b. Tell her parents about her condition
c. Stop schooling till after she gave birth
d. Direct her to an abortion clinic
47. Normal conflicts can be avoided into becoming crises through appropriate and
timely intervention. How can this be done?
a. A case conference is immediately called
b. The principal intervenes in the case
c. The counselor should be a friend to the counselee
d. Identify and analyze the problem and it causes
48. Mr. Tan, an incoming mayor, is interested to know where to focus his attention
relative to human rights violation in his town. He requested you to conduct the survey.
What human right was violated in a war of aggression?
a. right to own property c. right to life
b. right to form family d. right to work
49. What does teaching require teachers to be most alert to?
a. public concerns about education
b. poor behavior and use of immediate punishment
c. the family backgrounds of students
d. appropriate behavior and reward
50. You received an advice from the COMELEC that you will be the chairman in
Precinct 3A in your town. You are the first cousin of one of the candidates for
councilors. Your cousin and your parents are very happy for your appointment. What
will you do?
a. I will report to Precinct 3A and do my job very well
b. I will help my cousin by requesting the voters in my precinct to vote for him
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c. I will decline the appointment and explain to the COMELEC that I have a relative who
is a candidate for councilor
d. I will read the name of my cousin even if his name does not appear in the ballot.
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