Lexical Semantics. An Introduction

Boris IomdinRussian Language Institute,

Russian Academy of [email protected]

Lecture 10. PlanSpeech polysemy and language polysemyPolysemy and homonymyTypes of polysemy: chaining, radialTypes of meaning shifts: metaphor,

metonymyTypes of semantic unityPrinciples of dividing words into lexemesA lexeme and its useTypes of regular polysemy

One word, many meanings?Speech polysemy

Different referentsDifferent backgrounds of the hearerDifferent attitudes of the speaker…

Language polysemy

Noah and the snakesAll the animals are leaving the ark after

the flood subsides and Noah is wishing them well as they walk down, saying “Go forth and multiply”. 

Two snakes come slithering by and Noah says the same thing but they reply, “We can't, we are adders”.

Instantly, Noah quips back: “In your case do it by logs”.

Polysemy and homonymyProposed criteria for establishing homonymy:different grammatical features: to arm 1 – an arm 2

different derivates:to type 1 – typist, typesetting, typography a type 2 – typical, typology

different transformationsHe lies skillfully = He is a skillful liarHe lies on the bed sleeping ≠ He is a sleeping liar

unique combination of sensesball 1: ‘a round object used in games’ball 2 : ‘a large gathering for dances’

Polysemy: a definitionWord A is polysemous if for each two of its

senses ai and aj it has senses a1, a2, …, ak-1, ak such that ai is similar to a1, a1 is similar to a2, …, ak-1 is similar to ak and ak is similar to aj

Senses are similar if their explications share a non-trivial part (semantic component) which plays the same role in the explicationA trivial shared component: bank 1 ‘shore’ and

bank 2 ‘financial institution’ are objects

Types of polysemy

•Chain

•Radial

a1 a2 a3

a2

a3a5

a4

a1

Chaining polysemychair 1 ‘a seat for one person’: table and

chairschair 2 ‘an authority’: chair of linguisticschair 3 ‘head of an authority’: chair of jury

chair 1 chair 2 chair 3

Radial polysemycup 1 ‘a drinking vessel’: cup and saucercup 2 ‘contents of a drinking vessel’: one cup

of teacup 3 ‘a prize’: golden cupcup 4 ‘the symbol ∪’

∪cup 1

cup 2cup 4

cup 3

Main types of meaning shiftsMetaphorMetonymy

MetaphorDenoting an object A using the name of an object B,

if A and B are to a certain extent similar, transferring some semantic properties from one domain into another

current 1 ‘moving water’current 2 ‘electric flow’shared component: ‘constant movement’mouse 1 ‘a small grey rodent’mouse 2 ‘a small peripheral device for a computer’shared components: ‘small’, ‘long tail’, ‘moving fast’

MetonymyDenoting an object A using the name of an object B,

if B is part of A (synecdoche) or is somehow contiguous to A, shifting some semantic properties within the same domain

press 1 ‘action of pressing’press 2 ‘an apparatus for printing’press 3 ‘journalism’press 1 is performed by press 2, press 3 is product of

press 2Prague is a very beautiful cityPrague finally signed the Lisbon treaty

Metaphor and metonymy in radial shifts

Metaphor and metonymy in chaining shifts

Main questions of polysemyWhat is the base for the semantic

unity of a polysemous word?How should a polysemous word be

divided into different senses (=lexemes)?

Types of semantic unityThe explications of both lexemes contain

identical semantic componentsThe explications of both lexemes contain

elements that appear to have identical semantic components if reduced to a lower level of description

The explications of both lexemes have two different components that regularly come up in two lexemes of polysemous words

The structure of the situations described by both lexemes is identical or similar

Principles of dividing lexemesTwo uses of a word are two different lexemes, if

(1) one or more of their features are different and (2) none of these different features can be obtained from another feature by a simple rule

Features of lexemes to be compared:semanticpragmaticcommunicativesyntacticmorphologicaletc.

Two lexemes or one? A testHe carried a light and the responsibility for

his men. You held your breath and the door for me.You are free to execute your laws or your

citizens.

If two uses, when combined, form a pun, then they belong to two different lexemes

Two lexemes or two uses?A use of a lexeme is its shifted

usage different from the prototypical one in at least two correlated features which can be obtained from the prototypical usage using a productive rule

Uses of waitPrototypical usage: X is waiting for Y in Z at T =

‘Knowing or believing that an event Y concerning X must or may happen in a place Z, at a time period T X is ready for Y; usually X is in T and wants Y to happen’: I am waiting for the lecture in room S8

Shifted use: I am waiting for the New YearCorrelated features:

Y is a time momentX does not have to be in a certain place

Holistic usesJohn loaded boxes onto the wagonJohn loaded the wagon with boxesJessica sprayed paint onto the wallJessica sprayed the wall with paintPrototypical usage: ‘to put objects Y or substance Y

into a container Z’Shifted use: ‘to put objects Y or substance Y into a

container Z, so that Z is full with Y’Correlated features:

Z is the object, Y is used with preposition withcomponent Z is full with Y is added

Criteria for ordering lexemesCompleteness of grammatical patternsNumber of paradigmatic semantic links

(synonyms, antonyms, analogues, derivates, …)Number of metaphorical and metonymical

derivatesPlace in the semantic structure of the language

(number of related semantic classes)Place in the formal classification of predicatesPragmatic valueNumber of idioms

Regular polysemy types. Nouns‘Action’ – ‘Subject of action’:

to ensure security – the security caught a burglar‘Action’ – ‘Object of action’:

the choice of a present was difficult – what’s your choice?

‘Action’ – ‘Instrument of action’: she took a long shower – the shower fell and broke

‘Action’ – ‘Place of action’: exit of troops – stop at the next exit

‘Action’ – ‘Moment of action’: a long friendly lunch – he came at lunch

Regular polysemy types. Nouns‘Property’ – ‘Subject of property’:

he has a talent for music – your son is a real talent

‘State’ – ‘Cause of state’: he felt delight – the performance was a delight

‘Plant’ – ‘Fruit of plant’: I planted strawberry – ice cream with strawberry

‘Tree’ – ‘Wood’: an oak near the house – an oak table

‘Material’ – ‘Product’: glass is very fragile – exhibition of Czech glass

Regular polysemy types. Nouns‘Body part’ – ‘Detail of clothing’:

she has a thin waist – the waist of the dress‘Container’ – ‘Content’:

a crystal glass – he drank a glass of beer‘Dance’ – ‘Music’:

everyone danced tango – a tango composer‘Organization’ – ‘Building’:

university founded in 1755 – the roof of the university

‘Science’ – ‘School subject’: math theories – math is the second lesson today

Regular polysemy types. Verbs‘To do’ – ‘To cause’:

water boils – to boil water‘To move’ – ‘To cause movement’:

a car drives – to drive a car‘To deform’ – ‘To cause’:

to dig soil – to dig a hole‘To process’ – ‘To cause’:

to bake potatoes – to bake a cake‘To process’ – ‘To eliminate’:

to correct an essay – to correct misprints

Regular polysemy types. Verbs‘To use as object for depicting’ – ‘To cause’:

to draw a young woman – to draw a portrait‘To close’ – ‘To bar access to’:

to shut a door – to shut a room‘To act’ – ‘To be able’:

to read a book – my son reads already‘To move by means of transport’ – ‘To move by

itself’: my friend flew to Norway – his plane flew to Norway

‘To move’ – ‘To pass’: birds fly – time flies

Regular polysemy types. Adjectives‘having property X’ – ‘causing property X’:

a peaceful old woman – a peaceful hotel‘X’ – ‘characteristic for person X’:

a courageous man – a courageous act‘exceeding norm’ – ‘of high degree’:

deep river – deep knowledge‘exceeding norm’ – ‘positively valued’:

a rich farmer – rich knowledge‘less than norm’ – ‘negatively valued’:

narrow street – narrow views

Next lecture

Semantics and pragmatics. Linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge. Gricean maxims. Speech acts theory.