Levels of Organization in the Human Body. Brief Introduction to Chemistry of Biology The valance electrons = e - s in outermost shell. These determine.

Levels of Organization in the Human Body

Brief Introduction to Chemistry of Biology

The valance electrons = e-s in outermost shell. These determine the chemical properties of an atom and the bonds they make with other atoms

The carbon atom a is made up of the 3 sub-atomic particles:

protons, neutrons and electrons

• H= 1• O= 2• N= 3• C=4

3 Types of Chemical Bonds:• Covalent bonds – a sharing of electrons between, strong bonds.

• Ionic bonds – complete transfer of electrons, relatively weak bond (crystals strong), break in water. e.g., NaCl becomes Na+ and Cl- in water!

• Hydrogen bonds – attractive forces between

H atoms and O or N atoms.

Very weak but important.

Non-Polar: equal sharing of electrons. e.g. C=C

Polar: unequal sharing of electrons. e.g. H2O

Monosaccharides* - simple sugars (monomers). 1. Glucose – the molecule as a source of E in the human body.2. Fructose – a simple sugar found in fruits (fruit sugar).3. Galactose – a component of milk sugar.

Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides joined by a glycocydic bond. 1. Sucrose (table sugar) = glucose + fructose2. Lactose (milk sugar) = glucose + galactose 3. Maltose (grain sugar) = glucose + glucose

Polysaccharides** - complex carbohydrates – polymers of glucose.1. Glycogen - E storage for glucose in animal cells, liver, skeletal mus.2. Starch - E storage for glucose in plant cells, e.g., potatoes! 3. Cellulose - structural component of plant cell walls, e.g., dietary fiber!

CarbohydratesSimple and Complex

**Macromolecules formed by 9 or more monosaccharides

*Consist of 3, 5 or 6 C atoms

How Glucose is Made? Photosynthesis:

Ug, not this useless, ridiculous food structure again?

Where are the Carbs in our Diet?

A Better Food Structure?

COCONUT OIL!

Can be classified by number of C atoms in a molecule:

n = 3 trioses, e.g. glyceraldehyde (‘tri’ = 3)

n = 5 pentoses, e.g. ribose and deoxyribose ('pent' = 5)

n = 6 hexoses, e.g. fructose, glucose and galactose ('hex' = 6)

MonosaccharidesSingle sugar molecules

The monosaccharides Important in Nutrition are the Hexoses:

1. Glucose - found in all cells; main source of E for brain and RBC’s.

2. Fructose - found in fruit and honey.

3. Galactose - found in milk. Glucose is C6H12O6

The Structural Differences between Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose

*Important when forming polymers - creating dietary differences between starch and cellulose.

Note different orientation of OH group = the α and β glucose molecules.

Glucose – what all the polymers are made out of!

Fructose is naturally the most sweet tasting of all the sugars!

Sugar Sweetness fructose 173% sucrose 100% glucose 74% maltose 33% galactose 33% lactose 16%

HFCS 42 - beverages, processed foods, cereals, baked goods

HFCS 55 - used in soft drinks

HFCS 90 - extremely sweet e.g. ‘crystalline fructose’ (more rare)

High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)

HFCS Promotes Diseases; Makes Diabetes Mellitus Worse fat deposits in liver, increasing buildup of lipoproteins . Can lead to plaque buildup and narrowing of blood vessels. Risk of Metabolic Syndrome – by consuming too much HFCS in food and drinks. HFCS worsens diabetes. Damages Immune System - asthma, food allergies, multiple sclerosis (MS). Speeds-up aging process – Your poor liver and other vital organs must work much harder than they should. Mercury (Hg) from commercial processing found in HFCS.

Disaccharides

Nutritionally Important ones are:

Maltose - 2 glucoses molecules (alpha bond)Found in seeds and grain: “Grain” sugar.

Lactose - glucose and galactose (beta bond)Found in dairy products: “Milk” sugar.

Sucrose - glucose and fructose (alpha bond)Found in plants: “Table” sugar.

Two sugar molecules linked together…

Dehydration Synthesis Reactions take Monosaccharides and make Disaccharides

Oligosaccharides

Nutritional Benefits

• From 3 to 10 monosaccharides long.

• Have a sweet taste and unique ‘mouth feel’.• Food Examples: onions, artichokes, chicory root, legumes, asparagus, wheat and jicama.

Basic Category Examples

Fructo-Oligosaccharides (FOS), in veggies, short chains of fructose.

Galacto-Oligosaccharides (GOS), short chains of galactose.

2 Important specific examples are:1. Raffinose- indigestible (galactose-glucose-fructose).2. Stachyrose- indigestible (galactose-galactose-glucose-fructose).

Nutritional Benefits - Eating oligosaccharides allows the undigested portion to feed beneficial bacteria (intestinal microflora) and can simultaneously reduce population of harmful bacteria.

Starch – storage form of glucose in plants.

Amylose- straight chain

Amylopectin- branched

Glycogen – storage form of glucose in animals;

highly branched chain.

Cellulose – structural component of plant cell walls.

Polysaccharides

All of the Polysaccharides in Human Nutrition are made up of many

molecules of …

GLUCOSETherefore, when these molecules are broken down, all they liberate is… Glucose

Whole Food Refined Food

Unrefined, entire original “item” Heavily processed from original form

All original nutrients remain intact Most (if not all) original nutrients removed

Unprocessed, not chemically treated Chemically treated (in processing & for shelf-life)

Glycemic Index (GI) indicates how quickly a certain food turns into sugar (glucose) in a person’s body.

Glycemic Load (GL) indicates the total amount of glucose in the food. Calculate the total amount in terms of average serving.

76 GI x 23 net carbs /100 = 17.5

38 GI x 15 net carbs /100 = 5.7

Glycemic Load = Glycemic Index x Carbohydrates / 100

Whole Food Processed Food

Exam

ples

Refined Processed FoodsWhite BreadCandy and SodaLow fat YogurtGirl Scout Cookies

Whole FoodsComplex Organic VegetablesBrown Rice or QuinoaNuts and LegumesFresh Organic Fruits

• StarchPlants store glucose in chains of starch.

Amylose: Straight chains in starch; 40% of starch is amyloseMore resistant to digestion vs

amylopectin

Amylopectin: Branched chains of in starch; 60% of starch is amylopectin

Easier to digest

PolysaccharidesStarch

Examples of Starchy Foods:o Grains - wheat, rice, barley, oats, corn, and potatoes, beans

o Bread, cereal and pasta, crackers, biscuits, cookies, cakes, pie crust, all things made with flour (amylose).

o The amylose is broken down quite slowly Therefore, the higher amylose more slowly it is digested.

o Long grain rice - which tend to stay more separate, higher in amylose, lower glycemic index.

o Short grain rice - which tend to make creamier, stickier rice lower in amylose, higher glycemic index.

Polysaccharides

Pasta is a processed food however, when cooked "al dente" (slightly firm) it’s digested more slowly, plus starch molecules tightly packed, only about half is rapidly digested.

Most Bean starch structure only slowly broken down into sugars.

Some cooked starches, such as potatoes and rice, when cooked and cooled, a small percentage of the starch takes longer to digest.

New Vs. Mature Potatoes - ‘new’ have starch more like amylose in structure than mature, and they are somewhat less glycemic.

Cooking Techniques can affect Starch Digestion

* Similar to “Resistant Starch” like under-ripe bananas

Glycogen is amylopectin with very short distances between the branching side-chains.

Stored in: Liver, Skeletal Muscle and Uterus.

Glucose easily passes into cells and is used in metabolism.

Polysaccharides

Glycogen is highly branchedcompared to starch

Any spare glucose is grabbed by the liver which has a limited capacity to store it as Glycogen.

Inside Hepatocytes of Liver, glucose can be polymerized to make glycogen which acts as a carbohydrate energy store.

Polysaccharides

Fibers or ‘roughage’ refers to a diverse group of indigestible carbohydrates found in plant foods.

Polysaccharides

What is Fiber?

The molecules are linked together by chemical bonds our enzymes can not break

Therefore, they pass through our G.I. tract un-digested system by us.

Cellulose – Contains Various Fibers…

You can think of the main difference between starch and cellulose this way: The Glucose in Cellulose has every other glucose molecule ‘upside down’, and we do not have the enzyme to break that arrangement!

Is this Starch or Cellulose?

Fibers are polysaccharide molecules where the sugars are linked together by chemical bonds our enzymes can not break.

Including vegetables, fruits, legumes, whole grains, nuts and seeds. This is a category of carbohydrates that humans cannot digest.

Recommended daily intake is:

38 g/day for men and

25 g/day for women.

most people only get 15 g/day.

Classifications of FiberFibers can be divided by solubility

– Insoluble– Soluble

Insoluble fibers: include compounds such as: Lignin, Cellulose and Hemicellulose

• Adds bulk to the fecal material, helps keep it moving through the colon.

• Found in vegetables and whole grains.

Soluble fiber includes: Pectins*, Gums**, and Mucilages*** (e.g. psyllium)

Slows rate that chyme is released from stomach– Slows absorption of glucose– Can lower cholesterol

• Found in fruits, citrus fruits, oat products, and beans

Classifications of Fiber

*** a thick, gluey substance produced by nearly all plants

*causes jams and jellies to gel**e.g. xanthan gum, gums things

Classifications of FiberFermentable Fiber~100 trillion bacteria reside in our gut (large intestine).

These bacteria are crucial for optimal health in humans. Role in:

Body Weight Blood sugar controlImmunityBrain FunctionMental health

The friendly gut bacteria (gut flora) often referred to as the “forgotten organ”.

The fiber reach the large intestine mostly unchanged.

Cellulose - insoluble fibere.g., in skin of fruit

Pectin -soluble fiber e.g., in flesh of fruit

Our good gut bacteria are able to digest use these fibers as fuel via fermentation!

This ↑ the # and balance of friendly gut bacteria, They make Vitamin K and short chain fatty acids with powerful health benefits for us, in return for all that yummy fermentable fiber.

Fermentable fibers include pectins, beta-glucans, guar gum, inulin and oligofructose.

The best whole-food sources of fermentable fibers are beans and legumes. 1 Cup/day = DRI!

By-products of fiber fermentation = gas.

Vit Kshort chain FA’s

In Summary: Fibers that are soluble, viscous and fermentable appear to be the healthiest.

Good sources of healthy fibers include vegetables, fruits, oats, legumes, nuts, dark chocolate, avocados, chia seeds.

Carbohydrate Digestion

• Begins in the mouth.• Teeth grind food and mix with saliva.• Saliva contains lingual amylase.• Swallowed – the Bolus goes down the esophagus to stomach.

No carbohydrate-digesting enzymes in the stomach.

• The pancreas releases pancreatic amylase as carbs enter the small intestine.

• Enzymes break down the disaccharides into monosaccharides.• Absorption of starch and simple sugars occurs in small intestine. • Only the indigestible fiber remains in Large Intestine.

Absorption of Carbohydrates

Absorption of Carbohydrates• In the Small Intestine - broken down to simple sugars and

then absorbed!

• Absorption primarily done through a co-transport system• Glucose is taken into intestinal epithelium with sodium

ions (Na+) and released when sodium ions are pumped out of the cell

• Transported to Liver– Release into blood stream– Converted into glycogen– Converted into fat

Functions of Glucose and Sugars

• Energy• Building blocks for other cell components• Spares protein from being used as energy

source• Prevents ketosis• Cell surface markers and receptors

Lactose IntoleranceConsequence of lactase deficiency, and the inability of adults to digest lactose no enzyme to break glucose-galactose bond.

May be genetic or environmental

Symptoms: after consuming significant amounts of lactose.

Lactase activity is high in newborns, but declines after weaning.

abdominal bloating, cramps,flatulencediarrhea nausea, borborygmi vomiting Most can handle ½ to 1 cup of milk

with a meal; lactose containing foods with more fat meal helps reduce discomfort

Regulation of Blood Glucose• Normal BG is 70-100 mg/dl

• After a meal, insulin levels rise which helps to store away glucose into tissues

• If fasting glucagon levels rise, mobilizing glucose from storage into the blood

• Epinephrine and NE both are released during sympathetic NS activation, mobilizing glucose into the blood

• Cortisol and Growth Hormone decrease glucose use by muscle, but increase blood glucose

When blood Glucose is highInsulin is released to makeblood Glucose lower (normal)

Cells in your bodyup-take the glucose

When blood Glucose is lowGlucagon is released to makeblood Glucose higher (normal)

Liver is a key site:

Hepatocytes liberate Glucose stores (glycogen) and use fats & proteins to make more glucose

Glycogenolysis*

Regulation of Blood Glucose

• Hyperglycemia (fasting 126 mg/dl)

• Hypoglycemia (fasting below 50 mg/dl) symptoms:– irritability, sweating, anxiety, weakness, headache,

confusion– Reactive hypo- due to exaggerated insulin response

after eating– Fasting hypo- low BG after fasting for 8+ hours

Comparison of Molecules (120 Kcal each)

Sucrose EthanolGlucose

2 slices of bread. 1 glass of orange juice. 1 shot of bourbon.

Sucrose EthanolGlucose2 slices of bread 1 glass of orange juice 1 shot of bourbon

~96 kcal used by all cells in body

~24 kcal hits Liver for Metabolism

Dislipidemia

~24 kcal used by all cells in body

~96 kcal hits Liver for Metabolism

~48 kcal used by all cells in body

~72 kcal hits Liver for Metabolism

↑ Aldehydes ↑ Uric acid

↑ VLDL + ↓NO = ↑BP

↑ Aldehydes ↑ Acetate ↑ Citrate↑ VLDL

Makes Glycogen

↑ Insulin

60 kcal glucose + 60 kcal fructose

Starch => glucose

Glucose-6-℗ Glucose-6-℗

~0.5 kcal used for de novo Lipogenesis

No effect on Ghrelin

↑Insulin resistance

CNS Depressant

Inhibits Ghrelin

↑ de novo Lipogenesis ↑ de novo Lipogenesis

Metabolic SyndromeIs a state of numerous metabolic factors existing in one individual which include:

Risks = Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes Mellitus Type II .

* Est. over 50 million Americans have this condition.

* Hypothesized link to over consumption of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) and metabolic syndrome.

1. High Blood Pressure

2. Abdominal Fat

3. High Blood Triglyceride levels

4. High Uric Acid levels

5. Insulin Resistance

6. State of Chronic

Inflammation

Which one would you choose?

Why do we make the choices we make?

Do you believe that Nutritional Labels on Packaged Food tell you all the information you might want to know about what that

food actually contains?

• If so, why?

• If not, what are some examples of how food manufacturers might used deceptive practices to lead you to believe something about the product that is untrue?

Girl Scout Cookie Label

* Tertiary Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ)

Conventional

Organic

Pesticides, growth hormones, stimulants,Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)…

None of those harmful elementsBut more than that...

Synthesized by plants, they belong to a group of phytochemicals called phytoalexins. Plants produce this in response to attack by pathogenic organisms such as fungi, viruses and bacteria.

Salvestrols

Resveratrol first of the salvestrols discovered.

Highest amounts found in Green Vegetables and Red Fruits, also higher in bitter foods!

Food Serving Total Resveratrol (mg)

Red Wine (Global) 150 ml 0.30 – 1.07 Red Grapes 160 g 0.24 – 1.25 Cocoa Powder 200 g 0.28 – 0.46

Content of Resveratrol in selected foods

Antioxidant, anti-aging, cardiovascular protectant…

Resveratrol

CYP1B1 – a cancer enzyme (marker) found in all types of cancer cells: e.g. bladder, brain, breast, colon, esophagus, kidney, liver, lung, lymph node, ovary, skin, stomach, testis and uterus…

*Several dozen more salvestrols have subsequently been discovered in organically grown fruits and vegetables.

Over 90% more Salvestrol content in Organic Produce.

Normal cellCancer cell

How Salvestrols Work

So fruits and vegetables really are good for you!