Level2CODESAA400Guides1

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Material compiled as support for a better understanding of the “Learning Points” from the appendices of the Text Book

ENGLISH LEVEL II

San Antonio de los Altos 2007

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C O N T E N T S A P P E N D I X U N I T 1: DAILY ACTIVITIES..................................................................4

Learning Points:.........................................................................................................................4

a.Verb Tenses .........................................................................................................................4

b.Time phrases ........................................................................................................................9

c.Time Sequence ....................................................................................................................10

d.Yes/No and Wh-question formation with past tense and future (be going to).............................10

e.Short Answers....................................................................................................................11

A P P E N D I X U N I T 2: OUR WORLD...........................................................................14

Learning Points:.......................................................................................................................14

a .Amount/quantification ......................................................................................................14

b.Cause/Effect .....................................................................................................................15

c.Conditional Relation...........................................................................................................16

d. Comparison (er –than) Superlatives (-est)..............................................................................16

e.Reason ..............................................................................................................................19

f.Reference...........................................................................................................................20

g.Relative Pronouns ..............................................................................................................20

h.There: existencial................................................................................................................21

A P P E N D I X U N I T III: PLANNING AHEAD.............................................................22

Learning Points:.......................................................................................................................22

a.Adverb Phrases/Clauses ......................................................................................................22

b.Conditional .......................................................................................................................24

c. Degrees of Certainty: Modals ..............................................................................................25

d.Future (going to, will, may, can) ..........................................................................................27

e. Infinitive..........................................................................................................................28

f. It is to express condition or state .........................................................................................29

g. Noun phrases as the Subject................................................................................................30

h. Reason/Result ..................................................................................................................30

A P P E N D I X U N I T IV: MATRIX VOCABULARY ......................................................31

Learning Points:.......................................................................................................................31

a. Amount/Quantification: ....................................................................................................31

b. Comparison.......................................................................................................................32

c. Countable/Uncountable .....................................................................................................32

d. Reference: ........................................................................................................................33

e. Preference .........................................................................................................................34

f. Word Relations .................................................................................................................34

A P P E N D I X U N I T V: BIOGRAPHY EINSTEIN .......................................................35

Learning Points:.......................................................................................................................35

a.Expressing Change .............................................................................................................35

b. Date ................................................................................................................................35

c. Duration ..........................................................................................................................35

d. Past time..........................................................................................................................36

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e. Why/how/that clauses .......................................................................................................36

f. Time Sequences ..................................................................................................................36

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................37

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A P P E N D I X U N I T 1: DAILY ACTIVITIES Learning Points:

aaaa.... VerVerVerVerb Tenses b Tenses b Tenses b Tenses Present Tenses:Present Tenses:Present Tenses:Present Tenses: 1. 1. 1. 1. P r e s e n t C o n t P r e s e n t C o n t P r e s e n t C o n t P r e s e n t C o n t iiii n u o u s (Called the Present Progressive) n u o u s (Called the Present Progressive) n u o u s (Called the Present Progressive) n u o u s (Called the Present Progressive) FormFormFormForm UseUseUseUse NotesNotesNotesNotes ExamplesExamplesExamplesExamples Subject + be (am, is, are) + verb + ing Affirmative: I am working You are working She is working He is working We are working They are working Negative: I am not working You are not working She is not working He is not working We are not working They are not working Interrogative: Am I working? Are you working? Is she working? Is he working Are we working? Are they working?

THIS IS TTHIS IS TTHIS IS TTHIS IS THE REAL HE REAL HE REAL HE REAL PRESENT.PRESENT.PRESENT.PRESENT. -To talk about something which is in progress at the moment of the speaking. What are you doing? I am watching a TV programme. -To talk about something which is in progress around the present. You are spending a lot of money these days. -To talk about something which is in progress for a limited period around the present. Robert is staying with his sister in Caracas. ----To talk about situations which are changing or developing around the present. Computers are becoming more and more important in our lives..

When we add –ing to verbs, there are sometimes changes in spelling. 1. Add -ing to base form of the verb – drink – drinking. 2. Verbs ending in silent –e drop the final e and add - ing smile – smiling. 3. If a one-syllable verb ends in a consonant, a vowel, and a consonant (CVC), double the last consonant before adding –ing – sit – sitting. Note: don´t double the last consonant if it is a w, x or y. 4. In two-syllable words that end in a CVC, double the last consonant only if the last syllable is stressed - admit - admitting

The children are playing in the garden. I am writing a letter. I’m not watching TV. We’re leaving now. Goodbye.

Exercise Complete the sentences. Use the verbs in brackets in the present continuous. 1. Where are Ken and Kate? They ___________ (wait) outside. 2. _____ Sally _______ (have) a shower? 3. No, she ______________ (wash) her hair. 4. You _____________ (not/watch) the TV at the moment. 5. ________ you ___________ (enjoy) yourself? Yes, I___________ (have) a good time. 6. Ben and Patty are in London on holiday. They _________________ (stay) at a small hotel near Hyde Park. 7. Prices _____________ (rise) all the time. Everything ___________ (get) more and more expensive.

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2. Simple Present2. Simple Present2. Simple Present2. Simple Present FormFormFormForm UseUseUseUse NotesNotesNotesNotes ExampExampExampExamplesleslesles Subject + base form (I,you,we, they) Subject + base form + s (she, he, it) only in the affirmative form. Affirmative: I, you, we, they work. She, he, it works. Negative: I, you, we, they do not/don’t work She, he, it does not/doesn’t work Interrogative: Do I, you, we, they work? Does she, he, it work?

-To talk about repeated actions or habits. I have a shower every morning. -To talk about situations which are permanent. Mr. Shaw lives in Bristol. -To talk about general truths. Vegetarians don’t eat meat or fish.

When we add –s/es to verbs, there are sometimes changes in spelling. In the simple present tense of some verbs, we add -es instead of- s in the third person singular. -If a verb ends in -y preceded by a consonant, we change the -y to i and add -es. (study – studies) -If a verb ends in -y preceded by a vowel, we add -s. (play – plays) -If a verb ends in –o preceded by a consonant, we add -es. (go – goes) -If a verb ends in s, sh, ch, x or z, we add -es. (reach – reaches)

Most evenings my parents stay at home and watch TV. I go to the cinema very often. The River Amazon flows into the Atlantic Ocean.

Exercise Complete the sentences. Use the simple present of the verbs in brackets. 1. The President of the U.S.A. _________ (live) in the White House. 2. Jet engines ________ (make) a lot of noise. 3. I _______________ (not live) in London. 4. The sea ____________ (cover) two thirds of the world. 5. She ___________ (work) from Mondays to Fridays. 6. You ___________ (not write) to your pen friend very often. 7. ___________ Andrew and Les _________ (go) to school by bus every day. 8. _______________ it (snow) ________ much in your country? 3. Present Perfect Simple:3. Present Perfect Simple:3. Present Perfect Simple:3. Present Perfect Simple: This verb tense is going to be studied deeply in Level 3. We form this tense with have/has + past participle. We use this tense to connect the present with the past. Example: I have worked. I have not worked. Have I worked?

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Past Tenses.Past Tenses.Past Tenses.Past Tenses. 1. Simple Past Tense1. Simple Past Tense1. Simple Past Tense1. Simple Past Tense FormFormFormForm UseUseUseUse NotesNotesNotesNotes ExamplesExamplesExamplesExamples The form of the simple past tense is the same for all persons. Affirmative: I, you, he, she, it, we, they walked. Negative: I, you, he, she, it, we, they did not/ didn’t walk. Interrogative: Did I, you, he, she, it, we, they walk? Note: use the simple past tense form only for the affirmative form.

-To talk about actions and situations which started and finished in the past.

Some verbs are regular, other verbs are irregular. The affirmative simple past of regular verbs ends in –ed paint – painted Irregular verbs have different affirmative simple past form come - came

I played football yesterday. He lived in London from 1975 to 1989. We didn’t go out last night.

Exercise Complete the sentences. Use the past tense of the verbs in brackets. 1. I’m sorry I’m late. I _____________ (miss) my train. 2. The plane ____________ (arrive) on time. 3. Last night she __________ (not/visit) her uncle in the hospital. 4. ______ he ________ (want) hot cereal yesterday morning? 5. I’m tired. Yesterday I __________ (walk) up a lot of hills in San Francisco. 6. Last year, she ________ (go) to Perú. 7. Last night They __________ (watch) a good movie on TV. 2. Past Continuous2. Past Continuous2. Past Continuous2. Past Continuous (Called the Past Progressive) (Called the Past Progressive) (Called the Past Progressive) (Called the Past Progressive) We often use the past continuous and simple past together in a sentence. The past continuous describes a longer action or situation which was in progress at a past time; the simple past describes a shorter action which happened in the middle of the longer action, or interrupted it Example: We were walking in the park when it started to rain. But to say that one thing happened after another, we can use the simple past.

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Example: When the telephone rang, Kate answered it. FormFormFormForm UseUseUseUse NotesNotesNotesNotes ExamplesExamplesExamplesExamples Form the past continuous with was/were + base form + ing Affirmative: I was working You were working She was working He was working It was working We were working They were working Negative: I was not working You were not working She was not working He was not working It was not working We were not working They were not working Interrogative: Was I working? Were you working? Was she working? Was he working? Was it working? Were we working? Were they working?

-To talk about something which was in progress at a past time. The action or situation had started but it had not finished at that time. At 8:00 last night I was watching TV. -When we tell a story, we often use the past continuous to describe a background scene and the simple past for events and actions. I was standing outside the bus station. Suddenly. a woman came to me.

When we add -ing to verbs, there are sometimes changes in spelling. 1. Add -ing to base form of the verb – drink – drinking. 2. Verbs ending in silent –e drop the final e and add - ing smile – smiling. 3. If a one-syllable verb ends in a consonant, a vowel, and a consonant (CVC), double the last consonant before adding –ing – sit – sitting. Note: don´t double the last consonant if it is a w, x or y. 4. In two-syllable words that end in a CVC, double the last consonant only if the last syllable is stressed - admit - admitting

I was writing a letter. She was making some tea. Kate was watching TV.

Exercise: Join each idea in A with the most suitable idea in B. Make sentences using when and the past continuous or simple past of the verbs in brackets. A B 1. I (drop) my bag I (drive) to work 2. I (cut) myself I (eat) a sandwich 3. My car (break down) I (run) for a bus 4. I (see) a shark I (shave) 5. My clothes (get) dirty I (swim) in the sea 6. I (break) a tooth I (clean) the attic Future TensesFuture TensesFuture TensesFuture Tenses

1111.... Future with willFuture with willFuture with willFuture with will::::

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We use both will and going to in predictions about the future, but there is a difference: we use -will to talk about what we think or believe will happen in the future. We use going to -to talk about something in the future which we can see as a result of something in the present. Examples: That boat doesn’t look very safe. It’ll sink in that heavy sea. Look at that boat! It’s going to sink. FormFormFormForm UseUseUseUse NotesNotesNotesNotes ExamplesExamplesExamplesExamples Will + infinitive without to. All the persons take the same form. Affirmative: I, you, he, she, it, we, they – ‘ll/will study Negative: I, you, he, she, it, we, they will not/won’t Interrogative: Will I, you, he, she, it, we, they study?

-To predict the future. Tomorrow will be another cold day. -When we decide to do something at the moment of speaking. Who’s there? I’ll se who it is. -For general facts about the future. The scientists will meet in Australia. -To make a promise or to give assurance. I’ll be back in 5 minutes. -To say that something is not definite, use probably with will for the future. She will probably visit Ireland in June.

We use will when we decide to do something at the moment of speaking. Oh dear! I’ve spilt some wine on my jacket! Don’t worry. I will clean it for you.

I will buy a big beautiful house. You will find a lot of friends. I won’t travel.

Exercise:

1. They ___________ (arrive) on Wednesday. 2. He ____________ (be) back at 3:00 o’clock. 3. The stores _________ (be) open until 6 o’clock. 4. The plant _________ (die) because of lack of sunshine. 5. She _____________ (not/ leave) a message on the table for him. 6. _____ you _______ (go) to the park? 7. They _________ (stay) in the Hotel American.

2222.... FFFFuture with going to:uture with going to:uture with going to:uture with going to:

FormFormFormForm UseUseUseUse NotesNotesNotesNotes ExamplesExamplesExamplesExamples Be + going to + infinitive Affirmative: I am going to walk You are going to walk He is going to walk

-Sentences with going to connect the future and the present. Look at those black clouds

-We use this tense when we have already decided to do something. Why are you putting those

We are going to buy a car.

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She is going to walk It is going to walk We are going to walk They are going to walk Negative: I am not going to walk You are not going to walk He is not going to walk She is not going to walk It is not going to walk We are not going to walk They are not going to walk Interrogative: Am I going to walk? Are you going to walk? Is he going to walk? Is she going to walk? Is it going to walk? Are we going to walk? Are they going to walk?

in the sky. It’s going to rain. -To talk about what we intend to do in the future. I’m going to take a shower. -To make predictions. You are going to be rich and famous. -To talk about definite plans that were made before now. We are going to visit aunt Valerie. -General facts in the future. The managers are going to meet in Canada.

old clothes? I’m, going to paint the kitchen. -Sometimes the present progressive + a future time marker are used for the future. I’m leaving for Rome in two days.

Exercise: Match the sentences. ____ 1. Yoko is homesick. ____ 2. Bertha has a hearing problem. ____ 3. Pete’s raincoat is dirty. ____ 4. Lulu likes photography. ____ 5. The Winston’s car doesn’t work. ____ 6. Bertha’s friend Adele is very happy. ____ 7. It’s late and I’m tired.

a. She’s going to see the ear, nose, and throat doctor next week. b. I’m going to bed in a few minutes. c. She’s going to be a grandmother. d. She’s going to a photography show tomorrow. e. He’s not going to wear it. He’s going to take it to the cleaners. f. She’s going to call home this evening. g. They’re going to take it to the auto repair shop.

bbbb.... Time phraseTime phraseTime phraseTime phrasessss

They are a group of words which specify a period of time. Some of them are: this morning, an hour ago (past time); late (present); in an hour, this afternoon (future time). Examples: I went to the mall this morning.

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I saw her an hour ago. Better late than never. I’ll hope to see you in an hour. We’ll see you this afternoon.

Time sequence markers are phrases or words we use to organize our writing. Some common markers for the time of the day are: in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, at night. Example: Michele works in the morning. Some common markers for the past, present and future are: in the past, at present, in the future. Example: At present, I’m a student.

cccc.... Time SequenceTime SequenceTime SequenceTime Sequence You can make your writing clearer by using time word connectors. They show the order that things happen. Some common ones are: first, next, after, after that, then and finally. Note: use the comma after these words. Example: First, you add the water. Next, you add the sugar. Exercise:Exercise:Exercise:Exercise: Use time word connectors to show the order of things in this paragraph. I take a shower. I have breakfast. I drive to the train station. I take a train and a bus. I get to work. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

dddd.... Yes/No and WhYes/No and WhYes/No and WhYes/No and Wh----question formation with past tense and future (be question formation with past tense and future (be question formation with past tense and future (be question formation with past tense and future (be going to)going to)going to)going to)

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Yes/No questions:Yes/No questions:Yes/No questions:Yes/No questions: It is a question which can be answered with Yes or No. Did John arrive late? Yes, John arrived late. No, John didn’t arrive late. Is Sue going to be here? Yes, she is going to be here. No, she is not going to be here. WhWhWhWh----question formation:question formation:question formation:question formation: This question begins with a question word: what, where, who, whose, when, why, which and how. We form these questions by changing the position of the subject using the auxiliary verb which corresponds to each verb tense. Examples: When did you start your job? I started my job last August. Who went with you? Mary went with me. What are you going to do tomorrow? I’m going to study English.

eeee.... Short AnswersShort AnswersShort AnswersShort Answers We often answer Yes/No questions using “short answers” – answers made with a subject (usually a subject pronoun which substitutes the noun + the auxiliary verb depending on the verb tense we are using: we use do/does in the simple present short answers, did in the simple past tense, will in the future and –to be (am, is, are) in the future with going to. Examples: Do you know Kate? Yes, I do. Did you study English? Yes, I did. Will you be there? Yes, I will. Are you going to go to the cinema? No, I’m not.

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If the question has the full verb be, we use -be in the short answer. Examples: Are you angry? No. I’m not. Is she there? Yes, she is. Exercise:Exercise:Exercise:Exercise: Make Yes/No questions from these statements.

1. He is doing his homework. ______________________________________________

2. You know Simon Robinson. ______________________________________________ 3. Jane studied English last nigh. _______________________________________________ 4. The shop closes at 6:00 o’clock. ________________________________________________ 5. They are English. ________________________________________________ 6. I will be there tomorrow morning. ________________________________________________ 7. They are going to go to the beach this afternoon. ________________________________________________ Complete the questions. 1. We’re going. Where ___________________________________? 2. I’m worried. Why _____________________ worried? 3. I was reading. What __________________________________? 4. They’ll do it. When ___________________________ it? 5. We saw a film. Which film _____________________ ? 6. She was talking to someone. Who ________________ to ? Answer the following questions using short answers. 1. Are you over 21? No, ____________________________________ 2. Did Andrew go to school yesterday, Yes _______________________ 3. Does Sarah like tennis? No, _______________________________ 4. Were you at home night? Yes,______________________________ 5. Are they going to the mall? Yes, ____________________________

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6. Will she make dinner? Yes, _______________________________

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A P P E N D I X U N I T 2: OUR WORLD Learning Points: aaaa .Amount/quantification .Amount/quantification .Amount/quantification .Amount/quantification Nouns can be count/countable and non-count/uncountable/mass. Count Count Count Count nouns are the names of separate objects, people, etc. which we can count: they have singular and plural forms. (one book – two books). UncountableUncountableUncountableUncountable nouns are the names of things which we do not see as separate, and which we cannot count: they do not have plural forms. (milk – rice) Count NounsCount NounsCount NounsCount Nouns Article/NumberArticle/NumberArticle/NumberArticle/Number NounNounNounNoun VerbVerbVerbVerb A One

Sailor is Brave

(The) Two

Sailors are Brave

NonNonNonNon----Count NounsCount NounsCount NounsCount Nouns NounNounNounNoun VerbVerbVerbVerb Oil Is necessary Sailing Is dangerous

Quantifiers and Count NounsQuantifiers and Count NounsQuantifiers and Count NounsQuantifiers and Count Nouns QuantifierQuantifierQuantifierQuantifier NounNounNounNoun I saw

some enough a lot of

I didn’t see

any enough a lot of many

sailors islands ships

Quantifiers and NonQuantifiers and NonQuantifiers and NonQuantifiers and Non----Count NounsCount NounsCount NounsCount Nouns QuantifierQuantifierQuantifierQuantifier NounNounNounNoun I used

some enough a lot of

I didn’t use

any enough a lot of much

oil salt honey

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Enough: it is an indefinite determiner, usually used in front of plural or uncountable nouns. It means as many or as much of something as necessary or desirable; sufficient. Examples: Have you made enough copies? Is there enough room for me in the car? I haven’t got enough money to pay for a taxi. Plenty: it is a pronoun. It is a number or an amount that is sufficient for somebody or more than they need. Examples: Do you need more milk? No, thanks, there’s plenty in the fridge. Third: it is a noun. It means each of three equal parts of something. Example: I don’t want to live in a third-class country. One of: (see reference of this same chapter, part F) b. Cause/Effect. Cause/Effect. Cause/Effect. Cause/Effect The stating of facts and the giving of reasons to explain why or how the facts came about is the basic procedure in paragraph development by cause and effect. Sample Paragraph:

Slaughter on the Highways

During the past five years, the number of Americans killed annually in car accidents has climbed to more than 55,000. This needless slaughter on streets and highways can be attributed to three general causes. Mechanical failures, especially those related to faulty brakes and bald tyres, account for a significant number of fatal accidents. Environmental conditions such as blind corners, narrow streets, heavy fog, intermittent rain or snow resulting in slippery roads also contribute to the grisly accident statistics. But without doubt the most frequently reported factors in car accidents are errors of human judgments

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–all the way from such follies as excessive speed and drunken driving to such momentary lapses as failure to signal a turn or a change from one lane to another. The man behind the wheel is often his worst enemy.

Exercise: In which sentences do you find the causes? In which sentence do you find the effect? To show cause –and-effect, use: The + comparative of an adjective + the comparative of an adjective Example: The more crowded the restaurant, the slower the service. (When the restaurant gets more crowded, the service gets slower.) c. Conditional Relationc. Conditional Relationc. Conditional Relationc. Conditional Relation In double comparatives, a conditional relationship is expressed. This condition is always expressed in the first clause. The sentence: The more I paint, the more confidence I gain is one example. To talk about change –an increase or a decrease- use: Comparative of an adjective + and + comparative of an adjective. Example: It’s getting harder and harder to find an inexpensive restaurant. More/less + and + comparative of an adjective. Example: It’s becoming more and more difficult to buy a house. I’m less and less interested in cooking. d. Comparison (er d. Comparison (er d. Comparison (er d. Comparison (er ––––than) Superlatithan) Superlatithan) Superlatithan) Superlativvvves (es (es (es (----est)est)est)est) Use the comparative form of an adjective + than to compare two people, places or things. (I’m taller than she is.)

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Usage Notes: In formal English, use the subject pronoun after than. (Steve is younger than he is.) In informal English, you can use the object pronoun after than. (Steve is younger than him.)

Spelling Rules: -To form the comparative of short (one-syllable*) adjectives, add –er to the adjective. Add only –r if the adjective ends in e. (I’m older than my sister.) (*) A syllable is a word or part of a word that contains on vowel sound. Old has one syllable. Older has two syllables: old + er.

-When a one-syllable adjective ends in a consonant, vowel, and consonant (CVC), double the last consonant and add –er. (Yesterday was hotter than today.) -To form the comparative of most adjectives of two or more syllables, add more before the adjective and than before the person or thing you are comparing. (He is more generous than his brother.) -To form the comparative of two-syllable adjectives that en in –y, change the -y to - i and add –er. ( busy – busier) -Tired and bored are one-syllable adjectives that follow the pattern of long adjectives. (Today I’m more tired than I was yesterday.) -Quiet and simple are two-syllable adjectives that follow the pattern of one-syllable adjectives. (He is quieter than his sister. This lesson is simpler than the next one.) -The adjectives good, bad, and far have irregular comparative forms. Good – better bad –worse far – farther (I thing this book is worse than the last one.) -Use much to make comparisons stronger. (I am much taller than you are.) Be Careful! Always compare the same things. (Lulu’s name is shorter than Eleonore’s name.) Exercises: Write the comparative form of each of these words. Fast ________ expensive _____________ bored ___________ big _________ funny ________________ quiet ___________ pretty _______ generous ______________ simple __________ wrong _______ tired _________________ far_____________

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Compare these things. 1. a lamb and a sheep (old/small) ____________________________________________________ 2. wood and steel (light/hard/strong) ____________________________________________________ 2. a bus and a train (slow/comfortable) _____________________________________________________ SuperlativesSuperlativesSuperlativesSuperlatives The superlative form of an adjective expresses the difference between a noun or pronoun and a group of nouns or pronouns (two or more). Use it to single out one thing from two or more things. Example: Martin is the tallest of the three children. -The superlative is often used with expressions beginning with in and of, such as in the world and of all. Example: You are the nicest person in the class. Form: We use the + adjective + est (one syllable) or the + most + adjective (two or more syllables) We also use the + least + adjective (-) Examples: My first trip to the U.S.A. was the loveliest. This is the most practical gift. This is the least pleasant of the girls. Spelling Rules: There is more than one way to form the superlative of adjectives. - For most one-syllable adjectives, use the+adjective+est Bright brightest -For one syllable adjectives ending in a single consonant after a single vowel, double the last consonant and add est. Big biggest

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-For two syllable adjectives ending in a consonant + y, change the y to I and add est. Happy happiest -Adjectives ending in e, take st. Nice nicest -The usual superlative form of words with more than one syllable is the most + adjective. Popular the most popular -A few two-syllable adjectives take est. Quiet quietest Clever cleverest -Some two syllable adjectives can take either -est or the most. (pleasant, stupid, cruel, friendly, handsome, quite, shallow, sincere, true) Polite the most polite the politest Common the most common the commonest -Irregular forms: Good best bad worst far farthest little least Exercise: Complete the sentences using the and the superlatives of the adjectives in brackets. 1. Who’s __________ (good) footballer in Europe? 2. This was _________ (cheap) watch that they had in the shop. 3. I bought __________ (reliable) washing machine I could find. 4. This is one of _________ (expensive) restaurants in Milan. 5. The blue whale is _________ (large) of all the animals. 6. ________ (old) university in the world is in Morocco. 7. What’s __________ (precious) metal in the world? 8. Sydney Opera House is one of ___________ (famous) modern buildings in the world.

eeee.... ReasonReasonReasonReason

Reason: because, because of, as, since.We use because before a clause, with a subject and a verb. (He ran to the station because he was late.)

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We use because of before a noun. (We didn’t go out because of the rain.) We can use -as and -since to mean “because” before a clause: as and since often come at the beginning of a sentence. (As it was raining, we didn’t go out. - Since you haven’t got any money. I’ll lend you some.)

ffff.... ReferenceReferenceReferenceReference

One of is an expression which is used for emphasis to mean a single just one. Example: There is only one piece of cake left. To specify an individual in a group or set. Example: One of my friends lives in Brighton. It is used for emphasis and it is always stressed to remark at a specific person or thing: the only one. Example: He is the one person I can always trust.

gggg. . . . Relative PronounsRelative PronounsRelative PronounsRelative Pronouns Relative pronouns (e.g. who, that, which) introduce relative clauses. Relative clauses modify the nouns that precede them. Example: The woman who is behind him on the exercise bike is his wife. We use who and whom for people, that and which for things, where for places, whose for possession and when for time. Examples: This is the woman who owns the hotel. Robert is the boy whom Sally is dancing with. That is the house which I bought last week. Canada is the place where I like to live. Janeth is the woman whose husband owns a big hotel in the city.

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At six is the time when I’ll meet you at the airport. hhhh....There: existencialThere: existencialThere: existencialThere: existencial

-When we say that something exists, we normally begin the sentence with there + be and put the subject after be. Example: There is a bank in West Street. -It has two forms: singular and plural. Examples: There is a man at the door. There are five fast food places in the mall. -We can use this structure with different forms of be. Examples: There is a hotel in the mall. There was a telephone call for you last night. There will be a lot of people at the party. Negative Form: There is not/isn’t a hotel in the mall. There are not /aren’t any malls around here. Interrogative Form: Is there a hotel in the mall? Are there any malls around here? Exercise: Complete the following sentences with There is or There are. 1.______________________ a new moon tonight. 2.______________________ someone at the door. 3.______________________ a lot of students absent today. 4.______________________ a mailbox on the corner. 5.______________________ two large windows in the room. 6.______________________ several beautiful parks in this city.

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A P P E N D I X U N I T III: PLANNING AHEAD Learning Points:

aaaa.... Adverb Phrases/ClausesAdverb Phrases/ClausesAdverb Phrases/ClausesAdverb Phrases/Clauses We use adverb clauses to combine thoughts and show connections between ideas. There are seven important types of adverbial clauses and certain subordinating conjunctions that can introduce each type of clause. 1. Adverb clauses of reason: introduced by because, since, on account of the fact that. These clauses answer the question whywhywhywhy.

Example: People do it because it´s a question of attitude, not the activity per se.

2. Adverb clauses of contrast: introduced by although, though, even though, even if, in spite of the fact that. These clauses contrast the ideacontrast the ideacontrast the ideacontrast the idea expressed in the independent clause.

Example: Even if they are, it isn´t a personal choice involved here? 3. Adverb clauses of condition: introduced by if, unless, in case, provided (that). These clauses answer the question under what conditionsunder what conditionsunder what conditionsunder what conditions.

Example: You can also call yourself an extreme sports enthusiast if you ski off cliffs.

4. Adverb clauses of time: introduced by when, whenever, before, after, as soon as, once, while, until. They refer to when the action happenswhen the action happenswhen the action happenswhen the action happens.

Example: As soon as they complete these preparations, they attach a long cord to each harness and securely fasten the cords to the bridge.

5. Adverb clauses of place: introduced by where, wherever. These clauses answer the question where.where.where.where.

Example: Wherever we go, we see sameness. 6. Adverb clauses of comparison: introduced by than, as much as, as many as. These clauses make comparisons of quantitycomparisons of quantitycomparisons of quantitycomparisons of quantity.

Example: There seem to be far fewer singular, individualized experience today than there were in the past.

7. Adverb clauses of result: introduced by so (that) or containing the expressions so + adjective + that or such + noun phrase + that. These clauses present the result of a situationthe result of a situationthe result of a situationthe result of a situation stated in the independent clause. The word that is omitted especially in conversation.

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Example: The elastic cord attached to their backs are so strong and flexible (that) they allow the young people to drop close to the canyon floor below without hitting it.

-Except for clauses of comparison adverb clauses can come either before or after the independent clause. When the adverb clause comes first, we place a coma after it. -Unlike the other adverb clauses, adverb clauses of comparison and result cannot normally be moved. This is because their meaning is linked to or dependent on a particular element in the independent clause. AAAAdverb phrases:dverb phrases:dverb phrases:dverb phrases: When sentences contain and adverb clause and a main clause, the adverb clause modifies the main clause. Remember that a clause contains a subject and a verb. A phrase may or may not contain a subject and a verb. You can convert an adverb clause into an adverb phrase by changing the verb into a present or past participle (a form that does not show time). Often it is necessary to eliminate the subject as well. Example: Reg and Maggie Green were driving south in the area of Italy known as the boot while their children Nicholas and Eleanor were sleeping peacefully in the back seat. (independent clause modified by adverb clause) Reg and Maggie Green were driving south in the area known as the boot, their children Nicholas and Eleanor sleeping peacefully in the back seat (adverb phrase: were and the subordinating adverb while have been deleted) Examples of adverb phrases: -With a present participle: Guessing that their new car was in good conditions, Reg speeds up. -With by plus a present participle: By saying, you have to go out as soon as possible, they react to the fire. -With a past participle: Rushed to the hospital, Nicholas lay in coma for two days.

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-With having plus a past participle: Having spent a wonderful day exploring the ruins, we came back to our house. -With a subordinating word: After returning home, we went to our parents’ house. -With the infinitive of purpose: They quickly made a phone call to alert the authorities. Exercise: Find some adverb phrases and adverb clauses in the reading selection: “Electrification” in your text book, pages 93-95.

b. b. b. b. ConditionalConditionalConditionalConditional

We can use if with many different structures. Here are the most common: 1. Open present or future conditionals: in these sentences there is a possi- bility that the situation will happen. If he asks me, I’ll help him. (Perhaps he will ask me.) (If + simple prese(If + simple prese(If + simple prese(If + simple present + will + infinitive)nt + will + infinitive)nt + will + infinitive)nt + will + infinitive) 2. Unreal present or future conditionals: in these sentences we talk about unreal, untrue, imagined, or impossible conditions and their results.

If he asked me I would help me. (But he won’t ask me, or he probably won’t.) (If + si(If + si(If + si(If + simple past + would + infinitive)mple past + would + infinitive)mple past + would + infinitive)mple past + would + infinitive)

3. Unreal past conditionals: in these sentences we talk about unreal past situations.

If he had asked me I would have helped him. (But he didn’t ask me.) (If + past perfect + would have + past participle)(If + past perfect + would have + past participle)(If + past perfect + would have + past participle)(If + past perfect + would have + past participle) 4. General conditionals: in these sentences we talk about general truths and scientific facts. If it rains, I’ll stay home. (Generally when it rains, I don’t go out.)

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(If + simple present + simple present)(If + simple present + simple present)(If + simple present + simple present)(If + simple present + simple present)

c. c. c. c. Degrees of Certainty: ModalsDegrees of Certainty: ModalsDegrees of Certainty: ModalsDegrees of Certainty: Modals

Modals are auxiliary verbs (“helping”) verbs that we use to express: a. Social functions such as giving advice. (You should watch this

program.) b. Logical possibilities such as making assumptions. (It could be

the best of the season.) REMEMBER: Modals have only one form. They do not have an –s in the third person singular. The verb following the modal is the base form. the base form. the base form. the base form. She might tape it. Not: She mights tape it. Not: She might to tape in. To make sentences negative use not after the modal. You might not go out. You can not swim. To make sentences interrogative use the modal as a helping or auxiliary verb. Should I go out? Can I go with you? MoMoMoModaldaldaldal

UseUseUseUse Usage NoteUsage NoteUsage NoteUsage Note ExampleExampleExampleExample

-Can or be able to -To describe present ability. -Can is used more frequently than be able to in the present tense. -Use could and was/were able to for past ability. -Use the correct form of –be able to for all other tenses.

-She can sing. -Before she took lessons, she could sing, but she wasn’t able to dance well. -Since her lessons, she has been able to get roles on TV.

-Should -ought to -had better

-To give advice. -To give urgent advice.

-Should is more formal than ought to. -Use should to ask for advice. -Use shouldn’t and had better not for negative statements.

-You should watch “Mystery” tonight. -Terri ought to watch it, too. -You had better stop watching so much TV or your grades will suffer. -Should I buy a new TV set?

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-You shouldn’t get it repaired. -You’d better not stay up too late.

-Have to -have got to -must -must not -don’t have to

-To express necessity. -To express obligation in writing, including official forms, signs and notices. -To express prohibition. -To express that something is not necessary. Note: in spoken English, use can’t instead of must not. (He can’t stay up past ten.)

-Have to is the most common expression in everyday use. -Have got to is usually used only in spoken English and informal writing. -When must is used in spoken English, the speaker usually is in a position of power or is expressing urgent necessity. -Must and have got to refer only to the present or the future. -Use the correct form of have to for all other tenses.

-You have to press start to begin recording. -You’ve got to see this! It’s really funny. -You must have your VCR on Channel 3 in order to record. -You must go to bed right now, Tommy. -You must talk to your boss about a raise. -She has had to miss her favorite program since she enrolled in that class.

-May -Might -Could -Couldn’t

-To talk about future possibility. -To talk about future possibility. -To talk about future possibility. -Something is impossible.

-We usually don’t begin questions about possibility with may, might or could. Instead we use will or be going to and phrases such as Do you think? Or Is it possible that?. -However, we often use may, might, or could in short answers to these questions.

-The show may start at ten. I’m not sure. -It might be very good. -It could win an award. -It may not make people laugh. -It might not be good. It couldn’t start at eleven. The news is on then.

Exercise: Read the article. Underline the modals and modal-like verbs. Also underline the verb that follows. TV LITERACY The average U.S. teenager might watch as many as 18,000 hours of TV by the time he or she graduates. You may think that anyone who watches this much TV has got to understand how it works. However, most of us (not just teenagers) can’t recognize many of the messages TV is sending. For this reason, many experts think that everyone should become “TV literate”. People who are television literate are able to understand how TV messages influence an audience. They don’t have to believe everything they see on the tube. Here are some things you ought to know about television.

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TV networks have to make money by selling time to advertisers. This fact influences all commercial TV. A drama writer, for example, may avoid topics that could embarrass the advertiser sponsoring the program. TV’s world is not real. This might sound obvious, but you ought to remind yourself often of this fact. After all, when you see something you feel that it must be the real thing. You’ve got to remember that the cereal commercial uses white glue, not milk, so the cereal doesn’t get soggy the way it does in real life. TV uses specific techniques and you can learn to identify them. Lighting, camera angles, and music have got the ability to make things seem beautiful, frightening, or funny. They can also make you feel that you must buy a certain product. Get literate, and you’ll be able to enjoy TV, without being is victim. -Written by Seymour Telly. d. Future (going to, will, may, can)d. Future (going to, will, may, can)d. Future (going to, will, may, can)d. Future (going to, will, may, can) To talk about future time we can use the future tenses: will and going to for predictions, guesses, promises or intentions. Examples: I will go to Europe next month. I am going to be there at five o’clock. -Use may, might, can and could to talk about future possibility. Examples: It may be windy later. It might get cold. I can go with you. It could rain tomorrow. -Use may not and might not to express the possibility that something will not happen. (There are a lot of clouds, but it might not rain.) -Use couldn’t to express the idea that something is impossible. (Why don’t you ask for a ride? I couldn’t do that. He’s too busy.)

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-Questions about possibility usually are not formed with may, might, or could. Instead, they are formed with the future (will, be going to, the present progressive) or phrases such as Do you think …? Or Is it possible that …? The answers to these questions often contain may, might, or could. Examples: -When will it start snowing? It might start around lunch time. -Are you going to drive to work? I might take the bus instead. -When are you leaving? I may leave now. -Do you think it’ll snow tomorrow? It could stop tonight. -Is it possible to have a break now? Sure. -If -be is the main verb, it is common to include be in the short answer. (Will our flight be on time? It might be.) e. Ie. Ie. Ie. Infinitivenfinitivenfinitivenfinitive -It is the basic form of a verb. In English, an infinitive is used by itself, eg. read as in: He can read, or preceded by to, as in: He likes to read. -We use the infinitive without to after let’s (= let us) and why don’t we/you … to make suggestions. Examples: -Why don’t we go out? -Let’s go for a walk. -We use the infinitive without to after modal verbs. Example: I can stay with you for a while. Note: exception. After the modal ought, we use the infinitive. (You ought to be careful.) -We also use the infinitive without to after would rather and had better.

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Examples: -I would rather stay home. -You had better take an umbrella with you when you go out. -After the verbs let (= allow) and make (= force or cause), we use an object. Examples: They let their children stay up late on weekends. The film made me cry. Exercise: Complete each sentence using the most suitable verb in the box. Use each verb only once. eat hurry tell type wear lend sit promise cry wait use have 1. It’s very cold today. You’d better _______ coat when you go out. 2. I haven’t got any money. Let me ______ you some. 3. Chopping onions makes me _______. 4. I’m tired of walking. Let’s ______ down for a while, then. 5. I can’t ______ you what Sally said. She made me _______ that I would’nt tell anyone. 6. Why don’t we ______ dinner now? I think I’d rather _______ until later. 7. It’s getting late. We’d better _______. 8. I couldn’t ______ the letter because my brother wouldn’t let me _____ his typewriter. f. It is to express condition or state f. It is to express condition or state f. It is to express condition or state f. It is to express condition or state We use the structure: It + be + adjective + infinitive phrase to comment on behavior. Examples: It’s impolite to ask about other’s people’s personal business. It’s boring to hear her stories about famous people. In these sentences, it refers to the clauses that follow. They are one kind of noun clauses. Examples: It’s sad that kids today don’t respect their elders. It’s a shame that people focus so much on the past.

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g. Noun phrases asg. Noun phrases asg. Noun phrases asg. Noun phrases as the Subject the Subject the Subject the Subject

A noun phrase is a group of words that ends with a noun. It can contain determiners: the, a, this, adjectives, adverbs and nouns. It cannot begin with a preposition. Remember that both: subjects and complements (direct and indirect) are generally noun phrases. Examples: I drank a glass of milk. (complement: direct object) The pretty house is quite far away from here. (subject) He gave the pretty woman a book. (complement: indirect object) One way to get from the airport is by taxi.

h. h. h. h. Reason/Reason/Reason/Reason/ResultResultResultResult Use future factual conditional sentences to talk about what will happen under certain conditions. The -if clause states the condition. The result clause states the probable or certain result. Use the simple present in the -if clause. Use the future with will or be going to in the result clause. Examples: If Soto wins, she’ll lower taxes. (It’s a real possibility that Soto will win.)

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A P P E N D I X U N I T IV: MATRIX VOCABULARY Learning Points: a. a. a. a. Amount/QuantificAmount/QuantificAmount/QuantificAmount/Quantification:ation:ation:ation: Some: we use some and any before plural nouns and uncountable nouns to talk about an indefinite quantity. In general, we use some mostly in affirmative sentences and any mostly in negative sentences. We use any after words with a negative meaning eg. without, never, seldom, rarely, hardly. Examples: -There are some letters for you. -I’ve got some money. -There aren’t any letters for you. -I found a taxi without any trouble. Most: the greatest in number amount or extent. More than half/the majority. Example: Most business professionals are worried about the economy. A few: it means a small amount, but some. It is a positive idea. It is used with plural count nouns. Example: The exam was extremely difficult, but a few students passed it. (=a small number of students, but some student) Many and much: we use many with plural countable nouns and much with uncountable nouns. They mean a large amount or quantity. We use them mostly in questions and negative sentences. Examples: -There are many books on the table. -There is much milk in the fridge. -How many books do you have? I don’t have many books. -Is there much rice left? There isn’t much rice left. Lots: it is informal for a lot of. It is used with count and uncountable nouns. It means a great quantity, amount or number. Examples: lots of milk - lots of books

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Exercise: Choose the correct answer. 1. I’ve heard some/any records. 2. I can’t lend you some/any money. 3. How much/many coffee have we got? 4. There are a lot of/lots letters. 5. Tell me if you want some/any help. 6. Could I have some/much more coffee, please? bbbb. Comparison. Comparison. Comparison. Comparison Exercise: Jimmy and Rick. HeightHeightHeightHeight WeightWeightWeightWeight AgeAgeAgeAge Rick 4 feet inches or

127 centimeters 57 pounds or 25.9 kilogram

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Jimmy 4 feet 4 inches or 132 centimeters

69 pounds or 31.3 kilograms

Read the chart. Then write sentences comparing Rick and Jimmy. Use the adjectives in the box. tall short old young heavy thintall short old young heavy thintall short old young heavy thintall short old young heavy thin 1. Rick is shorter than Jimmy. 2. __________________________________________________ 3. __________________________________________________ 4. __________________________________________________ 5. __________________________________________________ 6. __________________________________________________ c. Countable/Uncount c. Countable/Uncount c. Countable/Uncount c. Countable/Uncountableableableable Some nouns are uncountable in English, but countable in other languages. Here are some of the most common of these uncountable nouns, together with some related countable expressions.

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Uncountable Countable accommodation a place to live/stay advice a piece of advice bread a loaf/slice/piece (of bread) a (bread) roll furniture a piece of furniture information a piece of information luggage a piece of luggage: a suitcase/bag money a bill/coin; a sum (of money) news a piece of news traffic a car/bus etc. travel a journey/trip work a job; a piece of work Exercise: Write C next to count nouns and U before uncountable nouns. banana ____ cheese ____ wine ______ bread ______ egg _______ carrot ____ orange _____ rice _______ apple______ meat _____ water ______ money _____ d. Reference d. Reference d. Reference d. Reference::::

To show a connection or relationship between things we use the following words. One: it is used for emphasis to mean just a single one. Example: I found eight people living in one room. The other: it is used as a pronoun to mean the second person or thing or the one remaining of a group. Example: He raises one arm and then the other. These: it is a plural determiner used to refer to a person, a thing, a place or an event that is close to the speaker or writer, especially when compared with another. Example: Come here and look at these pictures.

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Else: it is an adverb used to mean in addition to or apart from something already mentioned. Example: Have you anything else to do? Besides: it is an adverb which means in addition to somebody or something and also. Example: There will be five of us for dinner, besides the children. One kind of: this phrase is used for emphasis in just a single one of a group having similar characteristics. Example: From all fruits, orange is the kind of citrus I like the most. e. Preference e. Preference e. Preference e. Preference To state preferences: to express a greater interest or desire for somebody/something than somebody/something else: Would rather is used to talk about things or activities that you like better than other things or activities. It means “would prefer to”. It is used to talk about a preference in a particular situation. After would rather, we use the infinitive without to. Examples: -Would you like to go on holiday in June? I would rather go in July. -I would (‘d) rather not lend him any money. -Would you rather meet on Monday or Tuesday? Like better is another way to state a preference. Examples: I like better tennis than golf. Prefer: we often use this verb to express a general preference. Example: -Which do you prefer: action movies or romantic comedies? I usually prefer action movies, but tonight I’d rather see a romantic comedy. -What do you prefer eat out or cook? I prefer to eat out. f. Word Relations f. Word Relations f. Word Relations f. Word Relations Word relations: links, contacts or dealings between words.

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A P P E N D I X U N I T V: BIOGRAPHY EINSTEIN Learning Points:

aaaa.... Expressing ChangeExpressing ChangeExpressing ChangeExpressing Change To become interested in: to come to be showing curiosity or concern about something. Example: Louise and Peter become interested in planning their trip to Europe. Get Married: change marital status: having a husband or wife. Example: They are going to get married next weekend. To graduate in: to get a degree as a result of successfully completing a course at a university or college. Example: She has just graduated from the School of Law.

b. Dateb. Dateb. Dateb. Date

- A common way to write the day’s date is like this: 30 March, 1983 08 November 2004

- There are other possibilities: 30th March, 1983 March 30 (th) 1983 30.03.83 British and American people write “all figure” dates differently: British people put the day first, Americans put the month first. 06.04.77 = 6 April in Britain June 4 in the U.S.A. One way to write the date in a letter currently is: Month day year c. Durationc. Durationc. Durationc. Duration The time during which something lasts, continues or ends. Example: For the duration of this government, we have to wait for two more years.

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d. Past timed. Past timed. Past timed. Past time Gone by in time –belonging to an earlier time – gone by recently. Examples: The time for discussion is past. It’s all past history. The past month has been a difficult one for him. Past tense: the forms of a verb that is used to indicate a past time. Example: When I was 8 years old, I went to Europe to visit my grandparents. e. Why/how/that clausese. Why/how/that clausese. Why/how/that clausese. Why/how/that clauses We use the wh-words why, how and that in clauses as relative pronouns, as follows: -Why is used to mean for what reason or purpose. Example: That is the reason why I came early. -How is used to mean in what way or manner. Example: I dress how I like in my own house. She described how he had run up to her and grabbed her bag. -That is used for people and things when giving additional information for a subject or object. Example: The girl that you saw yesterday is my sister. This is the key that you had it. f. Time Sequencesf. Time Sequencesf. Time Sequencesf. Time Sequences Later: afterwards/at a later time in the future. Example: I will see you later this afternoon. After: later than something/following something in time. Example: You can leave after lunch. Shortly after that: a short time, not long or later than. Example: We will see you shortly after the meeting. By this time: not later by the time specified. Example: Tomorrow, by this time. I will be traveling to Europe.

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Bibliography Beaumont D. and Granger. The Heinemann English Grammar. Edit. Heinemann. England, 2000. Fuchs M., Bonner M., Westheimer, M. Focus on Grammar. An intermediate Course for Reference and Practice. Second Edition. Edit. Longman. New York, U.S.A. 2000. Fuchs, M., and Bonner M. Focus on Grammar. A High Intermediate Course for Reference and Practice. Second Edition. Edit. Longman. New York, U.S.A. 2000. Jay Maurer. Focus on Grammar and Advanced Course for Reference and Practice. Second Edition. Edit. Longman. New York, U.S.A. 2000. Kirn Elaine and Jack Darcy. Interactions II. A Communicative Grammar. Second Edition. Edit McGrawHill, Inc., U.S.A. 2000. Schoenberg Irene. Focus on Grammar a Basic Course for Reference and Practice. Second Edition. Edit. Longman, New York, U.S.A. 2000