Lesson 10: Innate Immunity/ Nonspecific Defenses of the Host March 24, 2015
Dec 15, 2015
Lesson 10: Innate Immunity/ Nonspecific Defenses of the Host
March 24, 2015
Overview
• Our bodies are constantly being attacked by microbes– Susceptible—the inability to ward off disease– Immunity—ability to fight off a disease
• Immune system—is a set of biological structures and systems that protect an organisms from invading pathogens– Innate Immunity– Adaptive Immunity
• Innate Immunity—refers to defenses that are present at birth– The body’s first line of defense against invading
microorganisms– Always present to provide a rapid response to
protect against disease– No memory response present
• Multiple infections with same organism would produce similar response
• Components of Innate Immunity– First line of defense
• Skin and mucous membranes– Lacrimal glands (eye), saliva, urine, vaginal secretions– Mucous is secreted by goblet cells in epithelial lining
– Second line of defense• Natural killer cells• Phagocytes• Inflammation • Fever• Antimicrobial substances
• Serves as the body’s early-warning system– Designed to prevent microbes from gaining access
into the body– The microbes that slip past the skin and mucous
membranes usually are eliminated by the innate immune system
• Also referred to as “non-specific immunity”
• Responses of the innate system are activated by protein receptors (Toll-like receptors) on the plasma membrane of defensive cells
• Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize various components found on/in pathogens (pathogen-associated molecular patterns)
• Examples of PAMPs– Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)– Peptidoglycan – Flagella– DNA
• Each TLR can recognize a specific PAMP– Multiple TLRs can be used to bind one PAMP– 13 TLRs have been identified. Function of two are unknown
• Binding of TLR to PAMP induces a chemical response– Cytokines—proteins released by the cell to signal an
infection has taken place– Cytokines regulate the intensity and duration of an immune
response– One role of cytokines is to recruit other immune cells to the
site of the infection
• Cytokines function in both Innate and Adaptive immunity– Cytokines recruits macrophages and dendritic cells
to the site of the infection
– Cytokines activate T-cells and B-cells involved in adaptive immunity. (stimulates antibody production)
• Adaptive immunity—the portion of the immune system that “remembers” an attacking pathogen– Activated when innate immunity fails to stop an
invading microbe– Slower activation than innate immunity but
contains a memory component– Specific immunity “Particular response for a
specific microbe”
• Components of adaptive immunity– T-cells (T-lymphocytes)– B-cells (B-lymphocytes)
• Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell
First line of defense
• Intact skin• Mucous membranes and their secretions• Normal microbiota
Second line of defense Third line of defense
• Specialized lymphocytes: T cells and B cells• Antibodies
• Phagocytes, such as neutrophils, eosinophils, dendritic cells, and macrophages• Inflammation• Fever• Antimicrobial substances
Figure 16.1 An overview of the body’s defenses.
Innate Immunity
• The first line of defense against an invading pathogen is the skin and mucous membranes– Physical factors—provide a physical barrier
• Skin• Mucous membranes
– Chemical factors—secrete chemicals that inhibit growth or eradicates the bacteria
Physical Factors
• Skin– Largest organ in the body– Dermis—skin’s inner,
thicker portion. Composed of connective tissue
– Epidermis—skin’s outer, thinner layer. Direct contact with the external environment
• Keratin—protective layer of protein
epidermis w/ keratin
epidermis
dermis
• Anti-microbial properties of the skin– Shedding of the top layer of epidermis aids in the
removal of microbes (sloughing)– Dryness of the skin prevents microbial colonization
• Populations in humid climates have a greater incidence of skin infections
• Athletes Foot Fungus (Trichophyton spp)
– Compactness of the cells prevents pathogen passage (tight junctions)
– pH of skin is between 3-5
• Mucous membranes– Consists of epithelial
layer and connective tissue
– Line the gastrintestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts
– Goblet cells secretes mucous (slightly viscous glycoprotein)
• Prevents colonization
Connective Tissue
Epithelial Layer
Mucus
Other Physical Barriers
• Lacrimal apparatus (tear ducts) washes microbes and other particulates from the eyeball
• Saliva dilutes the numbers of microbes and washes them from the teeth and mucous membranes of the mouth
• Hair aids in filtering the inhaled air by trapping microbes, dust, and pollutants
Other Physical Barriers
• Cilia are hair-like structures on cells that help propel particulates out of the lower respiratory tract (ciliary escalator)– Toxins in cigarette smoke impair cilia function
B. pertussis
Cilia
Figure 24.7 Ciliated cells of the respiratory system infected with Bordetella pertussis.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Other Physical Barriers
• Cilia are hair-like structures on cells that help propel particulates out of the lower respiratory tract (ciliary escalator)– Toxins in cigarette smoke impair cilia function
• Epiglottis is a small flap of cartilage in the larynx
• Earwax traps microbes in the external ear
Other Physical Barriers
• Urine/vaginal secretions functions by mechanically cleaning the urethra and vagina, respectively
• Peristalsis, defecation, vomiting, diarrhea all act to remove microbes and toxins from the body– Contraction of gastrointestinal muscles is an effort
of the body to remove toxins (stomach pains)
Chemical Factors
• Sebaceous (oil) glands secretes sebum that forms a protective film over the skin surface– Sebum contains unsaturated fatty acids that prevents the
growth of certain pathogens– Contributes to acidic pH (3-5) of the skin
• Perspiration (sweat) eliminates certain wastes and microbes from the body– Also contains lysozyme—enzyme that breaks down the cell
wall of Gram (+) bacteria and some Gram (-) bacteria• Found in tears, saliva, nasal secretions, tissue fluids, & urine• PEPTIDOGLYCAN!!!!
• Earwax is a mixture of secretions rich in fatty acids (lowers pH)– Sebaceous glands– Sweat glands
• Saliva contains lysozyme, urea, and uric acid that inhibit microbial growth– Immunoglobin A (antibody) that prevents
microbial attachment to cells
• Gastric juice – Produced by stomach glands. – Very acidic (pH 1.2-3.0)– Destroys microbes and their toxins
• Vaginal Secretions – Contains glycogen that is digested by Lactobacillus
acidophilus, resulting in lactic acid (pH 3-5)• Urine
– Contains lysozyme that lowers pH thus inhibiting microbial growth
Normal Microbiota
• The normal flora also acts as a first line of defense against invading pathogens– Microbial antagonism
• Changes in pH– Prevents Candida albicans growth in the vagina
• Oxygen availability• Production of bacteriocins that inhibit growth of
pathogens– E. coli production of bacteriocins prevent Shigella and
Salmonella growth
• Competition for nutrients
• Probiotics—live microbial cultures applied to or ingested to exert a beneficial effect– Prebiotics (chemicals that selectively promote
growth of beneficial bacteria)– Studies have shown that the introduction of
certain lactic acid bacteria can prevent the growth by Salmonella enterica
Innate Immunity: Nonspecific Defenses of the Host
Second Line of Defense
• If a microbe escapes the first line of defense, the body begins mounting a second wave of defense– Production of phagocytes– Inflammation– Fever– Antimicrobial substances
Formed Elements in Blood
• Blood consists of plasma (fluid) and formed elements (cells and cell fragments)
• Cells of the blood– Erythrocytes– Leukocytes (white blood cells)
• Granulocytes• Agranulocytes
• During an infection, the number of leukocytes can increase (leukocytosis) or decrease (leukopenia)
Insert Table 16.1If possible, break into multiple slides
Table 16.1 Formed Elements in Blood (Part 1 of 2)
Insert Table 16.1If possible, break into multiple slides
Table 16.1 Formed Elements in Blood (Part 2 of 2)
• Percentage of each type of white cell in a sample of 100 white blood cells
Neutrophils 60–70%
Basophils 0.5–1%
Eosinophils 2–4%
Monocytes 3–8%
Lymphocytes (NK cells, T and B cells) 20–25%
Differential White Cell Count
Lymphatic System
• Is part of the circulatory system that functions by carrying a clear liquid (lymph) towards the heart
• Transports leukocytes and antigen-presenting cells to and from lymph nodes
• Lymph nodes are organized collection of lymphoid tissue through which lymph passes before circulating back into the blood
• Lymph nodes are primarily found in the neck, chest, armpit, pelvis, groin, and intestines
Rightlymphaticduct
Rightsubclavian vein
Leftsubclavianvein
Thoracic(leftlymphatic)duct
Tonsil
Thymus
Lymphatic vessel
Large intestine
Redbone marrow
Heart
Thoracic ductSpleen
Small intestine
Peyer’s patch
Lymph node
(a) Components of lymphatic system
Figure 16.5a The lymphatic system.
Lymphatic capillary
Lymph
Interstitialfluid (between cells)
Blood
Arteriole
Blood capillary
Blood
Tissue cell
Venule
Relationship of lymphatic capillaries to tissue cells and blood capillaries
Figure 16.5b-c The lymphatic system.
Lymph
Tissue cell
Lymphatic capillary
Interstitial fluid
One-way opening
Details of a lymphatic capillary
Phagocytosis
• Ingestion of microbes or particles by a cell, performed by phagocytes– Phago: from Greek, meaning eat– Cyte: from Greek, meaning cell
• Neutrophils and eosinophils function in phagocytosis
• Monocytes mature into macrophages– Fixed macrophages– Wandering (circulating) macrophages
Pseudopods
Bacterium
Macrophage
Figure 16.6 A macrophage engulfing rod-shaped bacteria.
Mechanism of Phagocytosis
1. Chemotaxis—chemical attraction of phagocytes to microbes
2. Adherence—attachment of the phagocyte’s plasma membrane to the microbe or other foreign particle
– Action is enhanced with opsonins
3. Ingestion—uptake of microbe into the cell4. Digestion—breakdown of microbe via
digestive enzymes in lysosomes
Pseudopods
Phagocyte
Cytoplasm
Microbeor otherparticle
Details ofadherence PAMP (peptidoglycan
in cell wall)
TLR(Toll-like receptor)
Lysosome
Digestiveenzymes
Indigestiblematerial
Plasma membrane
Partiallydigestedmicrobe
CHEMOTAXISandADHERENCEof phagocyte tomicrobe
1INGESTIONof microbe by phagocyte
2
Formation of phagosome(phagocytic vesicle)
3
Fusion of phagosomewith a lysosometo form a phagolysosome
4
DIGESTIONof ingestedmicrobes byenzymes in thephagolysosome
5
Formation ofthe residual bodycontainingindigestiblematerial
6
DISCHARGE ofwaste materials
7
A phagocytic macrophage uses a pseudopod to engulf
nearby bacteria.
Figure 16.7 The Phases of Phagocytosis.
Pg. 461 of textbook
Inhibit adherence: M protein, capsules
Streptococcus pyogenes, S. pneumoniae
Kill phagocytes: Leukocidins Staphylococcus aureus
Lyse phagocytes: Membrane attack complex
Listeria monocytogenes
Escape phagosome Shigella, Rickettsia
Prevent phagosome–lysosome fusion
HIV, Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Survive in phagolysosome Coxiella burnettii
Microbial Evasion of Phagocytosis
Inflammation
• Damage to the body’s tissues triggers a local defensive response called inflammation– Not only generated by microbes
• Inflammation is characterized by four signs/symptoms– Redness– Swelling (edema)– Pain– Heat
• Binding of microbial structures stimulate the Toll-like receptors of macrophages and they begin producing TNF-alpha
• Activation of acute-phase proteins (complement, cytokine, and kinins)
• Vasodilation (histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes)
Histamine Vasodilation, increased permeability of blood vessels
Kinins Vasodilation, increased permeability of blood vessels
Prostaglandins Intensify histamine and kinin effect
Leukotrienes Increased permeability of blood vessels, phagocytic attachment
Chemicals Released by Damaged Cells
Bacteria enteringon knife
Epidermis
Dermis
Subcutaneoustissue
(a) Tissue damage
Bacteria
Blood vessel
Nerve
Figure 16.8a-b The process of inflammation.
Chemicals such as histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and cytokines (represented as bluedots) are released bydamaged cells.
(b) Vasodilation and increasedpermeability of blood vessels
Blood clot forms.
Abscess starts to form(orange area).
1
2
3
Insert Fig 16.8c
Margination—phagocytes stickto endothelium.
Diapedesis—phagocytes squeeze between endothelial cells.
Phagocytosis ofinvading bacteria occurs.
(c) Phagocyte migrationand phagocytosis
Macrophage
Bacterium Neutrophil
Redbloodcell
Blood vesselendothelium
Monocyte
6
5
4
Figure 16.8c The process of inflammation.
Fever
• Abnormally high body temperature• Hypothalamus is normally set at 37°C• Gram-negative endotoxins (LPS) cause
phagocytes to release interleukin-1 (IL-1)• Hypothalamus releases prostaglandins that reset
the hypothalamus to a high temperature• Body increases rate of metabolism, chills begin
and shivering occurs, which raise temperature• Vasodilation and sweating: body temperature
falls (crisis)
The Complement System
• 30+ proteins produced by the liver and are located in blood serum throughout the body– Serum proteins are activated in a cascade
• Activated by– Antigen–antibody reaction (Classical)– Complement C3 binds the factors B, D, P on a
pathogen (Alternative)– Liver produces Lectins that bind to carbohydrates
Effects of Complement Activation• Opsonization, or immune adherence: enhanced
phagocytosis– C3a and C5a
• Membrane attack complex: cytolysis– C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9 (multiple copies)
• Attract phagocytes– C5a (chemoattractant)
Insert Fig 16.9
Inactivated C3 splits into activatedC3a and C3b.
C3b binds to microbe, resultingin opsonization.
C3bproteins
opsonizationEnhancement of phagocytosisby coating with C3b
C5b, C6, C7, and C8 bindtogether sequentially andinsert into the microbialplasma membrane, wherethey function as a receptorto attract a C9 fragment;additional C9 fragments areadded to form a channel.Together, C5b through C8and the multiple C9fragments form themembrane attack complex,resulting in cytolysis.
C3
C3b C3a
C5
C5b C5a
C6
C7
C8
C9
Mast cell
C3a receptor
Microbialplasmamembrane
Channel
C9
C6
C7C8
C5b
C5aC5a receptor
Histamine
inflammationIncrease of blood vesselpermeability and chemotacticattraction of phagocytes
C9C8
C7C6
C5b
CytolysisFormation of membraneattack complex (MAC)
C3a
C3a and C5a causemast cells to releasehistamine, resultingin inflammation;C5a also attractsphagocytes.
1
2
3
4
5C3b also splits C5 into C5a and C5b
Bursting of microbe due to inflow of extracellular fluid throughtransmembrane channel formed by membrane attack complex
cytolysis
Figure 16.9 Outcomes of Complement Activation.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pg. 468 oftextbook
Insert Fig 16.10
Figure 16.10 Cytolysis caused by complement.
Insert Fig 16.11
C5a receptorC5a
Histamine-containinggranule
Histamine-releasingmast cell
C3a receptor
Histamine
C3a
Neutrophil
Phagocytes
C5a Macrophage
Figure 16.11 Inflammation stimulated by complement.
Insert Fig 16.12
C1 is activatedby binding toantigen–antibodycomplexes.
Activated C1 splitsC2 into C2a andC2b, and C4 intoC4a and C4b.
C2a and C4b combine and activate C3, splittingit into C3a and C3b (see also Figure 16.9).
C3
Opsonization Inflammation
Cytolysis
C3b C3a
C2 C4
C1
Microbe
Antibody
C4aC2bC2a C4b
Antigen
Figure 16.12 Classical pathway of complement activation.
Insert Fig 16.13
Microbe
Lipid-carbohydratecomplex
Opsonization
B D P
C3b C3a
Inflammation
C3
Cytolysis
B B factor D D factor P P factorKey:
C3 combines withfactors B, D, and Pon the surface ofa microbe.
This causes C3 tosplit into fragmentsC3a and C3b.
Figure 16.13 Alternative pathway of complement activation.
C3
Opsonization Inflammation
Cytolysis
C3b C3a
C2 C4
C4aC2b C2a C4b
MicrobeCarbohydratecontainingmannose
Lectin
Bound lectinsplits C2 intoC2b and C2aand C4 intoC4b and C4a.
Lectin binds toan invading cell.
C2a and C4b combineand activate C3 (see also Figure 16.9).
Figure 16.14 The lectin pathway of complement activation.
Some Bacteria Evade Complement
• Capsules prevent C activation– Disallows Ab from binding to bacteria thus preventing
C1 binding• Surface lipid–carbohydrate complexes prevent
formation of membrane attack complex (MAC)– Modification of sugars on the bacterial membrane
abrogates C5b-C9 from binding to surface• Neisseria gonorrhoeae
• Enzymatic digestion of C5a– Gram positive cocci (Streptococcus pyogenes)
Interferons (IFNs)
• Interferons—class of similar anti-viral proteins produced by certain animal cells and function to abrogate viral multiplication– Host cell specific and not viral specific
• IFN- and IFN-: produced by virally-infected cells and causes neighboring cells to produce anti-viral proteins that inhibit viral replication– Oligoadenylate synthetase—degrades viral mRNA– Protein kinase—inhibits protein synthesis
• IFN-: produced by lymphocytes and causes neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytize bacteria– Produce iNOS (nitric oxide) that inhibits ATP production
Insert Fig 16.15
Viral RNA froman infecting virusenters the cell.
The infecting virusalso induces thehost cell to produceinterferon mRNA(IFN-mRNA), whichis translated intoalpha and beta interferons.
Viral RNA
Infectingvirus Viral RNA
Transcription
Nucleus
Translation
IFN-mRNA
Alphaand betainterferons
Virus-infected host cell
Translation
Transcription
Neighboring host cell
AVPs degradeviral mRNA andinhibit proteinsynthesis—andthus interferewith viralreplication.
Antiviralproteins(AVPs)
New viruses released by the virus-infected host cell infect neighboring host cells.
The infecting virusreplicates intonew viruses.
Interferons released by thevirus-infected host cell bindto plasma membrane ornuclear membrane receptors on uninfected neighboring host cells, inducing them tosynthesize antiviral proteins(AVPs). These includeoligoadenylate synthetaseand protein kinase.
12
3
4
5
6
Figure 16.15 Antiviral action of alpha and beta interferons (IFNs).Pg. 471 of textbook
Innate Immunity
• Iron-binding proteins– Bind free-iron in
serum– Siderophores—
proteins that microbes secrete to bind iron
• Antimicrobial peptides– Chain of 15-20 amino
acids– Lyse bacterial cells– Production triggered by
protein and sugar molecules on surface of microbes
KNOW TABLE ON PAGE 474