Legal Method - mail.dpa.net.au

Legal Method

Christopher Enright

Second Edition

Sinch better smarter lawyers

!Sinch Business Name Sinch Firm Name Sinch Software Pty Ltd Seminars www.sinch.com.au Products www.sinch.com.au Books www.legalskills.com.au Email [email protected] !First Edition 2011 Second Edition 2015 Copyright © Christopher Enright 2015

Citation Enright, Christopher (2015) Legal Method 2nd ed Sinch: Canterbury

National Library of Australia ‘Cataloguing in Publication’ Entry Author Enright, Christopher 1947 – author Title Legal Method / Christopher Enright Edition 2nd edition ISBN 978-0-9943711-4-0 (paperback) Series Legal Skills Series Notes and Index Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects Law-Australia. Jurisprudence-Australia. Dewey Number 340.94

Cover Design Designer Howard Randell Firm Eye for Image Website www.eyeforimage.com.au

iii

Preface

What This Book is About This book grew out of research in which the author is engaged in the area of legal method or technique. It seeks to explain simple, effective and easy to use methods for working with law. The book describes methods for four major tasks – organising law, forming law, using law and communicating law – and their subtasks: # organising law, which entails * macro analysis of law * micro analysis of law # forming law, which entails * making law * interpreting law # using law, which entails * litigation * transactions # communicating law, which entails * writing law * reading law These methods are directed to law students and seek to achieve two aims. First, the methods assist them in studying law. Second, the methods provide a foundation for the later practice of law should they choose to enter the legal profession. There is a companion to this book – Christopher Enright Legal Reasoning. Legal Reasoning seeks to explain the nature of the legal reasoning that underlies the methods proposed in this book. By this means it seeks to justify and defend these methods. Footnotes and Commentaries This book uses a two-part system for notes, footnotes and commentaries. Broadly but not absolutely, footnotes provide citations for sources, while commentaries provide further reading for, and add-ons to, the discussion that is already in the text. Commentaries Most but not all chapters have a final section entitled ‘Commentary’. Each specific commentary under this heading is linked to a footnote. Each of these commentaries has a heading. The heading takes the form ‘Commentary’/chapter number/commentary number/‘Footnote’/Footnote number. To illustrate, ‘Commentary 12.5 Footnote 14’ means that this is commentary number 5 for Chapter 12 and that it links to both Footnote 14 and to the part of the text that footnote 14 serves.

iv Preface

Commentaries contain additional reading and comments on the subject matter in hand. And in cases where a citation for the text is long and cumbersome, the citation may be moved to a commentary. Footnotes Generally citations for the text are put in a footnote. If, however, the citation is long and cumbersome, as noted above, it may be moved to a commentary. Where a footnote is served by a commentary the footnote will indicate this by stating the number of the commentary. For example ‘Commentary 12.5’ in a footnotes indicates that there is information relevant to this part of the book located in Commentary number 5 for Chapter 12. Thanks I owe considerable thanks. As ever my family have given me much love and support. I have to thank my friend Terry O’Donohue. His painstaking editing of this manuscript and carefully thought out suggestions saved me from much grief. I thank Roger Vickery for his careful reading and most helpful comments. Howard Randell of Eye for Image designed the delightful cover. Christopher Enright 6 June 2015 Newcastle !

v

Legal Skills Series

This book is part of a series of textbooks that explain legal skills. The table below sets out the books in the series.

Authors Title Christopher Enright Legal Reasoning Christopher Enright Legal Method Christopher Enright Legal Writing Christopher Enright Proof of Facts Christopher Enright A Method for Interpreting Statutes Christopher Enright Drafting Readable Statutes Christopher Enright & Clare Cappa Fundamentals of Legal Research

vii

Contents

Preface .......................................................................................... iii Legal Skills Series ..................................................................... v Contents ....................................................................................... vii Table of Legislation................................................................... xv Table of Cases ............................................................................ xix Table of Latin Phrases ............................................................. xxv Table of Diagrams...................................................................... xxvii Labels............................................................................................ xxxiii

Part 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Law..................................................................................... 1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 Part A. Nature of Law ............................................................................ 1 Part B. Law as Rules ............................................................................. 2 Primary Sources ..................................................................................... 3 Statute Law............................................................................................. 3 Common Law ......................................................................................... 7 Secondary Sources ................................................................................ 13 Tertiary Sources ..................................................................................... 13 Part C. Law as Social Science ............................................................... 14 Part D. Commentary............................................................................... 14 Chapter 2 Legal Method .................................................................. 17 Purpose ................................................................................................... 17 Tasks....................................................................................................... 17 Method ................................................................................................... 18 Reasoning ............................................................................................... 18

Part 2 Organising Law Chapter 3 Organising Law .............................................................. 21 Introduction ............................................................................................ 21 Macro Analysis....................................................................................... 22 Micro Analysis ....................................................................................... 23 Comparison 1: Navigating a City ........................................................... 25 Comparison 2: Philosopher’s Stone ....................................................... 25 Outline ................................................................................................... 25 Commentary ........................................................................................... 26

viii Contents

Chapter 4 Organising Law: Micro Analysis ................................ 27 Introduction............................................................................................. 27 Elements.................................................................................................. 30 Sub-Elements .......................................................................................... 36 Consequences.......................................................................................... 39 Conditional Statement............................................................................. 41 Overview................................................................................................. 42 Doing the Job .......................................................................................... 42 Illustration............................................................................................... 47 Benefits of Micro Analysis ..................................................................... 48 Rule of Law ............................................................................................ 48 Property................................................................................................... 50 Commentary............................................................................................ 51 Chapter 5 Organising Law: Macro Analysis ............................... 53 Introduction............................................................................................. 53 Nature ..................................................................................................... 53 Part A. Formal Relationships.................................................................. 54 Income Tax Law ..................................................................................... 54 Contract Law .......................................................................................... 54 Part B. Functional Relationships ............................................................ 57 Part B.1 Standard Functional Relationships ........................................... 58 Litigious Provisions ................................................................................ 58 Regulatory Provisions............................................................................. 59 Law of Wrongs ....................................................................................... 60 Part B.2 Non Standard Functional Relationships ................................... 60 Property Law........................................................................................... 61 Corporations Law ................................................................................... 63 Agency Law............................................................................................ 63 Constitutional Law.................................................................................. 63 Administrative Law ................................................................................ 69 Equity...................................................................................................... 73 Part C. Commentary ............................................................................... 74 Chapter 6 Organising Law: Applications .................................... 77 Introduction............................................................................................. 77 Part A. Macro Analysis........................................................................... 77 Part B. Micro Analysis............................................................................ 77 Using Law............................................................................................... 77 Applying Law ......................................................................................... 83 Interpreting Law ..................................................................................... 83 Writing Law............................................................................................ 83 Reading Law........................................................................................... 84 Learning Law.......................................................................................... 84

Contents ix

Part C. Commentary ............................................................................... 86

Part 3 Legal Reasoning Chapter 7 Legal Reasoning ............................................................ 87 Introduction ............................................................................................ 87 Logical Reasoning .................................................................................. 87 Composite Reasoning............................................................................. 87 Chapter 8 Logical Reasoning......................................................... 89 Introduction ............................................................................................ 89 Deduction ............................................................................................... 89 Induction................................................................................................. 90 Abduction ............................................................................................... 91 Analogy .................................................................................................. 92 Probability .............................................................................................. 92 Comparison ............................................................................................ 93 Chapter 9 Policy................................................................................. 97 Introduction ............................................................................................ 97 Levels of Policy...................................................................................... 101 Basis of Policy........................................................................................ 103 Nature of Policy...................................................................................... 104 Model for Policy..................................................................................... 106 Derivatives of Policy .............................................................................. 113 Commentary ........................................................................................... 113 Chapter 10 Precedent....................................................................... 115 Introduction ............................................................................................ 115 Part A. Precedent as Authority ............................................................... 115 Ratio Decidendi ...................................................................................... 117 Stare Decisis ........................................................................................... 121 Part B. Precedent as Policy..................................................................... 124 Commentary ........................................................................................... 126

Part 4 Statutes 4.1 Introduction

Chapter 11 Statutes .......................................................................... 129 Introduction ............................................................................................ 129 Rules ....................................................................................................... 129 Causation ................................................................................................ 131 Effects..................................................................................................... 132 Direct Effects.......................................................................................... 134 Indirect Effects ....................................................................................... 137 Marginal Effects ..................................................................................... 138

x Contents

Rules and Presumptions.......................................................................... 138 Commentary............................................................................................ 139

4.2 Enacting Statutes Chapter 12 Model for Enacting Statutes ..................................... 141 Introduction............................................................................................. 141 Model ...................................................................................................... 141 Step 1. Allocating the Resources ............................................................ 143 Step 2. Identifying the Options ............................................................... 144 Causation ................................................................................................ 146 Effects ..................................................................................................... 147 Step 3. Formulating the Reasons ............................................................ 155 Policy ...................................................................................................... 157 Net Benefit .............................................................................................. 158 Step 4. Enacting the Statute .................................................................... 162 Commentary............................................................................................ 162

4.3 Interpreting Statutes Chapter 13 Causing Interpretation: Ambiguity.......................... 163 Part A. Introduction ................................................................................ 163 Part B. Nature of Ambiguity................................................................... 164 Part C. Classification of Ambiguity........................................................ 170 Lexical Ambiguity .................................................................................. 171 Relational Ambiguity.............................................................................. 180 Ambiguity of Implication ....................................................................... 183 Ambiguity of Implication: Justification.................................................. 186 Ambiguity of Implication: Requirements ............................................... 195 Ambiguity of Implication: Illustrations .................................................. 197 Ambiguity of Competing Rules.............................................................. 205 Part D. Daisy Bell ................................................................................... 210 Chapter 14 Doing Interpretation: Approaches .......................... 213 Introduction............................................................................................. 213 Part A. Legislative Legitimacy ............................................................... 213 Part B. Judicial Legitimacy..................................................................... 219 Part C. Metademocracy........................................................................... 219 Deference ................................................................................................ 220 Reconstructionism .................................................................................. 220 Pragmatism ............................................................................................. 221 Disciplinarianism.................................................................................... 221 Part D. Commentary ............................................................................... 219

Contents xi

Chapter 15 Model for Interpreting Statutes................................ 223 Introduction ............................................................................................ 223 Step 1. Organising the Rule.................................................................... 225 Step 2. Identifying the Issues ................................................................. 226 Step 3. Identifying the Meanings and Effects ........................................ 226 Identifying the Meanings........................................................................ 226 Identifying the Effects ............................................................................ 226 Rationale for Step 3 ................................................................................ 228 Step 4. Identifying the Required Approach............................................ 229 Step 5. Identifying the Desired Meaning................................................ 231 Step 6. Writing the Opinion ................................................................... 233 Application of the Model ....................................................................... 234

Part 5 Common Law Chapter 16 Model for Making Common Law .............................. 237 Introduction ............................................................................................ 237 Part A. Making the Rule......................................................................... 237 Elements ................................................................................................. 239 Consequences ......................................................................................... 246 Part B. Identifying the Rule.................................................................... 247 Ratio Decidendi ...................................................................................... 247 Obiter Dictum......................................................................................... 251 Part C. Obeying the Rule........................................................................ 252 Part D. Altering the Rule ........................................................................ 253 Overt Alteration...................................................................................... 253 Covert Alteration .................................................................................... 254 Part E. Commentary ............................................................................... 259

Part 6 Using Law 4.1 Introduction

Chapter 17 Model for Using Law ................................................... 263 Introduction ............................................................................................ 263 Foundation.............................................................................................. 264 Model ..................................................................................................... 266 Rationale ................................................................................................ 267 Components ........................................................................................... 267 Tasks in Using Law ............................................................................... 273 Commentary ........................................................................................... 275

4.2 Litigation Chapter 18 Model for Litigation ..................................................... 279 Introduction ............................................................................................ 279 Simple Cases .......................................................................................... 279 Complex Cases ....................................................................................... 279

xii Contents

Need for Organisation............................................................................. 280 Constructing a Framework...................................................................... 281 Uses of the Model ................................................................................... 282 Chapter 19 Model for Litigation: Multiple Actions .................... 287 Introduction............................................................................................. 287 Identifying Permutations of Parties ........................................................ 287 Identifying Causes of Action .................................................................. 289 Organising Causes of Action .................................................................. 292 Framework .............................................................................................. 294 Uses of the Model ................................................................................... 297 Chapter 20 Model for Litigation: One Action ............................. 299 Introduction............................................................................................. 299 Structure of the Model ............................................................................ 299 Explanation of the Model ....................................................................... 299 Components of the Model....................................................................... 301 Elements.................................................................................................. 301 Consequences.......................................................................................... 303 Facts ........................................................................................................ 304 Evidence.................................................................................................. 305 Formal Analysis...................................................................................... 306 Operational Matters ................................................................................ 307 Uses of the Model ................................................................................... 308 Chapter 21 Model for Litigation: Illustration .............................. 309 Introduction............................................................................................. 309 Interview with the Lawyer...................................................................... 309 Researching the Law............................................................................... 310 Investigating the Facts ............................................................................ 310 Organising the Law................................................................................. 311 Organising the Case ................................................................................ 311 Uses of the Model ................................................................................... 313

4.3 Transactions Chapter 22 Model for Transactions .............................................. 315 Introduction............................................................................................. 315 Description of the Model ........................................................................ 315 Uses of the Model ................................................................................... 316

4.4 Applying Law Chapter 23 Model for Applying Law ............................................. 319 Introduction............................................................................................. 319 Step 1. Preliminary Tasks ....................................................................... 321

Contents xiii

Step 2. Framework ................................................................................. 322 Step 3. Elements and Facts..................................................................... 324 Illustration .............................................................................................. 326

4.5 Proving Facts Chapter 24 Model for Proving Facts............................................. 329 Introduction ............................................................................................ 329 Step 1. Starting Point: Burden of Proof.................................................. 331 Step 2. Versions of Truth ....................................................................... 331 Step 3. Probability of Truth .................................................................... 333 Step 4. Finishing Point: Standard of Proof............................................. 335

4.6 Exercising Discretions Chapter 25 Model for Exercising Discretions............................ 339 Introduction ............................................................................................ 339 Step 1. Formulating Options .................................................................. 346 Step 2. Identifying Criteria .................................................................... 346 Step 3. Grading Criteria ......................................................................... 351 Step 4. Establishing Criteria .................................................................. 352 Step 5. Measuring Criteria ..................................................................... 353 Step 6. Aggregating Criteria .................................................................. 354 Step 7. Evaluating Options .................................................................... 354 Step 8. Decision...................................................................................... 355 Commentary ........................................................................................... 355

4.7 Answering Problem Question Chapter 26 Model for Answering Problem Questions ............ 357 Nature of Problem Questions ................................................................. 357 Step 1. Performing Tasks for the Facts .................................................. 362 Step 2. Constructing a Framework ......................................................... 367 Step 3. Applying Law............................................................................. 367 Step 4. Interpreting Law......................................................................... 358 Step 5. Determining the Outcome .......................................................... 369 Step 6. Writing the Answer .................................................................... 370

Part 6 Writing and Reading Law Chapter 27 Writing Law ................................................................... 371 Introduction ............................................................................................ 371 Readers ................................................................................................... 371 Characteristics of a Text......................................................................... 374 Functions of a Text................................................................................. 374 Structure of a Text .................................................................................. 376 Dimensions of a Text ............................................................................. 378 Commentary ........................................................................................... 378

xiv Contents

Chapter 28 Reading Law .................................................................. 379 Introduction............................................................................................. 379 Reading and Writing............................................................................... 379 Delvers and Porers .................................................................................. 379 Chapter 29 Reading Statutes.......................................................... 381 Introduction............................................................................................. 381 Part A. Delving ....................................................................................... 381 Part B. Poring.......................................................................................... 382 Operation ................................................................................................ 382 Macro Analysis ....................................................................................... 383 Micro Analysis........................................................................................ 383 Part C. Illustration................................................................................... 389 Part D. Commentary ............................................................................... 394 Chapter 30 Reading Cases.............................................................. 397 Introduction............................................................................................. 397 Delving ................................................................................................... 397 Poring ..................................................................................................... 398 Commentary............................................................................................ 409 Chapter 31 Reading Texts ............................................................... 411 Introduction............................................................................................. 411 Delving ................................................................................................... 411 Poring ..................................................................................................... 411 Bibliography ........................................................................................ 421 Index ...................................................................................................... 445

xv

Table of Legislation

Australian Capital Territory

Legislation Act 2001 s138.........................................................................................................................222 s139.........................................................................................................................222 s157.........................................................................................................................394

Sale of Goods Act 1954 ..............................................................................................74

Commonwealth Acts Interpretation Act 1901

s15AA......................................................................................216-217, 221, 229-230 s15AB .....................................................................................................................222 s18A........................................................................................................................394

Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1975 s28...........................................................................................................................390

Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 s3(5) ................................................................................................................388, 395 s5.............................................................................................................................389 s13................................................................................................................... 389-394 s13A........................................................................................................389, 391, 392 s14...........................................................................................................................391 s17...........................................................................................................................393 Schedule 2 ........................................................................................................ 390-91

Competition and Consumer Act 2010.........................................................................74 Schedule 2 ................................................................................................................74

Constitution s7.....................................................................................................................192, 207 s51(xx) ....................................................................................................................175 s52.............................................................................................................................65 s71.............................................................................................................................66 s75.............................................................................................................................67 s80...........................................................................................................................205 s92............................................................................................................. 67, 201-203 s122.................................................................................................................192, 207

Family Law Act 1975 s48(1) ......................................................................................................................385 s48(2) ......................................................................................................................385

Fisheries Management Act 1991 ......................................................................343, 348 Federal Court of Australia Act 1976

s5 ........................................................................................................................ 64-65 Freedom of Information Act 1982

s4(1) ................................................................................................................ 387-388 s15...........................................................................................................................388

Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 s51...........................................................................................................................177 s123A(1) .................................................................................................................200

Income Tax Assessment Act 1997

xvi Table of Legislation

s8-1 ................................................................................................................. 177-179

Migration Act 1958 .......................................................................................... 201-202 s6A(1)(c) ........................................................................................................ 201-202

Native Title Act 1993 .................................................................................................61 The Australian Consumer Law............................................................................. 45-46

s138 .................................................................................................................... 45-46 s138(1)................................................................................................................ 45-47 s138(2)................................................................................................................ 45-47

Trade Practices Act 19741 ..........................................................................................74 S46(2) .....................................................................................................................387

Part V, Division 2A s46 ..........................................................................................................................387 s74B..........................................................................................................................55

International Conventions

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) Section 3, Articles 31 and 32 .................................................................................217

New South Wales

Book Purchasers’ Protection Act 1899 s5 ............................................................................................................................273

Community Protection Act 1994 ................................................................................50 Interpretation Act 1987

s5(4)........................................................................................................................138 s6 ............................................................................................................................394 s7 ............................................................................................................................394 s33 ..........................................................................................................................221 s34 ..........................................................................................................................222

Sale of Goods Act 1923..............................................................................................74

New Zealand Land Transfer Act 1952

s62 ..........................................................................................................................201 Poultry Act 1968

s2 ............................................................................................................................385 Town and Country Planning Act 1953

s23 ..........................................................................................................................182

Norfolk Island Interpretation Act 1979 s9 ............................................................................................................................138 s10C........................................................................................................................222 s10D .......................................................................................................................222 s16 ..........................................................................................................................394

1 The Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth) was repealed and replaced by the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (Cth). It is used in this book only for illustrative purposes and not as a source of current law.

Table of Legislation xvii

Northern Territory

Interpretation Act s23...........................................................................................................................394 s62A........................................................................................................................222 s62B........................................................................................................................222

Sale of Goods Act 1972 ..............................................................................................74

Queensland Acts Interpretation Act 1954

s14A........................................................................................................................221 s14B........................................................................................................................222

Legislative Standards Act 1992 s4(1)

Sale of Goods Act 1896 ..............................................................................................74

South Australia Acts Interpretation Act 1915

s21...........................................................................................................................221 s22...........................................................................................................................221 s22(2) ......................................................................................................................221

Sale of Goods Act 1895 ..............................................................................................74

Tasmania Acts Interpretation Act 1931

s8A..........................................................................................................................221 s8B..........................................................................................................................222 s24...........................................................................................................................394

Sale of Goods Act 1896 ..............................................................................................74

United Kingdom 14 & 15 Vict c105

s3.............................................................................................................................194 Australian Courts Act 1828 (Imp) (9 Geo IV c83)

s24.............................................................................................................................16 Betting and Gaming Duties Act 1981.......................................................................277 Bill of Rights 1688............................................................................................136, 152 Constitutional Reform Act 2005...............................................................................127 Habeas Corpus Act 1679 .................................................................................. 218-219 Magna Charta 1215........................................................................................... 218-219 Statute of Frauds 1677 .............................................................................................276

United States Congressional Record Act 1956 .................................................................................69 Constitution

Preamble ...................................................................................................................69 Article 1 §1 ................................................................................................. 64-65, 204

xviii Table of Legislation

Article 1 §8...............................................................................................................66 Amendment 1 .............................................................................................................2 Amendment 5 ...........................................................................................................68

Elizabeth Morgan Act (1890) .....................................................................................49 National Motor Vehicle Theft Act 1919...................................................................168 Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) ..............................................................................4, 184

s1 ................................................................................................................ 4, 5-6, 184 s2 ................................................................................................................................4 s7 ............................................................................................................................ 4-6

Victoria

Interpretation of Legislation Act 1984 s4(2)........................................................................................................................138 s35 .................................................................................................................. 221-222 s39 ..........................................................................................................................394

Goods Act 1958 ..........................................................................................................74

Western Australia Interpretation Act 1984

s6 ............................................................................................................................394 s8 .................................................................................................................... 221-222 s9 ............................................................................................................................394 s18 ..........................................................................................................................221 s19 ..........................................................................................................................222

Sale of Goods Act 1895..............................................................................................74

xix

Table of Cases Abbreviations

ABT Australian Broadcasting Tribunal Ad. Steam. Co Adelaide Steamship Co AFMA Australian Fisheries Management Authority ASC Australian Securities Commission DPP Director of Public Prosecutions FCT Federal Commissioner of Taxation FSPU Federated Storemen and Packers Union GIO Government Insurance Office GMLAS General Mutual Life Assurance Society MA Moslem Association NSW New South Wales VVA Vietnam Veteran’s Association WCIC Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission Cases Adler v George [1964] 2 QB 7 .......................................................................... 189, 194, 203 AFMA v PW Adams (1995) 61 FCR 314; 134 ALR 51 ........................................... 343, 348 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co1 (1920) 28 CLR 129 ........................................................................................................ 215 Andrews v Diprose (1937) 58 CLR 299 ............................................................................ 348 Anstee v Jennings [1935] VLR 144................................................................................... 194 Appleton Papers v Tomasetti Paper [1983] 3 NSWLR 208 .............................................. 249 Archer v Howell (1992) 7 WAR 33................................................................................... 251 Aristoc Industries v RA Wenham (Builders) [1965] NSWR 581...................................... 258 Aronow v United States, 432 F.2d 242 (9th cir. 1970)........................................................ 75 ASC v Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu (1996) 138 ALR 656 .................................................. 348 Associated Provincial Picture Houses v Wednesbury [1948] 1 KB 223 ........................... 348 Ates v Minister for Immigration (1983) 67 FLR 449 ........................................................ 349 Attorney General v Dean of Windsor (1860) 8 HLC 369; 11 ER 472 .............. 117, 247, 261 Australian Capital Television v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 108 ............................ 193 Beresford v Royal Insurance Co Ltd (1936) 52 TLR 650; [1937] 2 KB I97..................... 198 Bermingham v Corrective Services Commission (1988) 15 NSWLR 292............................................................................172, 194-197, 200 Bernstein v Skyviews [1978] QB 479 .............................................................................. 208 Berridge v Ward (1861) 10 CB (NS) 400; 30 LJCP 2182.................................................... 39 Board of Inland Revenue v Haddock..........................................................................276-277 Bole v Horton (1673) Vaughan’s Reports 382 .................................................................. 249 Bone v Commissioner of Stamp Duties [1972] 2 NSWLR 651 ................................ 249, 251 Bourke v State Bank of NSW (1988) 85 ALR 61; 22 FCR 378........................................ 175 Bourke v State Bank of NSW (1990) 170 CLR 276.......................................................... 175

1. Engineers’ Case 2. Other citations are Berridge v Ward 25 JP 695; 7 Jur NS 876; 142 ER 507

xx Table of Cases

Bowtell v Goldsborough Mort & Co Limited (1905) 3 CLR 444............................. 183, 187 Boys v Chaplin [1968] 2 QB 1 .......................................................................................... 249 Bropho v Western Australia (1991) 171 CLR 1.......................................................... 26, 276 Brown v The Queen (1986) 160 CLR 171 ........................................................................ 173 Buretsi v Beveridge 91998) 158 ALR 445........................................................................ 384 Cabell v Markham (1945) 148 F2d 737 ................................................................... 168, 187 Canwan Coals v FCT (1974) 4 ALR 223 .......................................................................... 200 Chaudary v Minister for Immigration (1994) 121 ALR 315............................................. 350 Cheatle v The Queen (1993) 177 CLR 541....................................................................... 173 Church of the Holy Trinity v United States (1892) 143 US 457................................186-188 Close v Steel Co of Wales [1962] AC 367........................................................................ 248 Cochrane v Moore (1890) 25 QBD 57 ................................................................................ 10 Codelfa Construction v State Rail Authority (1982) 149 CLR 337 .................................. 186 Cole v Whitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360.......................................................................203-204 Collector of Customs v Agfa-Gearet (1997) 141 ALR 59 ........................................ 167, 180 Commercial Union Insurance v Colonial Carrying Co [1937] NZLR 1041 ............. 183, 187 Cooper Brookes v FCT (1981) 147 CLR 297, 35 ALR 151 ............................................. 197 Cooper v Portland Cement (1972) 128 CLR 427 .............................................................. 261 Corkery v Carpenter [1951] 1 KB 102 .............................................................169, 2010-211 Customs and Excise Commissioners v Lord Fisher [1981] 2 ll ER 147 ............................. 38 D’Emden v Pedder (1904) 1 CLR 91 .................................................................................. 71 Dallikavak v Minister for Immigration (1985) 61 ALR 471............................................. 202 David Securities v Commonwealth Bank of Australia (1992) 175 CLR 353 ................... 254 Deem v Millikin 6 OCC Rep 357 (1892), 360 and 53 Ohio St 668 (1895) ...................... 198 D’Emden v Pedder (1904) 1 CLR 91 .................................................................................. 71 Derbyshire County Council v Times Newspapers [1933] AC 534 ................................... 351 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 ...................................................................... 351 Dilworth v Stamp Commissioner [1899] AC 99 ............................................................... 395 Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562.....................................................8-12, 241-243, 257 Douglas v Minister for Aboriginal Affairs (1994) 34 ALD 192 ............................... 385, 394 Duff v FCT (1998) 98 ATC 2129................................................................................ 38, 351 Eastman v The Queen (2000) 172 ALR 39 ....................................................................... 204 Electricity Commission v Plumb (1992) 27 NSWLR 364 ................................................ 251 Erichsen v Last (1881) 8 QBD 414 ..................................................................... 38, 345, 352 Evans v FCT (1989) 89 ATC 4540 ..................................................................... 38, 351, 354 FCT v Blake 84 ATC 4661.................................................................................. 38, 176, 354 FCT v Bivona (1989) 89 ATC 4183............................................................................ 38, 354 FCT v Dixon (1952) 86 CLR 540 ..............................................................176, 345, 353-354 FCT v Radnor (1991) 91 ATC 4689 ........................................................................... 38, 354 Fourth South Melbourne Building Society, Re (1883) 9 VLR (E9) 54 ............................ 384 Foster v Minister for Customs (2000) 200 CLR 442......................................................... 348 GC Wood & Son v Cullen [1991] 2 VR 214..................................................................... 395 Genders v Ajax Insurance Co (1950) 81 CLR 470 ........................................................... 384 Grannall v Marrickville Margarine (1955) 93 CLR 55 ............................................... 71, 203 Grey v Pearson (1857) 6 HLC 61...............................................................................189-201 Hallett’s Estate, Re (1879) 13 ChD 696 ........................................................................... 248 Hallstroms v FCT (1946) 72 CLR 634................................................................ 38, 176, 354 Haseldine v Daw [1941] 2 KB 343, [1941] All ER 524.................................................... 207 Hawkesbury Development Corporation v Landmark Finance [1969] 2 NSWR 782........ 181

Table of Cases xxi

HC Sleigh v South Australia (1977) 136 CLR 475 ........................................................... 248 Hedley Byrne v Heller [1964] AC 465 ...................................................................... 126, 245 Heydon’s Case (1584) 3 Co Rep 7a....................................................161, 186, 189, 215-216 Hoffman v Armstrong 48 NY 201 (1872) ........................................................................ 209 Hollis’ Hospital and Hague’s Contract [1899] 2 Ch 540..................................................... 10 Holy Trinity Church v United States (1892) 143 US 457 ..........................................186-188 Hynes v NYCRR (Springboard Case) (1921) 231 NY 229............................................... 207 Inco Europe v First Choice Distribution [2000] 2 All ER 109 ...........................193, 196-197 Ingham v Hie Lee (1912) 15 CLR 267 .............................................................................. 188 IW v City of Perth (1997) 146 ALR 696 ........................................................................... 197 Jankovic v Minister for Immigration (1994) 35 ALD 261 ................................................ 394 Jegatheeswaran v Minister for Immigration [2001] FCA 865 (9 July 2001) ............ 269, 304 Jones v Wrotham Park Settled Estates [1976] 2 All ER 393; [1977] Ch 1 ....................... 197 Kelsen v Imperial Tobacco Co [1957] 2 QB 334 .............................................................. 208 Kingston v Keprose (1987) 11 NSWLR 404............................................... 26, 184, 214, 276 Kioa v Minister for Immigration (1984) 53 ALR 658....................................................... 350 Kioa v West (1985) 159 CLR 550, 62 ALR 321 ....................................................... 190, 201 Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1981) 153 CLR 168 ............................................................ 351 Kornhauser v Wilson (1990) 50 A Crim 366..................................................................... 251 Lamont v Commissioner for Railways (1963) 80 WN (NSW) 1242 ................................ 395 Langston v Langston (1834) Cl & Fin 194; 6 ER 1128..................................................... 191 Lebanese MA v Minister for Immigration (1986) 11 FCR 543; 67 ALR 195 .................. 350 Leveridge v Kennedy [1960] NZLR 1............................................................................... 180 Lincoln College’s Case (1595) 3 Co Rep 586 ................................................................... 189 Longmead’s Case (1795) 2 Leach 694 ............................................................................. 165 Lord Pitsligo’s Case (1750) Fost 79 .................................................................................. 165 Lyman v Hale (1836) 11 Conn Rep 177............................................................................ 208 Magor & St Mellon’s RDC v Newport Corporation [1952] AC 189 .........................193-194 Market Investigation v Minister for Social Security [1969] 2 WLR 1 .............................. 176 Marshall v Watson (1927) 124 CLR 640........................................................................... 193 Mary Lord v Commissioners for the City of Sydney (1859) ER 991.................................. 39 Maynard v O’Brien (1991) 78 NTR 16 ............................................................................. 189 McCawley v The King (1918) 26 CLR 9, 24 ALR 413 .................................................... 193 McManus v Scott-Charlton (1996) 140 ALR 625 ............................................................. 350 Messing v Bank of America (2002) 373 Md 672; 821 A2d 22 ......................................... 277 Miller v Minister for Mines [1961] NZLR 820, [1963] NZLR 560 .................................. 201 Mills v Meeking (1990) 91 ALR 16 .................................................................................. 189 Minister for Aboriginal Affairs v Peko-Wallsend (1986) 162 CLR 24......343, 347-349, 355 Minister for Immigration v Guo (1996) 144 ALR 567...................................................... 209 Minister for Immigration v Mayer (1985) 61 ALR 609 ............................................ 194, 201 Minister for Immigration v Petrovski (1998) 154 ALR 606.............................................. 351 Minister for Immigration v Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273; 128 ALR 353......................350-351 Morris v Beardsmore [1981] AC 446 ................................................................................ 187 Murphyores Inc v Commonwealth 91976) 136 CLR 1; 9 ALR 199 ................................. 349 Narich v Commissioner of Pay-roll Tax (1983) 50 ALR 417 ..................................... 38, 354 New South Wales v Commonwealth3 (1990) 169 CLR 482 ............................................. 175 Newcastle City Council v GIO (1997) 149 CLR 623........................................................ 184

3. Incorporations Case

xxii Table of Cases

Newcastle City Council v GIO General Ltd (1997) 191 CLR 85 ..................................... 196 Nirta v R (1983) 51 ALR 53................................................................................................ 60 Nicol v Chant (1909) 7 CLR 569 ...................................................................................... 186 O’Reilly; Ex parte Bayford Wholesalers (1983) 181 CLR 557 ........................................ 224 O’Sullivan v Farrer (1989) 89 ALR 71 ............................................................................ 196 Osborne v Rowlett (1880) 13 ChD 774............................................................................. 251 Pepper v Hart [1993] AC 593............................................................................................ 218 President of Shire of Arapiles v Board of Land and Works (1904) 1 CLR 679 ............... 192 Prince of Blucher, Re [1931] 2 Ch 70 ............................................................................... 194 Prior v Sherwood (1906) 3 CLR 1054............................................................................... 199 Qantas and DCT, Re (1979) 2 ALD 291 ........................................................................... 181 Qualcast v Haynes [1959] AC 743 .................................................................................... 248 Queensland Medical Laboratories v Blewett (1988) 84 ALR 615.................................... 347 R v ABT; Ex parte 2HD (1979) 144 CLR 45; 27 ALR 321...............................343, 348-350 R v Bonollo [1981] VR 633 .............................................................................................. 261 R v Broadcasting Complaints Commission; Ex parte Owen [1985] 2 All ER 522........... 188 R v Ellis (1844) 6 QB 501, 115 ER 187............................................................................ 194 R v Hepworth [1955] 2 QB 600 ........................................................................................ 210 R v Jaagusta [1974] 3 WWR 766 ...................................................................................... 181 R v L (1991) 174 CLR 379................................................................................................ 254 R v Law [1961] Crim LR 52 ............................................................................................. 210 R v McN (1963) 63 SR (NSW) 186 .................................................................................. 395 R v Morton (1873) LR 2 CCR 22...................................................................................... 272 R v Porter (1933) 55 VLR 182 ............................................................................................ 35 R v Refshauge (1976) 11 ALR 471 ................................................................................... 200 R v Smith [1974] 2 NSWLR 588 ...................................................................................... 174 R v Tahu [1975] 1 NSWLR 479.................................................................................248-249 R v The Judge of the City of London Court [1892] 1 QB 273.......................................... 193 R v Trebilco; Ex parte FS Falkiner (1936) 56 CLR 20 ..................................................... 349 R v Walker [1875] LR 10 QB 355 ........................................................................................ 7 R v Wilson; Ex parte Kisch (1934) 52 CLR 234............................................................... 193 R v Woods [1961] Crim LR 324 ....................................................................................... 210 R v Young (1999) 46 NSWLR 681 ................................................................................... 172 Repatriation Commission v VVA (2000) 171 ALR 523................................................... 164 Robinson v Local Board of Barton-Eccles (1883) 8 App Cas 798 ................................... 386 Roe v Tranmarr (1757) Willes 682.................................................................................... 191 Royal College of Nursing v DHSS [1981] AC 800, [1981] 2 WLR 279 .......................... 193 Scruttons v Midland Silicone Ltd [1962] 1 AC 446.................................................. 257, 261 Sean Investments v MacKellar (1981) 38 ALR 363 ..................................................349-350 Secretary, Department of Social Security v Van Luc Ho (1987) 77 ALR 491 ................. 209 Sharpe v Wakefield [1891] 1 AC 173 ............................................................................... 199 Sherrin Gordon Mines v FCT (1976) 10 ALR 441 ................................................... 385, 394 Slack v Leeds Industrial Co-op. [1923] 1 Ch 431 ......................................................251-252 Southern Foundries v Shirlaw [1940] 1 AC 701 ............................................................... 207 Standard Oil Co v United States 221 US 1 (1911) ............................................................ 184 Steiner v Attorney General (1983) 52 ALR 148 ............................................................... 189 Stevens v Broadribb Sawmilling Co (1985) 160 CLR 16; 63 ALR 513..................... 74, 176 Stradling v Morgan (1560) 1 Plowd 200, 75 ER 305.................................183, 186-187, 192 Strickland v Rocla Concrete Pipes (1971) 124 CLR 568.......................................... 209, 261

Table of Cases xxiii

Stroman Motor Co v Brown 116 Okla 36, 243 P 133 ......................................................... 74 Sussex Peerage Case (1844) 11 Cl&F 85; 8 ER 1034 ....................................................... 214 Sutherland Publishing Co Ltd v Caxton Publishing Co [1938] 1 Ch 174 ......................... 184 Swan Hill Corporation v Bradbury (1937) 56 CLR 746.................................................... 349 Thompson v Bankstown Corporation (1953) 87 CLR 619................................................ 207 Thompson v Gould [1910] AC 409 ........................................................................... 193, 197 Tileska v Bevelar (1989) 4 BPR 9601 ............................................................................... 208 Timbu Kolian v The Queen (1968) 119 CLR 47............................................................... 172 Tinkham v Perry [1951] 1 KB 547 .................................................................................... 194 Tokyo Mart Pty Ltd v Campbell (1988) 15 NSWLR 275 ................................................. 185 Trade Practices Commission v Abbco (1994) 123 ALR 503 ............................................ 258 Transport Accident Commission v Treloar (1990) 34 IR 138........................................... 394 Transport Workers Union v Gynburn Contractors [1992] 1 VR 447 .......................... 38, 354 Unit Construction v Bullock [1960] AC 351..................................................................... 261 Victor v Nebrasks 511 US 1 (1994)................................................................................... 334 Victor Chandeler v Commissioners of Custom and Excise 1999 EWHC Ch 214 ............ 277 Victoria v Commonwealth (PMA Case) (1975) 134 CLR 81 ........................................... 181 Wakim, Re (1999) 198 CLR 511....................................................................................... 204 Waniewska v Minister for Immigration (1986) 70 ALR 284 ............................................ 349 WCIC v Browning (1947) 74 CLR 492..................................................................... 343, 350 Waterman v Soper (1697) 1 Ld Raymond 737.................................................................. 208 Watson v George (1953) 89 CLR 409 ............................................................................... 258 Wentworth Securities v Jones [1980] AC 74.............................................................. 172,196 Western Australia v Commonwealth4 (1975) 134 CLR 201, 7 ALR 159 ................. 192, 207 Whiteley v Chappell (1868) LR 4 QB 147 ........................................................................ 194 Winship, Re 397 US 358 (1970)........................................................................................ 334 Wills v Bowley [1983] AC 57 ........................................................................................... 174 YZ Finance Co v Cummings [1964] 667........................................................................... 395

4. Territorial Senators Case

xxv

Table of Latin Phrases

ad medium filum aquae ............................................................................................ 39 aequum et bonum ................................................................................................... 104 avis rara .................................................................................................................. 410 bona vacantia ........................................................................................................... 61 casus male inclusus ................................................................................................ 187 casus omissus ..................................................................................................187-188 cuius est solum, eius est usque ad coelum et ad inferos......................................... 208 doli incapax .............................................................................................................. 60 eiusdem generis ...............................................................................................199-200 ex gratia .................................................................................................................... 72 ex tempore ...................................................................................................... 208, 249 ex turpi causa non oritur actio ................................................................................ 198 expressio unius exclusio alterius est........................................................195-196, 204 generalia specialibus non derogant................................................................. 200, 206 leges posteriores priores contrarias abrogant ................................................. 202, 206 in banco .................................................................................................................. 127 medium filum .......................................................................................................... 39 nemo dat quod non habet.......................................................................................... 61 non sub homine, sed sub deo et sub lege.................................................................. 69 quando lex aliquid concedit, concedere videtur et illud sine quo res ipsa valere non potest............................................................................................... 71, 203 non dat quod non habet ............................................................................................ 61 noscitur a sociis ...............................................................................................139-140 obiter dictum......................................116-117, 120-122, 126-127, 237, 247-248, 151 obiter dicta .........................................116-117, 120-122, 126-127, 237, 247-248, 151 prior est tempore potior est iure ......................................................................206-208 qui facit per alium facit per se .................................................................................. 74 quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit...................................................................207-209 ratio............................................................................................................................... ratio decidendi ............................................... 10, 15, 88, 115-117, 119-122, 126-127, ratio decidendi .................................. 235, 237, 247-251, 260-261, 397-398, 402, 406 rationes ................................................................................................................... 117 reddendo singula singulis ..............................................................xxxv, 181-182, 388 res integra ............................................................................................................... 237 stare decisis..................................................... 10, 15, 88, 115-117, 122-126, 251-252 stare decisis et non quieta movere .................................................................. 126, 252 ultra vires .......................................................................................................... 23, 348 usque ad medium filum viae ............................................................................ 39, 208 ut res magis valeat quam pereat...................................................................... 191, 199

xxvii

Table of Diagrams

Labels Labels Diagram 1. Symbols for Relationships ............................... xxxvii Labels Diagram 2. List of Meanings .............................................. xxxvii Labels Diagram 3. Meanings and Effects....................................... xxxviii Labels Diagram 4. Symbols Used for Probability .......................... xxxix Chapter 1 Law Diagram 1.1 Nature of Law ............................................................ 1 Diagram 1.2 Elements of Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) Section 1 6 Diagram 1.3 Elements of Negligence ............................................. 12 Chapter 2 Diagram 2.1 Types of Reasoning ................................................... 19 Chapter 4 Micro Analysis Diagram 4.1Applying Law to Facts................................................ 28 Diagram 4.2 Structure of a Legal Rule ........................................... 29 Diagram 4.3 Elements, Consequences and Facts ........................... 30 Diagram 4.4 Trespass to Land: Elements and Consequences ........ 32 Diagram 4.5 Sub-Elements ............................................................. 37 Diagram 4.6 Analysis of Section 138 ............................................. 46 Diagram 4.6 Analysis of Section 138 (1)-(2) ................................. 46 Diagram 4.8 Relations that Connect Elements ............................... 47 Diagram 4.9 Trespass to Land: Elements and Consequences ........ 48 Diagram 4.10 Illustration of Property Interests as Elements .......... 51 Diagram 4.11 Illustration of a Transfer of Property by Lease........ 51 Chapter 5 Macro Analysis Diagram 5.1 Functional Relationships ........................................... 58 Diagram 5.2 Constitutional Law..................................................... 64 Chapter 6 Organising Law Applications Diagram 6.1 Elements and Facts .................................................... 79 Diagram 6.2 Application of Rule 1 and Rule 2 .............................. 80 Diagram 6.3 Syllogism ................................................................... 81 Diagram 6.4 Syllogism for Applying Law to Facts........................ 81 Diagram 6.5 Syllogism as a Diagram ............................................. 81 Diagram 6.6 Model for Using Law................................................. 82

xxviii Table of Diagrams

Diagram 6.7 Trespass to Land: Elements and Consequences ........ 82 Diagram 6.8 Sub-elements of Land ................................................ 86 Chapter 8 Logical Reasoning Diagram 8.1 Form of Deduction..................................................... 89 Diagram 8.2 Form of Induction ...................................................... 90 Diagram 8.3 Form of Abduction..................................................... 91 Diagram 8.4 Form of Analogy........................................................ 92 Diagram 8.5 Form of Deduction..................................................... 94 Diagram 8.6 Form of Induction ...................................................... 94 Diagram 8.7 Form of Abduction..................................................... 95 Diagram 8.8 Form of Analogy........................................................ 95 Diagram 8.9 Summary of Logical Reasoning ................................ 96 Chapter 9 Policy Diagram 9.1 Statutes and Effects.................................................... 109 Diagram 9.2 Statutes, Effects and Net Benefits.............................. 109 Diagram 9.3 Meanings and Effects................................................. 109 Chapter 10 Precedent Diagram 10.1 Hierarchy of Courts ................................................. 121 Diagram 10.2 Stare Decisis ............................................................ 122 Chapter 11 Statutes Diagram 11.1 Rules ........................................................................ 129 Diagram 11.2 Statutes and Effects.................................................. 132 Diagram 11.3 Rules and Effects ..................................................... 132 Diagram 11.4 Statutes, Predicted Effects and Actual Effects......... 133 Chapter 12 Model for Enacting Statutes Diagram 12.1 Model for Enacting a Statute ................................... 142 Diagram 12.2 Making the Decision................................................ 143 Diagram 12.3 Options for Statutes ................................................. 145 Diagram 12.4 Options for Statutes ................................................. 146 Diagram 12.5 Options for Statutes ................................................. 148 Diagram 12.6 Statutes, Predicted Effects and Actual Effects......... 149 Diagram 12.7 Statutes, Effects and Net Benefits............................ 158 Chapter 13 Causing Interpretation: Ambiguity Diagram 13.1 Meanings and Effects............................................... 163 Diagram 13.2 Effect of Ambiguity on Litigation ........................... 166

Table of Diagrams xxix

Diagram 13.3 Analysis of the Effect of Ambiguity........................ 166 Diagram 13.4 Types of Ambiguity ................................................. 170 Diagram 13.5 Types of Ambiguity ................................................. 171 Diagram 13.6 Elements of Section 8-1........................................... 178 Diagram 13.7 Daisy Bell: Extract................................................... 210 Diagram 13.8 Daisy Bell: Extract................................................... 211 Chapter 14 Approaches to Interpreting Statutes Diagram 14.1 Purpose and Object Rule: Legislative Provisions.... 222 Diagram 14.2 Extrinsic Material Rule: Legislative Provisions ...... 222 Chapter 15 Model for Interpreting Statutes Diagram 15.1 Model for Interpreting Statutes................................ 225 Diagram 15.2 Meanings.................................................................. 226 Diagram 15.3 Meanings and Effects .............................................. 228 Diagram 15.4 Options for Interpreting a Statute ............................ 233 Chapter 16 Model for Making Common Law Diagram 16.1 Rules ........................................................................ 238 Diagram 16.2 Facts and Case Facts ................................................ 240 Diagram 16.3 Versions of Elements ............................................... 244 Diagram 16.4 Rules of Stare Decisis .............................................. 252 Chapter 17 Model for Using Law Diagram 17.1 Model for Using Law............................................... 266 Diagram 17.2 Sub-elements............................................................ 268 Diagram 17.3 Syllogism for Applying Law to Facts...................... 274 Chapter 18 Model for Litigation Diagram 18.1 Issues of Facts.......................................................... 284 Diagram 18.2 Issues of Law ........................................................... 284 Chapter 19 Model for Litigation: Multiple Actions Diagram 19.1 Parties ...................................................................... 288 Diagram 19.2 Permutations of All Parties ...................................... 289 Diagram 19.3 Permutations of Relevant Parties............................. 290 Diagram 19.5 Parties and Causes of Action ................................... 292 Diagram 19.6 Micro Analysis of a Legal Rule............................... 293 Diagram 19.7 Complete Framework .............................................. 294 Diagram 19.8 Permutations of All Parties ...................................... 295 Diagram 19.9 Permutations of Relevant Parties............................. 295

xxx Table of Diagrams

Diagram 19.10 Parties and Causes of Action ................................. 295 Diagram 19.11 Complete Framework ............................................ 297 Chapter 20 Model for Litigation: One Action Diagram 20.1 Basic Model for Litigation....................................... 299 Diagram 20.2 Sub-Elements ........................................................... 303 Diagram 20.3 Syllogism for Applying Law to Facts...................... 307 Diagram 20.4 Operational Model for Litigation............................. 307 Chapter 21 Model for Litigation: Illustration Diagram 21.1 Trespass to Land: Elements and Consequences ...... 311 Diagram 21.2 Model for Litigation: Organisation of a Case.......... 313 Chapter 22 Model for Transactions Diagram 22.1 Model for Transactions............................................ 315 Chapter 23 Model for Applying Law Diagram 23.1 Law and Facts .......................................................... 319 Diagram 23.2 Syllogism ................................................................. 320 Diagram 23.3 Syllogism as a Diagram ........................................... 320 Diagram 23.4 Framework for Applying Law ................................. 323 Diagram 23.5 Trespass to Land ...................................................... 326 Diagram 23.6 Illustration: Trespass to Land .................................. 327 Chapter 24 Model for Proving Facts Diagram 20.1 Model for Proving Facts .......................................... 330 Diagram 20.2 Initiator’s Scale of Proof.......................................... 330 Diagram 20.3 Complementarity Rule............................................. 331 Chapter 25 Model or Exercising Discretions Diagram 25.1 Structure of a Discretion: Basic Model.................... 340 Diagram 25.2 Structure of a Discretion: Developed Model ........... 341 Diagram 25.3 Model for Exercise of a Discretion.......................... 344 Diagram 25.4 Issue as to Identity of Criteria.................................. 347 Diagram 25.5 Establishing a Criterion by Facts and Evidence ...... 353 Diagram 25.6 Decision ................................................................... 355 Chapter 26 Model for Answering a Problem Question Diagram 26.1 Steps for Answering a Problem Question................ 361 Diagram 26.2 Steps for Interpreting a Statute ................................ 361 Diagram 26.3 Steps for Two Models.............................................. 362

Table of Diagrams xxxi

Diagram 26.4 Step 4 Interpreting Law ........................................... 362 Diagram 26.5 Model for Answering a Problem Question .............. 362 Diagram 26.6 Model for Interpreting Statutes................................ 369 Chapter 27 Writing Law Diagram 27.1 Model for Structuring Writing................................. 377 Chapter 30 Reading Cases Diagram 30.1 Model for Interpreting Statutes................................ 403 Diagram 30.2 Meanings and Effects .............................................. 405 Chapter 31 Reading Texts Diagram 31.1 Model for Structuring Writing................................. 413

xxxiii

Labels

Introduction Describing Items Listing Items Diagrams Probability

Introduction

Discussion in this publication refers to items such as a statute or a meaning of an ambiguous provision. Often these are part of a collection, list, range or set of items. Frequently the text puts them in a diagram where they represent a model or a step on the way to explaining a model. The purpose here is to explain the labelling system used to refer to these items.

Describing Items Labelling Items

There are several aspects to labelling the items in a set, range, list or collection. These are name, number, letter and designating a set of items. Name The name of an item commences with a capital letter. Some examples are Element, Statute and Meaning. Number Items in a set, range, list or collection are generally numbered. For example, the elements of a legal rule are labelled Element 1, Element 2, Element 3 and so on. These numbers are ways of identifying elements and distinguishing one from another. They are generally not intended to create any list according to preferences or values. Letter Items in a set, range, list or collection can be lettered. For example a list of statutes can be Statute A, Statute B and so on. Designating a Set of Items It is useful to designate a set of items with a single and simple tag. Here is an outline. The basic proposition is that a simple and obvious tag has two aspects: 1. Description. Use a written label on the items as a tag or description. Put it in plural form. Thus a tag for a set of statutes would be ‘Elements’.

xxxiv Labels

2. Numbers. After the tag add a space then a compound numerical tag consisting of three items: 2.1 The number of the first item in the set. 2.2 A hyphen. 2.3 The number of the last item in the set. Here are two illustrations: 1. A set of six elements would be Elements 1-6. 2. A set of elements where the number can vary from situation to situation is written as Elements 1-n. 1. Naming the Items The item has a name, which is usually obvious. For example each statute in a set of statutes would bear the name ‘Statute’, and each elements in a set of elements would be ‘Element’. 2. Numbering the Items There are two possibilities for the numbering of a set, list or range of items: 1. There can be a fixed number in the set. 2. There can be a variable number in the set. 2.1 Fixed Number in the Set In a particular instance there may be a specific number of items in a set. For example a particular legal rule might be composed of five elements. In this case the first and last numbers designate the number of items in the set or range. In this example of a set of five elements, one would designate the set as ‘Elements 1-5’. 2.2 Variable Number in the Set Sometimes the text refers to a set or a list in general terms in cases where the number of items in the set can vary from situation to situation. In this event, the way to go is to number the last item with the symbol ‘n’. To refresh readers, ‘n’ stands for however many there are on a particular occasion. An example would be a general discussion about elements of a legal rule. In this case the possibilities vary from legal rule to legal rule. Thus the designation of this set of items is Elements 1-n.

Null Option There is a special case with options where one of the options is to do nothing and leave things as they are. This occurs, for example, with the proposed making of a statute where one option is just not to enact a statute. In a case such as this the option is labelled with the symbol for nought, namely ‘0’. Thus the

Labels xxxv

option not to enact a statute is designated as Statute 0. Statute 0 represents the null option – it is the option for a legislature not to enact a statute on a topic whereas Statutes 1, 2 3 and so on are options for different versions of a statute on a topic (on the basis that there is no form of a statute that can better present conditions). Given this the full set or range of possible statutes for a legislature to enact consists of Statutes 0-n.

Corresponding Items Sometimes there are sets with corresponding items. This can occur for a number of reasons. Here are two examples: 1. For making and interpreting law, items correspond because of causation. Each version of a statute on a subject and each meaning of an ambiguous provision will cause an effect if a legislature enacts the statute or if a court declares the meaning to be legally correct. 2. In the model for litigation, elements and facts correspond because each element delineates a category of facts so that in a particular case the element is satisfied by a fact that falls within that category. Similarly, facts and evidence correspond because each fact is proved or potentially provable by some evidence. Single Relationships Corresponding items are labelled with the same number or letter. Here are some illustrations: 1. Statutes, Meanings and their Predicted Effects. Statute 0 is predicted to cause Effect 0, Statute 1 is predicted to cause Effect 1, Statute 2 is predicted to cause Effect 2 and so on. Meaning 1 is predicted to causes Effect 1, Meaning 2 is predicted to cause Effect 2 and so on. Similarly, Statute X (or Meaning X) is predicted to cause Effect X while Statute Y (or Meaning Y) is predicted to cause Effect Y. 2. Facts Satisfying Elements. Fact 1 is the label given to a fact that fits within or satisfies Element 1, Fact 2 is the label given to a fact that fits within or satisfies Element 2 and so on. 3. Evidence Proving Facts. Evidence 1 is the label given to evidence that might prove or has proved Fact 1, Evidence 2 is the label given to evidence that might prove or has proved Fact 2, and so on. Collective Relationships It is possible to use labels of correspondence to make collective statements. Here are some examples: Statutes 0-n are predicted to cause Effects 0-n, while Evidence 1-n is capable of proving Facts 1-n. To construe these collective statements properly it is necessary to apply the maxim reddendo singula

xxxvi Labels

singulis. Literally this says that each is rendered on their own. In plainer language, the items are to be taken singularly so the each item in the first list is paired with the corresponding item in the second list. The adverb ‘respectively’ captures this notion.

Two or More Version of an Item There may be two or more versions of an item. Additional letters or numbers can distinguish the different versions. For example: 1. If Element 2 is ambiguous because it has two meanings, the versions of Element 2 can be designated Element 2A and Element 2B. 2. There can be two versions of a fact. There are two major possibilities: 2.1 In a case there may be two versions of Fact 2 because the plaintiff propounds one and the defendant propounds the other. These can be designated ‘P’ and ‘D’ to signify the plaintiff and defendant’s version. Thus the two versions are Fact 2P and Fact 2D. 2.2 After investigating the facts of a case the defendant may find that there is evidence to support two versions of one of the facts in their case. These are facts that the defendant could use to rebut the plaintiff’s satisfying Element 3. The defendant or the court could designate these as Fact 3D.1 and Fact 3D.2.

Subdivisions of Items It is possible to designate subdivisions of an item with a numbering system that invokes the form but not the meaning of decimal points. Thus if Element 2 has three sub-elements, one can designate them as Element 2.1, Element 2.2, and Element 2.3. If Element 2.2 has three sub-elements we can designate these as Element 2.2.1, Element 2.2.2 and Element 2.2.3. Obviously this form of numbering adapts to any number of levels of subdivision.

Possibilities: ‘X’, ‘Y’, Etc Sometimes the text needs to refer to any option, that is, to an option in general terms. Conveniently this is labelled with a capital letter. Commonly, this is the letter X, so that a general option for a legislature wishing to pass a statute is Statute X. Naturally, if there is a need to refer to more than one option additional letters may be used. For example, there could be reference to Statute X and Statute Y; in this case Statute X is one possible statute and Statute Y is another possible statute.

Signifying Relationships Sometimes it is necessary to signify a relationship between two items. This can be done using standard symbols. This table sets out the major possibilities:

Labels xxxvii

Symbol Relationship Illustration < Less than X<Y. X is less than Y. > Greater than X>Y. X is greater than Y. = Equals X=Y. X equals Y, ≠ Not Equals X≠Y. X does not equal Y. ≈ Approximately Equals X≈Y. X is approximately equal to Y. ≡ Congruence Relationship X≡Y. X is congruent with Y. ≅ Isomorphic X≅Y. X is structurally identical to Y

Labels Diagram 1. Symbols for Relationships

Listing Items Where there is a list, for example a list of the meanings of an ambiguous provision, we can set these out in the text as a series – Meaning 1, Meaning 2 ... Meaning n. In the text, as we have noted, the range can be efficiently represented as Meanings 1-n. In a table they are set out as a list in the following way:

Meanings Meaning 1 Meaning 2 Meaning n Labels Diagram 2. List of Meanings

In this presentation it is not strictly necessary to include Meaning 2. Indeed, it is actually redundant, when n=2. However, it usefully emphasises the sense of a list that sets out the range of options or possibilities.

Diagrams Lists in a table can be connected to become a diagram or figure. This can involve corresponding items. A useful illustration consists of a diagram that has two major columns that match corresponding items. One column sets out the meanings of an ambiguous provision in a statute in Statute X and the other sets out the effect for the whole statute that each meaning is predicted to cause. Here is the illustration:

1 2 3 Meanings → Effects 1 Meaning 1 Effect 1 2

xxxviii Labels

Meaning 2 Effect 2 3 Meaning n Effect n 4

Labels Diagram 3. Meanings and Effects This diagram functions in the following way: * Column 1 shows the meanings of the ambiguous provision, being Meanings 1-n. * Column 3 shows the effect of the statue that each meaning is predicted to cause if a court chooses them as the legally correct meaning of the ambiguous provision. Let us flesh this out. Every statute that is enacted causes a number of outcomes. The author refers to the full collection of outcomes that a statute is predicted to cause as an effect. When a court interprets a statute it is faced with the basic options in terms of the range of meanings of the ambiguous provision that gives rise to the need to interpret the statute. The diagram labels these meanings as Meanings 1-n. If a court decides that Meaning 1 is the legally correct meaning of the ambiguous provision that decision is likely to have an impact on the effect that the whole statute will cause. Column 3, as stated, sets out this effect, the effect of the whole statute, for Meaning 1. In a similar way it sets out the effect for each other meaning of the ambiguous provision. This method of identifying the effects of each meaning caters for the constitutional rule in each Australian jurisdiction that requires a court to interpret a statute in the way that will ‘best achieve’ the purpose and object for which the legislature enacted the statute. Now the purpose or object of a statute is to cause some effect or outcome. Hence the term ‘Effect’ aligns directly with purpose and object (which of course is why the table includes it). * Column 2 contains an arrow pointing from the Column 1 to Column 3, thereby indicating that each meaning in Column 1 is predicted to cause the statute to have the corresponding effect in Column 3. * Columns 1-3 indicate meanings and their predicted effects. Assume for the purposes of the explanation that a court is interpreting an ambiguous provision in Statute X that has Meanings 1-3: 1. If a court chooses Meaning 1 as the legally correct meaning the prediction is that Statute X will cause Effect 1. 2. If a court chooses Meaning 2 as the legally correct meaning the prediction is that Statute X will cause Effect 2. 3. If a court chooses Meaning 3 as the legally correct meaning the prediction is that Statute X will cause Effect 3.

Probability A number of symbols are used for probability. This diagram shows the common symbols and their meanings:

Labels xxxix

Symbol Meaning P(A) probability that event A occurs P(B) probability that event B occurs P(A B) probability that event A or event B occurs (A union B) P(A B) probability that event A and event B both occur (A intersection B) P(A’) probability that event A does not occur P(A | B) probability that event A occurs given that event B has occurred

already (conditional probability) P(B | A) probability that event B occurs given that event A has occurred

already (conditional probability) P(B | A’) probability that event B occurs given that event A has not occurred

already (conditional probability) φ the empty set = an impossible event S the sample space = an event that is certain to occur

Labels Diagram 4. Symbols Used for Probability

1

Chapter 1 Law

Introduction Part A. Nature of Law Part B. Law as Rules Primary Sources Statute Law Common Law Secondary Sources Tertiary Sources Part C. Law as a Social Science Part D. Commentary

Introduction

Legal method refers to the collection of methods or techniques for working with law. The next chapter explains the term legal method. As a prelude to this, Chapter 1 explains in broad terms the scope and nature of the term ‘law’.

Part A. Nature of Law Law has both a wide and a narrow scope depending on how one wants to look at it. The narrow scope is law as a set of rules, while the broad scope is law as it enmeshes with social science, which in brief form is law as a social science.1 Sometimes scholars also refer to it as sociological jurisprudence. A useful way to explain and illustrate this is with the following diagram:

Law as a Social Science Philosophy

↑ ↓

History ←→ ←→ Management Psychology ←→ ←→ Linguistics Sociology ←→

Law as Rules Statute law Common law ←→ Literature

↑ ↓

Economics Diagram 1.1 Nature of Law

1. An illustration is Enright (2015) Legal Reasoning. In order to explain legal reasoning it is necessary to make frequent excursions into the social sciences.

2 Chapter 1 Law

This diagram illustrates the narrow scope of law in the centre box that bears the label ‘Law as Rules’. It displays the wider scope of law by various social sciences that cluster around the box containing Law as Rule. In this context these eight disciplines are representatives of all the social sciences. The basic proposition is that any social science potentially casts some light on the wider application of law. There are two-way arrows between these disciplines and Law as Rules. These represent the relationship and interaction between the two.

Part B. Law as Rules A common major focus of lawyers, and law students in law schools, is to conceive law as a set of rules that they need to know and understand. These rules are of two kinds, common law made by courts in the process of deciding a case and statutes enacted by a legislature. Law in this form is sometimes called black letter law. It is also sometimes called positivist law. This description comes along a path that history laid down. Positivism is a theory about law that was a reaction to another theory labelled natural law. In simple terms, natural law theory said that the only valid law was a law that conformed to a permanent and comprehensive set of values that pervaded human life. Positivism as a legal philosophy denied that there was such a set of values and said, in simple terms, that law is any command or prescription that issues from or is ‘posited’ by a body that claims to possess law-making authority. (As is obvious, the label ‘positivism’ derives from the notion that law is ‘posited’ by law makers.) The study of law as a set of rules is largely a matter of English comprehension. To a considerable extent this is how law is conceived as a profession that people practise. Know the rules and use them to help your clients. It is also the view of law that is dominant in the syllabus of most law schools. However, in studying these rules or using them in the practice of law it is impossible to insulate them entirely from their wider role as social phenomena. For example, it is almost inevitable that some unstated value or unformulated premise of human behaviour underlies how law is used, especially in litigation. There is a traditional classification of law, or sources of law as is the common phrase, as primary, secondary and tertiary sources: 1. Primary Sources. Primary sources consist of law itself in its raw state. There are two major types – statutes (also called statute law) and common law: 1.1 Statutes. Statutes include delegated legislation and instruments made under authority that a statute has conferred on some official. Legislatures, such as a parliament or congress, make or enact statute law. 1.2 Common Law. Common law is found in cases. Courts make common law. Courts also interpret both statute law and common law. These interpretations add to, and become part of, statute law and common law. 2. Secondary Sources. Secondary sources of law refer to the description and analysis of law in legal texts. Examples are textbooks, encyclopedias, journal articles and services.

Chapter 1 Law 3

3. Tertiary Sources. Tertiary sources refer to two types of materials – published material that is related to law and documents that lawyers create when they work with law. Law in the pure sense, which is the concern of legal method, consists of primary sources. However, the discussion here also covers secondary and tertiary sources. It is necessary for law students to understand all three sources as they embark on their study, in order to see the big picture. Moreover, apart from their use in making law accessible, secondary sources might be used as a source of arguments for interpreting law.

Primary Sources Primary sources consist of the law itself. There are two basic types – statute law (or just statutes) and common law.

Statute Law Statute law possesses four components: 1. Statutes. Statutes are made directly by a legislature. 2. Delegated Legislation. Delegated legislation consists of law made by some person or body exercising powers conferred by a statute. 3. Executive Instruments. These are instruments that have been made by some person or body exercising powers conferred by the statute. 4. Judicial Decisions. These are judicial decisions made by courts that interpret statutes, delegated legislation and executive instruments.

Statutes Statutes are also known as Acts, or Acts of Parliament, and the two terms, statute and Act, are now synonymous. It is common practice to spell Act with a capital ‘A,’ although there is a trend to use just a lower case ‘a’. Enactment is another term for Act or statute. It is less frequently used than the other two and it can also include delegated legislation. A fourth term, legislation, is a generic word also covering both statutes and delegated legislation. Statute law is the major and superior type of law in that it can override common law. In fact, statute law now increasingly displaces common law. Statute law is also wide ranging because, within constitutional limits, a legislature can make any statute that it likes. Thus statute law is a means of spontaneous intervention by the state in the citizen’s life; for economic activities is a complement to, a substitute for, or a stricture on, the operation of the market. Given that statute law is such a powerful weapon there is scrutiny on its making and operation to detect deficiencies, and pressure that it be properly made. In response to this there has been study of legislative technique to understand better how statute law might operate. There have also been attempts to

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make statute law clear, simple, and uniform,2 and to formulate standards for legislation.3 To illustrate what a statute looks like the text will set out a selection of sections from the United States Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). This statute seeks to prevent anticompetitive action by business firms by imposing penalties on those who engage in this behaviour. It is part of the economic constitution of the Untied States because its aim is to enhance and preserve the market as a major method of economic regulation. However, before proceeding to the Sherman Act it is necessary to say something about the layout of a statute, which the extract from the Sherman Act below will illustrate. It is common practice among the various jurisdictions for the drafter of the statute to insert two things before the text of the section. These are: 1. Number. They insert a number to identify the section. 2. Heading. They insert a heading that contains a summary of the content and effect of the section. Sections 1 and 2 of this Act will now illustrate the text of a statute. These provide as follows:

Section 1. Trusts, etc., in restraint of trade illegal; penalty Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal. Every person who shall make any contract or engage in any combination or conspiracy hereby declared to be illegal shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $10,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $350,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding three years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court. Section 2. Monopolizing trade a felony; penalty Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $10,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $350,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding three years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court.

It is common for a statute to define some of the terms or expressions that it uses. Section 7 of the Sherman Act does this. It defines ‘person’ and ‘persons’ in the following way:

2. Mann (1983) 3. Commentary 2.1

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Section 7. ‘Person’ or ‘persons’ defined The word ‘person’, or ‘persons’, wherever used in sections 1 to 7 of this title shall be deemed to include corporations and associations existing under or authorized by the laws of either the United States, the laws of any of the Territories, the laws of any State, or the laws of any foreign country.

As is explained in later discussion, a secondary source is a good tool for understanding cases and statutes. One of the simplest and most effective means for a secondary source to explain a legal rule is to organise the legal rule by dividing it into its elements and consequences.4 The table below indicates how a lawyer could divide s1 into its elements and consequences when read with the definitions in s7. This illustration is useful in this context. It is also a warm up for later discussion of organising law5. Here is the table:

Element 1 Person There is a person. There are two meanings: 1. Natural Meaning. In its natural and most obvious sense the word ‘person’ includes a human person. 2. Statutory Definition. Because of the definition of ‘person’ in s7 it includes corporations and associations existing under or authorized by the laws of any of the following – (a) the United States, (b) any of the Territories, (c) any State, or (d) any foreign country.6

Element 2 Contract, Combination or Conspiracy The person does one of the following actions: 2.1 They make a contract. 2.2 They engage in a combination. 2.3 They engage in a conspiracy.

Element 3 Illegality The contract, combination or conspiracy is illegal. A contract, combination (whether in the form of trust or otherwise), or conspiracy is illegal when it satisfies both of these requirements: 3.1 It is in restraint of trade or commerce. 3.2 This trade or commerce is either (a) among the several States, or (b) with foreign nations.

Consequences 1. The person is guilty of a felony. 2. The person shall be punished in either or both of two ways at the discretion of the court: 2.1 Fine.(a) If the person is a corporation the court can punish them by a fine not exceeding $10,000,000. (b) If they are any other person the court can punish them

4. Chapter 4 Organising Law: Micro Analysis 5. Chapters 3-6 6. Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) s7

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by a fine not exceeding $350,000. 2.2 Imprisonment. The court can punish them by imprisonment not exceeding three years.

Diagram 1.2 Elements of Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) Section 1 Elements and consequences are put in a table here to emphasise how they provide a framework for organising law that tends to simplify law. Generally law texts do not set out information in tabular form as has just been done. Nevertheless, the analysis conveyed by this table must be at the core of a text if it is to convey the law clearly and accurately. Moreover, a text could usefully convey this basic information in a table at the outset as a prelude to more detailed treatment. The advantage of doing so is that the key propositions, which are constituted by the elements and consequences, are not lost in the detail.

Delegated Legislation Nature Delegated legislation is law made by a person or body to whom a legislature has, by statute, delegated law-making authority. Sometimes the statute simply authorises delegated legislation. Sometimes, though, the statutes may authorise a further level or levels of delegated legislation – it authorises delegated legislation and this delegated legislation is authorised to make further delegated legislation. Delegated legislation is thus made by a legislature only indirectly, unlike statute law, which is a direct creation. Nevertheless, apart from its subordinate status, delegated legislation is in many respects similar to statute law. And, at least in a functional sense, it is part of the statute that authorises it. Terminology Delegated legislation is also known as subordinate legislation, secondary legislation or subsidiary legislation. These are generic terms referring to delegated legislation as a whole. However, in each jurisdiction typically there is a variety of names used to describe pieces of delegated legislation. For example one piece of delegated legislation may be labelled as regulations, for example the ‘Rail Transport Regulations 1999’ while another might be labelled as rules, for example ‘Supreme Court Rules 2002’. A list of common labels for delegated legislation includes regulations, by-laws, rules, ordinances, statutory rules and statutory instruments. There is, however, no inherent significance in these names, which are normally conferred by the enabling or delegating Act itself. With delegated legislation what counts is the extent of the power delegated, and the use made of it. The various labels are mere means of references. Thus if delegated legislation says that an applicant for a benefit must use Form X it does not matter that the delegated legislation is a rule, a regulation, a by-law and so on. What counts is that it legally requires an applicant to use Form X.

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Executive Instruments

A statute or delegated legislation may authorise some body or official to make an executive instrument. This is an instrument that typically performs a one-off task. For example, many appointments to statutory offices are made by executive instrument. An executive instrument made under a statute or delegated legislation is part of the statute or delegated legislation, and therefore part of a primary source of law.7

Judicial Decisions Statute law includes judicial decisions that have interpreted statutes, delegated legislation or executive instruments. But since these decisions are judicial creations they can also be conceived as part of common law. They therefore have a dual identity.

Common Law Introduction Common law is the older source of law. Common law originated in England, although there is also a Scottish common law.8 It is convenient to distinguish three forms of common law: 1. Pure Form. In pure form, common law consists of rules of law made by judges in deciding a case. For this reason this form of common law is also called judge-made law or case law. 2. Hybrid Form. There is a hybrid form of common law called statutory common law, which consists of common law made under statutory authority. 3. Interpreting Statute Law. The label common law can also be applied to judicial interpretation of statutes (although this can also be characterised as statute law). In early times common law was the major source of law, as indicated by the fact that basic areas of law – constitutional law, contract, tort, crime and property – are common law creations. However, in varying degrees in the many jurisdictions where common law operates, statutory provisions have now displaced or modified a swathe of common law rules.9 Common Law Rules Nature As a source of law, common law dates back to the centralisation of judicial administration that took place in England under King Henry II (1154-1189). Before common law came into being, English law included a few statutes on special topics, but the major law was local customary law (also called custom). Being local, customary law varied from place to place. The local feudal lord administered the law by holding court when necessary. One of the changes that Henry II made to the administration of justice was to send his royal judges on circuit. They started to hear

7. R v Walker [1875] LR 10 QB 355 8. Jamieson (1980) 9. Holmes (1881), Beaten (1997), Milsom (1980-82), Calabresi (1982).

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cases that might otherwise have been heard by the feudal lord. In the process, these judges started to compare the various customary laws that they encountered and talk about these rules among themselves. What then happened was that when the judges heard a case in a particular place, there would be times when they would not apply the customary rule from that place but the rule from some other place. They did this because this other rule provided a better legal solution to the problem than did the local rule. Bit by bit over time this process supplanted the various local laws with one uniform set of rules on the basis that the judges collectively regarded these as the best solution to the particular problem. In some ways it amounted to a judicial codification of customary law. This law came to be called common law because the law was common throughout the realm – there was one uniform set of rules (although pockets of customary law still survived).10 As this account shows, common law consists of rules or principles of law formulated by judges in cases when deciding disputes in areas where there were no applicable statutes. In the absence of a relevant statute, courts themselves formulated rules of law. Illustration A good illustration of the making of common law comes from the case of Donoghue v Stevenson in 1932. There the House of Lords created the tort of negligence for English common law.11 The facts of this case involved the following: 1. A bottle of ginger beer. 2. A Mr Stevenson who manufactured this ginger beer. 3. A Mister Minchella who owned a café that sold Stevenson’s ginger beer. 4. A Mrs Donoghue who drank from a bottle of this ginger beer in Mr Minchella’s café. 5. A snail that somehow found its way into Mrs Donoghue’s bottle of ginger beer. Here now are the facts in narrative form. Mrs Donogue went to the café in Paisley run by Mr Minchella. Mrs Donoghue was accompanied by a friend. Mrs Donoghue sat down at one of the tables. Her friend purchased a bottle of ginger beer from Mr Minchella. Stevenson had manufactured this ginger beer. The bottle was made of dark opaque glass. Minchella poured some of the ginger beer out into a tumbler. Her friend then brought the tumbler of ginger beer and the bottle with the remaining ginger beer to the table where Mrs Donoghue was sitting. Mrs Donoghue drank some of the contents of the tumbler. Her friend then poured the remainder of the contents of the bottle into the tumbler. As the friend did this, a snail, which was in a state of decomposition, floated out of the bottle and into the tumbler. In consequence Mrs Donoghue suffered from shock because of seeing the decomposed snail and severe

10 Commentary 2.2 11. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562

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gastro-enteritis because of drinking the contaminated ginger beer. Consequently she sued the manufacturer of the ginger beer, Stevenson. The issue before the court was whether the plaintiff Donoghue had an action against the defendant (or the defender as they are called in Scotland). Each of the five judges in the House of Lords (called law lords) hearing the case wrote separate judgments endeavouring to answer this question. These consume 62 pages of the law report. However, the key part of the decision was a finding of three judges (a majority) that there existed a tort of negligence that had fairly general application. This changed the law of negligence because prior to this case there were only specific actions for negligence for defined circumstances. By wide agreement a passage from the judgment of Lord Atkin reasonably accurately describes the tort of negligence as propounded by the case. (It is also one of the most famous passages in English law since it turned the presence of a small mollusc into a tort that has been lucrative for lawyers in a large way). Here is the passage: ‘At present I content myself with pointing out that in English law there must be, and is, some general conception of relations giving rise to a duty of care, of which the particular cases found in the books are but instances. The liability for negligence, whether you style it such or treat it as in other systems as a species of ‘culpa,’ is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay. But acts or omissions which any moral code would censure cannot in a practical world be treated so as to give a right to every person injured by them to demand relief. In this way rules of law arise which limit the range of complainants and the extent of their remedy. The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer’s question, Who is my neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour. Who, then, in law is my neighbour? The answer seems to be – persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question.’12 Judgments Since courts make common law, it is found in ‘the judgments of judges entrusted with its administration’.13 Cases are published. Originally publishers did this solely in the printed law reports but nowadays cases are also published electronically. In fact, electronic publishing is now the main source of case law even though printed law reports are still published.

12. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562, 580 per Lord Atkin 13. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562, 567 per Lord Buckmaster

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Ratio Decidendi and Stare Decisis Courts create common law in the process of deciding cases by the operation of two processes.14 First, courts articulate the new common rule when they decide the case. To do this, they formulate a rule that fits the facts and is pivotal for the court’s decision.15 This rule is referred to as the ratio decidendi or ratio for short. This means the reason for the decision. It is so called because the rule that the court formulated is the reason for determining the case one way rather than another. Second, the decision that the court makes is treated as precedent so that courts will generally follow it in subsequent cases of similar ilk.16 This rule is called stare decisis, which means literally to stand by what has been decided. Consequently, the original decision that created the rule affects not only the parties to the case but all other citizens as well, since they are bound by the ratio.17 However, once a court has made a rule it is highly likely that later courts will modify it over time by extension, qualification or reformulation as it faces and adapts to new situations. Retrospecitivity and Prospectivity This form of law-making used for common law raises a problem in that the law as it affects the parties to the case is made retrospectively, whereas it is made prospectively for all other users. Thus there is always the risk for parties who litigate in the common law realm that the law deciding the dispute will not be clarified or formulated until the case has been decided. This proposition has a major implication for common law. It means that common law justice depends on predictability. Only if a party can accurately foresee how a court will respond (which is not always likely) can the law that affects them and their dealings be ascertainable, as the rule of law requires.18 Textbooks Case law can be messy because the rule may not be clearly stated by the court or becomes enmeshed in the case with the reasoning that created and justified the new rule. Consequently, in practice the best source of case law is often a textbook, which is why it is said that common law is also found in the ‘writing of lawyers’.19 A textbook gathers rules that are scattered throughout a multitude of cases and ideally puts the rules together to form an ordered account of the law. This is a great advantage because it tidies and shapes the law, thus making it accessible and easier to understand. To illustrate how a textbook tidies and shapes the law, consider the extract above from the judgment of Lord Atkin in Donoghue v Stevenson.20 Modern textbooks that state

14. Schauer (1995) 15. Commentary 2.3 16. Commentary 2.4 17. Commentary 2.5 18. Atiyah (1992) 19. Hollis’ Hospital and Hague’s Contract [1899] 2 Ch 540, 552, and see Cochrane v Moore (1890) 25 QBD 57, 74, per Lord Esher 20. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562, 580 per Lord Atkin

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the law of negligence obviously have the benefit of more consideration and explanation of negligence from both judgments and legal writing than did the court in Donoghue. Nevertheless, the components of negligence as currently understood are largely found in the cited passage from Lord Atkin. There would, however, need to be one addition. Commonly there are defences to a tort (or crime). These operate by exempting a defendant from liability or guilt even though they have satisfied the positive elements of the wrong. Ideally a texbook will describe a legal rule by dividing it into its ingredients, or elements, as lawyers commonly call them.21 A textbook account of negligence formulated on these lines would describe negligence in a manner that would be something like the account below. It is put in the form of a table here to emphasise how elements provide an organising framework, whereas a text writer would more likely not tabulate the material but set it out as plain text:

Element 1. Duty of Care The defendant owes the plaintiff a duty of care. You must take ‘reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour’.22 This raises the question of how ‘neighbour’ is defined. Neighbours are ‘persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question’.23 In modern terminology this is a test of forseeability. It means that a duty exists if the person in question can foresee that someone will be injured if they do not take care.

Element 2. Breach of the Duty of Care The essence of the tort is that there is a duty of care and that the defendant breaches that duty. This breach can be either of the following: 1. Act. It can be an ‘act’. Here the defendant does something that they should not do. 2. Omission. It can be an ‘omission’. Here the defendant fails to do something that they should do.24

Element 3. Injury The plaintiff’s breach of their duty of care injures the defendant. As Lord Atkin put it succinctly: ‘[Y]ou must not injure your neighbour’.25 In amplified from, Lord Atkin stressed the need for injury in the following way: ‘You must take

21. This method of organising law for writing a legal text is explained in Chapter 3 Organising Law. 22. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562, 580 per Lord Atkin 23. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562, 580 per Lord Atkin 24. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562, 580 per Lord Atkin 25. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562, 580 per Lord Atkin

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reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour’.26 This means that however careless someone has been, if they cause you no injury you have no action against them for negligence.

Element 4. Defences There must be no defences available to the defendant. [For the sake of brevity this chapter does not detail the defences. A reader can find them in a textbook on torts.]

Consequences 1. Liability. The defendant is liable to the plaintiff in negligence. 2. Damages. The court will assess the monetary measure of harm that the defendant caused the plaintiff. It will order the defendant to pay this amount as damages to the defendant.

Diagram 1.3 Elements of Negligence Common Law as Transnational Law While common law originated in England, it is now transnational. Because of the colonising actions of Great Britain, common law spread to many other countries. In this it was driven by a rule of British constitutional law – on settlement a colony received as much of British common law (and statute law) as could apply to the colony. This was the standard mechanism by which common law was received into British colonies. In some special cases, though, it was transplanted by legislation – a statute declared that common law applied in a colony. Since its reception, courts in these countries (now freed from their colonial status) have taken up, endorsed, extended and changed this common law. In the early days courts of these countries drew extensively on the decisions of English courts for guidance and inspiration. They still do this to an extent but they now will make up their own mind, while still consulting for guidance decisions of other jurisdictions, including of course the United Kingdom. In this way common law operates in many legal systems, although the rules are not always identical. Obviously there are good reasons for the both the similarities and the differences. Two obvious reasons are these. Some rules are similar because the problems and circumstances they face are similar; some rules are different because the problems and circumstances they face are different.27 Statutory Common Law There is a new wave of common law being created called statutory common law. To understand its nature it is necessary to know that common law resides on a continuum. At one end is pure common law, which is law made entirely by judges. At the other end is judicial interpretation of a statute where a court must decide between two or more fairly specific competing meanings.

26. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562, 580 per Lord Atkin 27. Commentary 2.6

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In the middle of the continuum are places where the law is statutory so that courts must interpret it, but as they do so, courts also make law in a substantial way.28 This happens where a statute uses a wide and open term such as ‘just,’ equitable,’ or ‘appropriate,’ and a court interprets the provision. To do so the court must flesh out these malleable terms with description, components, guidelines and criteria. This process is done through an ever-extending line of cases. It can be conceived as thick interpretation. It can also be conceived as statutory common law in that interpreting a statute with wide and open terms constitutes a simulated form of making common law. It is common law developed from a statutory base,29 or arisen from a statutory launching pad.30 Interpreting Law Cases that interpret common law are clearly part of the common law itself; indeed with common law the processes of making, modifying, amending and interpreting blur into each other. Cases that interpret legislation can be conceived in either of two ways – as statute law since they attach meaning to statutes, or as common law since courts make the interpretations. It really does not generally matter how one conceives or describes it since it does what it does.

Secondary Sources Secondary sources are so-called because they are a second hand account of law. Examples are textbooks, articles and encyclopedias.31 Secondary sources perform several tasks that make them highly valuable for learning law32 and working with law. They organise, summarise, explain, criticise and analyse law.33 Doing these things potentially makes a textbook a great aid for learning law. In the initial phase of obtaining a general grasp of major principles a textbook saves the reader from having to trawl through the cases and statutes for themselves. Instead, the textbook writer does it, or has done it, for them. To put the point simply, it is generally more efficient to use a textbook as the first point of entry into an area of law rather than to distil the law from primary sources, namely the relevant statutes and cases. Reading these can come later if and when the reader wants a more detailed understanding of the law.

Tertiary Sources ‘Tertiary sources of law’ is a useful if not totally apt expression coined to describe other material that lawyers use apart from primary and secondary sources. There are two broad types that are disparate – material related to law and working documents: 1. Material Related to Law. Some publications are related to law. An example is a report by a law reform commission that analyses and proposes possible changes to the

28. Easterbrook (1983) p 544 29. Commentary 2.7 30. See Kirby (1992). 31. Commentary 2.8 32. Commentary 2.9 33. An example is given above in discussion of common law where there is an illustration of how a legal text would describe a common law rule.

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law. Another example is a text that examines the history, operation or policy of some part of the law. 2. Working Documents. Tertiary sources also include documents such as opinions, pleadings, contracts, wills and affidavits that lawyers generate in the course of working with law. Most law firms will store these types of documents as precedents in a central depository to enable other lawyers to access them when required.

Part C. Law as a Social Science In the diagram above, law as a set of rules is surrounded by spaces representing eight disciplines – sociology, philosophy, psychology, economics, linguistics, literature, management and history. These eight disciplines are chosen as some of the major human or social sciences that affect law. They represent, by way of illustration, the full panoply of disciplines that bear down on and intermesh with law. There is a simple reason that law meshes with social and human sciences. People make law for people. Therefore to understand it fully it is necessary to bring to bear an understanding of these connected human disciplines when one learns the rules. That law enmeshes with social science will become apparent as this account of legal method unfolds, especially when it uses various methods of reasoning. These methods of reasoning are described in a companion text by the author Legal Reasoning to which this book refers as the occasion requires.

Part D. Commentary Commentary 2.1 Footnote 3 1. Statute Law. For a general account of statute law see Bennion (1983) and Schwartz (1978). 2. Statute Books. In earlier times, once made, statutes are gathered into statute books – see Finemore (1988). Now statutes are generally published in electronic form. 3. Power of Statute Law. On the impact of statute law see Evershed (1956). 4. Inconsistent Statutes. Statutes may also be inconsistent – see Burrows (1976A). 5. Displacement of Common Law by Statute Law. See Beaten (1997), Milsom (1980-82). 6. Influence of the Civil Service. Since the civil service has a major input into policy-making for statute, it exercises considerable power in this regard – see Wishart (1993). 7. Operation and Economic Function of Statute Law. For discussion of the operation of statute law and the economic function of statute law see Ruabon (1989), Sunstein (1990A), Sunstein (1990B), Sunstein (1993), Stewart (1982-83), Schott (1990), Samuelson (1964), Salter (1982), Roach and Trebilcock (1996), Rogers (1988), Groom (1990), Kamesar (1997). 8. Improvement of Statute Law. See Statute Law Society (1979). 9. Understanding How Statute Law Operates. See Bennion (1979) and Wise (1988). 10. Making Statute Law Clear and Simple. See Statute Law Society (1972) and Statute Law Society (1974). 11. Making Statute Law Uniform. See Mann (1983).

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12. Formulate Standards for Legislation. See Freund (1965). Commentary 2.2 Footnote 10 Here are some plausible illustrations of the operation of custom as a way of developing rules: 1. Surfing. In the sport of surfboard riding there has now developed a type of customary rule that either the surfer closest to the breaking part of the wave (also called the inside or the peak of the wave), or the first surfer to their feet, has the right of way or priority for catching the wave. A person who violates this rule is considered to be stealing the wave by ‘dropping in’. [What is also of interest about this practice is that it involves some notion of property in a wave.] 2. Queues. The British people have a notorious penchant for queuing in an orderly manner. So much is this the case that ‘it is just not done’ for someone to jump the queue. [Note here that the phrase ‘it is just not done’ illustrates at least one way, perhaps the central way, in which a customary law can arise – long standing practice of the doing something in a certain way generates a customary rule that this is how it should be done. Julius Stone referred to this as the normative force of the actual.] This customary law of queues seems to have been received into Australia. In current political debate, some people refer to aliens who have arrived in Australia by boat without a visa as ‘queue jumpers’. Commentary 2.3 Footnote 15 From the viewpoint of precedent, the rule that the court lays down as it decides a case is called the ratio decidendi, meaning the reason for deciding the case. See Chapter 11 Common Rules. Commentary 2.4 Footnote 16 The rule that a later court should follow an earlier court (to put it very broadly) is referred to as stare decisis. The phrase means literally to stand by what has been decided. For further discussion see Chapter 11 Common Rules. Commentary 2.5 Footnote 17 Lucke (1982-83) explains, that a case performs two functions: 1. Arbitral Function. A case resolves the dispute between the parties. 2. Law-Making Function. A case has a law-making function since it creates or affirms a legal rule that binds all citizens (including, of course, the parties to the case). Commentary 2.6 Footnote 27 1. Transportation of Common Law. The common law rule for the reception of common law operated for the eastern part of Australia, which now comprises Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania. This meant that common law was initially received there on settlement, which was on 26 January 1788. This changed in 1828 when the British parliament enacted legislation to put the reception of English law – both common law and statute law – on a statutory footing. There were two reasons for enacting legislation. First, there were doubts about the application of

16 Chapter 1 Law

the common law (and statute law) of England to the eastern half of Australia – the British had established it as penal settlement so there were doubts as to its colonial status. Second, since the arrival of the British in Australia in 1788 the British parliament had had made significant reform to its statute law. In response to both of these problems the British parliament put the reception of English law – both common law and statute law – on a statutory footing by enacting s24 of the Australian Courts Act 1828 (Imp) (9 Geo IV c83). Section 24 made two provisions. It declared that the common law and statute law of Britain applied to eastern Australia. It set the date for the reception of English law, so far as applicable, on 25 July 1828; this meant that common law and statute law of Britain applied in the eastern part of Australia in the form it was on 25 July 1828. 2. Seeking Guidance from Courts of Other Jurisdictions. See Von Nessen (1993). 3. Transnational But Not Uniform. Although common law is transnational it is not uniform among the various jurisdictions. That said there are large tracts where it is similar. For a comparison between common law in England and the United States see Tunc (1984). Commentary 2.7 Footnote 29 For discussion of common law and statutory common law see Atiyah (1985), Beaten (1997), Burrows (1980), Burrows (1976B), Calabresi (1982), Finn (1992), Kelly (1986), Kirby (1992), Rubin (1982). One place where statutory common law flourishes is tax law, where according to Lehman (1984) it operates in a mathematical culture. Commentary 2.8 Footnote 31 Feldman (1989) discusses the general nature of legal scholarship. McDowell (1990) discusses the audience for it. Wilson (1987) discusses English legal scholarship, Tushnet (1997) discusses United States legal scholarship, while Chesterman and Weisbrot (1987) discuss Australian legal scholarship. Young (1993) discusses the extra curial writing of judges. See also Tushnet (1987). Commentary 2.9 Footnote 32 In this regard it is worth noting a related point that law can also be taught through literature – see Turner (1985). A good example is the role of the comic opera writer Gilbert as a legal satirist – see Turner (1987-89).

17

Chapter 2 Legal Method

Purpose Tasks Method Reasoning

Purpose

This book describes methods or techniques for working with law. These techniques provide major advantages for law students and lawyers. Mastering legal techniques provides rigorous intellectual training. Possessing a good technique enhances the capacity of a student to learn law and enhances the capacity of a lawyer to work with law. There is a strong motive to have a good technique when working with law. In the 21st century the amount of information to be processed is increasing, as is the rate of increase, while the time potentially available to process this information stays the same. One of the major means of countering this problem is to make better use of available time by improving techniques for working with information. Doing this for law will enable those who create legal information to make it clearer, and will enable those who use it to process it more efficiently.

Tasks Working with law involves two primary sets of tasks and one ancillary task. The primary sets of tasks are forming law and using law. Forming law incorporates making and interpreting law. Using law in a legal practice involves two types of matters, litigation and transactions. In litigation a client is suing or being sued by another person or persons. Transactions involve changing a person’s legal position because the person wants it changed. Two common examples are where a client makes a will or buys or sells land. Working with law also incorporates a secondary or ancillary task. This is labelled communicating law, which comprises writing and reading law. Thus there are three fundamental categories of tasks involved in working with law – forming law, using law and communicating law. Logically, this would be the way to structure the presentation of techniques for performing these tasks. In fact, this is how it is done, but subject to a qualification. The qualification arises in relation to a task that so far has not been discussed, organising law. Organising law has two aspects, micro and macro analysis. Micro analysis of a legal rule is an inherent part of using law. If this is all there was to organising law, it would be best treated as part of using law, which constitutes the natural home for micro analysis. However, there is something else. First, while micro analysis is naturally part of organising law, it is necessary for the reader to know about micro analysis to enable

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them to follow the account of forming law and also to understand the presentation in this book of the method for writing and reading law. Second, macro analysis of law, which is the task of organising an overall area of law so as to facilitate a more detailed consideration of the area, is not a fundamental part of using law. For this combination of reasons, organising law is treated separately. In fact, it is the first part of legal method discussed. Then, later discussion of using law draws on this earlier micro analysis of a legal rule and incorporates it into the model for using law.

Method Algorithms Methods explained in this book are as close to algorithmic in their overall structure as can be achieved. Each step taken properly and in its proper sequence will lead to performance of the task in question in the most effective and efficient manner that is possible. However, the algorithmic nature of the method cannot be fully sustained in the actual performance of these steps since these involve judgments and processes that are not cut and dried. Rationality in Principle and in Practice This book seeks to describe methods that are rationally conceived.1 It describes them mainly in an ideal and normative way. It says how they should be done in principle. Of course it is possible that in practice, either in general or in particular cases, it is not possible to follow the ideal way to the fullest extent. In this case the rational approach is to follow it to the best extent possible. In other words, best practice then means the best achievable practice.

Reasoning Legal method for performing a task is frequently based on some process of reasoning. This book seeks to create a step by step guide to the major tasks in working with law. As stated above, the aim is to make the guide as close to an algorithm as the circumstances permit. These guides impound a number of reasoning processes. This diagram sets out the major types of reasoning and their subtypes: Conditional Statements These take the form ‘If A occurs then B also occurs’. Logical Reasoning This incorporate deduction, induction, abduction, analogy and probability

Policy This incorporates causation and evaluation.

Precedent This incorporates abstraction and policy.

1. The author presents the argument that the methods described and prescribed in this book are rational another book, Christopher Enright Legal Reasoning.

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Observation The reasoning process is that if someone has observed something then what they observed is true.

Diagram 2.1 Types of Reasoning